Laser Thesis - Unlocked PDF

:
DOCTORA L T H E S I S
Laser Cladding: An Experimental

and Theoretical Investigation
Hans Gedda
Lule University of Technology

Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering,
Division of Manufacturing Systems Engineering
:|: -|: - -- --
This thesis is dedicated to my family

Birgitta, Petrus and Emilia.
Preface
Since April 1999 I have been conducting experimental and theoretical research in the field of
laser cladding at the Division of Manufacturing Systems at Lule University of Technology.
The experimental work was mostly performed in our laser laboratory. Some work has been
done at Duroc AB in Ume, Lule and at Nottingham University.
Several people have been important in completition of this work. I sincerely thank my
supervisor John Powell who has guided and supported me throughout this research.
I would like to express my gratitude to Professors Alexander Kaplan and Claes Magnusson for
discussions, suggestions through this work. I would also like to thank all my friends and
colleagues at the division for all their help and fruitful discussions.
I would finally thank my family, Birgitta, Petrus and Emilia for their love, support and patience
during the work.
Lule, October 2004
Hans Gedda
Abstract
This thesis presents an investigation into the laser cladding process using CO2 and Nd:YAG
lasers. The work is divided into six chapters:
Chapter one is an introduction the subject of laser cladding. This presents a general overview
of the two common laser cladding methods and some applications for the processes. This
chapter concludes with abstracts, main figures and conclusions from all chapters in the thesis.
Chapter two is an investigation into the energy redistribution during CO2 and Nd:YAG laser
cladding. Experimental absorption measurements by calorimetry were carried out to analyse
how much of the energy is lost by reflection etc. It was found that the Nd:YAG laser cladding
process is approximately twice as energy efficient as the CO2 laser cladding process.
Chapter three investigates the process parameters which affect the finished product when
cladding into pre machined groves including; groove geometry, powder application method
and laser type.
Chapter four presents preliminary experimental results from two new processes; Laser casting
and Laser clad-casting. Laser casting is a process similar to blown powder laser cladding but
without the final product joined to the substrate. The substrate acts as a mould and the casting
retains the topological features of the substrate. Laser clad-casting involves the production of a
clad layer between machined copper blocks. Clad tracks can therefore be achieved with large
depth to width ratios and pre determined cross sections.
Chapter five describes a new technique for the production of solid wire or rods from powder
by laser melting. Three techniques have been developed to ensure that the molten powder
solidifies as a rod or wire rather than a series of droplets. The techniques can be used to
produce welding rods, tensile test samples and other solid pieces from a wide range of powder
mixes.
Chapter six presents experimental data in conjunction with mathematical models are used to
explain various aspects of laser casting and laser cladding by the preplaced powder method.
Also the interaction of the melt pool with the powder bed is analysed to identify why laser
castings have microscopically uneven surfaces.
ii
Contents
Page
Preface
Abstract
ii
Contents
iii
Chapter
I: Introduction to laser cladding
Chapter II: Energy Redistribution in Laser Cladding: A comparison of

Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers which combines information from two
published papers;
25
1. Gedda, H., Powell, J., Wahlstrm, G., Li, W-B., Engstrm, H.,
Magnusson, C.: Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser Cladding
(Published in Journal of Laser Applications. vol. 14, no. 2,
pp. 78-82. May 2002)
2. Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A.: A Process Efficiency Comparison
of Nd:YAG and CO2 Laser Cladding (Published in Welding in the
World, vol. 46, Special Issue. pp.75-86. July 2002)
Chapter III: Laser Cladding into pre machined grooves
41
Powell, J., Gedda, H., Kaplan, A.: Proceedings of the 1st Pacific
International Conference on Applications of Lasers and Optics
(PICALO)April 19-21, 2004 Melbourne, Australia. Submitted for
publication in Journal of Laser Applications.
Chapter IV: Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New processes
for rapid prototyping and production
53
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A.: Conference proceedings

International Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-Optics
(ICALEO) Scottsdale, AR, 14-17 October 2002.
Chapter V: Laser Wire Casting
65
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A.: Conference proceedings

International Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-Optics
(ICALEO) Jacksonville, FL, 13-16 October 2003.
Chapter VI: Melt-Solid Interactions in laser cladding and laser casting
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A.: Submitted for publication in
Metallurgical and Material Transactions B.
iii
75
H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding
Chapter I
Introduction to laser cladding
1 Introduction to laser cladding

Industrial applications require parts with special surface properties such as good corrosion
resistance, wear resistance and hardness. Alloys with those surface properties are usually very
expensive and it is of great interest to reduce the cost of parts with these surface properties [1].
This cost reduction can be achieved by applying a hard or corrosion resistant surface layer to a
cheaper substrate. Laser surface treatment includes several different surfacing techniques using
the heat of the laser beam to modify the structure and physical characteristics of the surface of a
material [2].
Laser cladding is the fusion of a different metal to a substrate surface, with a minimum of
melting of the substrate. The surface alloy composition must be well controlled with a high
bond strength to the substrate [3]. Surface coating by laser is a method that has been developed
over the last two decades. The lasers minimal and easily controllable energy delivery makes it
possible to alloy, impregnate, clad, and harden components that are exposed to wear and
corrosion. The method offers great advantages compared with traditional hardening and
alloying methods. The method is used commercially in the aircraft engine industry and in the
car industry (G.M, etc.).
Laser cladding can be carried out in a single or a two-stage process. In the single stage process,
the powder is blown into the interaction zone between the laser beam and workpiece. In the
two-stage process the cladding material is pre deposited on the substrate. Both techniques (see
figure 1) have the advantage of the possible deposition of a wide range of alloys either using a
chosen alloy in powder form or by a blend of powders with the required composition. Laser
cladding with powder offers the possibility of the development of new material combinations
for the future.
Cladding material
(a)
V
(b)
Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of laser cladding process.

a) Preplaced powde,r b) blown powder cladding.

Relative motion between the laser/powder supply and the substrate can be used to
continuously apply a surface coating. To cover larger surfaces, overlapping tracks are made (see
figure 2).
Figure 2. Schematic of the overlapping cladding process [4].

1.1 Blown powder laser cladding
The first reference that describes the laser cladding process by blown powder is a patent from
Rolls Royce Ltd in the early eighties [5]. Blown powder laser cladding can produce a high
quality cladding layer with low dilution. The powder is transported into the melt pool by a
carrier gas and directed at an angle in the range 38-45 towards the substrate (see figure 2 ).
The powder particles are heated when they pass through the laser beam. Melting starts at the
interface and the molten particles are trapped in the melt pool. The energy must be high
enough to melt the powder without too much substrate melting [3]. The powder striking the
substrate ricochets but the powder striking the melt pool is completely melted. With side
blown powder there is a directional effect on the clad bead shape [6] and the powder
utilisation efficiency is low compared with coaxial powder nozzle feed [7]. The coaxial system
in figure 3 can avoid this problem in some extent.
Inner nozzle
Powder stream in
Workpiece
Focal point
Figure 3. Cross section of a coaxial nozzle.

1.2 Laser cladding with preplaced powder
Cladding with preplaced powder is the simplest method provided the powder can be made to
remain in place until melted, while the area is being shrouded by an inert gas. Some form of
binder is usually used, often this is an alcohol [6]. The preplaced powder method involves
scanning the laser beam over the powder bed. The general theory for cladding of pre-placed
powder may be understood on the basis of the work of Powell et al. [8].
2 Commercial examples
Industrial applications require parts with good wear, corrosion and hardness properties and laser
cladding is a process which can fulfill all these requirements. Laser cladding can be used to
good effect in processes which require a high productivity combined with flexibility without
compromising on quality.
A high and uniform quality with a low heat input makes this process suitable for a wide range
of applications in which minimum distortion is desired.
Examples of industrial laser cladding applications are:
Improved wear resistance of bearings, valves, axles, cutting tools and other parts where
the working conditions are very severe
Improved corrosion resistance
Repairing turbine parts, moulds, tools etc
Building up complex geometries
Figure 4. Laser clad parts.

Typical commercial applications of laser cladding are carried out by SIFCO in Ireland who are
involved in the remanufacture of turbine engine components. In recent years they have
devoted a large amount of resources to the research and development of new repair
technologies for the gas turbine industry. The deposited layer can have different composition,
and subsequently properties, to the underlying material. This potentially has a range of
applications in a number of areas in particulary the aerospace and the automotive industries.
Figure 5. Cladding on turbine blade.

Duroc AB in Sweden Ume has developed the technology for cladding material on valves etc
for the nuclear power plant industry and the wood industry. Figure 6 below shows a part from
a laser clad chopping tool of which the service life has increased 5-6 times compared to an
untreated tool.
Figure 6. Laser clad chopping tool for the wood industry.
3. Summary of the chapters

3.1 Chapter 1. Energy redistribution in laser cladding; A comparison of Nd:YAG
and CO2 lasers
Abstract
Blown powder laser cladding is a cost effective way of producing a surface layer to withstand
wear and corrosion. However, the cladding process is slow. Therefore is it of great interest to
investigate how much of the laser power is used in the cladding process and how much is
reflected etc. In this investigation an Nd:YAG and a CO2 laser have been compared as energy
sources for the process. Every aspect of the energy redistribution during cladding has been
analysed. The main energy loss to the process for both lasers is by reflection from the melt pool
and the powder cloud. It was found that the Nd:YAG laser cladding process is approximately
twice as energy efficient as the CO2 laser cladding process.
Laser beam
PP Laser
beam
Powder stream
PB
PB
PD
PE
(Power reflected off

the powder particles)
P (Power radiated)
D
PA
PA
PF
PF

the surface of the clad)
PE (Power lost by
convection)
(Power lost by
conduction)
Substrate
Substrate
Figure 1. The redistribution of laser power during the cladding

process (see text for definition of PA, PB etc).
Where:
PA = Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone.
PB = Power reflected off the powder particles as they approach the weld pool.
PD = Power lost by radiation from the cladding zone.
PE = Power lost by convection from the cladding zone.
PF = Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate.
PG = Power absorbed by the powder particles which do not enter the cladding melt
pool.
Laser Beam
Powder
Particles
Insulated
Calorimeter
Figure 2. The experimental arrangement for the analysis of the absorption and
reflection of the energy by the powder cloud.
Conclusions
1. Ignoring the trivial contributions of convective and radiative cooling etc, the laser
power applied to the cladding process is redistributed in the following ways:
Laser type
CO2
Nd:YAG
Power reflected off the cladding melt
50%
40%
Power reflected off the powder cloud
10%
10%
Power used to heat the substrate
30%
30%
*
Power used to melt the clad layer
10%
20%
*
This value includes powder and substrate melting.
2. Nd:YAG lasers are approximately twice as energy efficient as CO2 lasers for cladding in
the range of parameters covered in this paper ( and by implication, the higher power (5
kW) range covered in our earlier work [2]) i.e. given the same laser power, Nd:YAG
lasers are capable of approximately double the cladding rates of CO2 lasers.
As a large proportion (30%) of the laser power is consumed in heating the substrate it is likely
that substrate pre heating by a cheaper power source* would improve the profitability of laser
cladding. (* flame, plasma, induction etc).

3.2. Chapter 3. Laser cladding into pre machined grooves
Abstract
When laser cladding is used to improve the wear characteristics of a substrate it is not always
necessary to clad the whole surface. Wear resistant individual tracks can be clad directly onto
the substrate or into pre machined grooves. This paper investigates the process parameters
which affect the finished product when cladding into groves including; groove geometry,
powder application method and laser type.
Powder
depth 0 mm
Wedge of powder
Powder
depth 2
mm
Substrate
200 mm
Groove
Figure 3. Schematic preplaced powder.
4 mm
Figure 4. Cross sections of grooves showing that even when there is sufficient
melt to produce a flat surface the clad layer does not do so when preplaced
powder is used.
4 mm
a)
0.1 mm
b)
Figure 5. a) A cross section of the type of clad profile achieved for preplaced powder cladding if the groove must
be completely filled. 5b) A micrograph showing the clad substrate interface weld.
4 mm
Figure 6. Blown powder cladding results for 46 g/min powder flow at a process speed of 0.5 m/min
(CO2 laser).
4 mm
Figure 7. The concave top profile of an under filled groove clad
by the blown powder method.
10
4 mm
Figure 8. A pair of preplaced powder clad tracks produced under identical conditions except for
the depth of the powder used. (3.5 kW CO2 laser, spot size 4 mm, cladding speed 0.5 m/min)
powder deep a = 0.75 mm powder deep, b = 1.75 mm of powder.
Laser beam
Figure 9. The change in cross section of a clad track as more powder is added (x remains
approximately constant as its width is determined by the laser beam diameter on the melt
pool).
11
Clad layer
Removed excess
Lubricant supply
clad material
and debris
removal conduits
Substrate
Figure 10. Schematic cross section.

Conclusions
1. It is possible to produce almost flat topped filled grooves by either CO2 and Nd:YAG
laser if blown powder cladding is employed.
2. Pre placed powder cladding does not give flat typed clad filled grooves. However the
process may be used to produce a clad track with shallow grooves on either side which
could aid lubrication (Once the central protruding part of the clad layer has been
machined away).
3. Grooves with too large an aspect ratio cannot be effectively filled with melt.
4. The contact angle of a clad melt on a substrate can be varied and is determined by the
laser beam diameter and the amount of powder supplied to the melt.
12

3.3. Chapter 4. Laser casting and laser clad casting: New process for rapid
prototyping and production
Abstract
This paper presents preliminary experimental results from two new processes:
1. Laser casting involves a process similar to blown powder laser cladding but the final
product is not joined to the substrate. The substrate surface therefore acts as a mould in
a laser casting process and the eventual casting retains the topological features of the
substrate.
2. Laser clad-casting involves the production of clad tracks which are welded as usual to a
substrate but which are laid down between machined copper blocks. The eventual clad
track therefore has its cross sectional profile determined by the blocks which are
removed after completion of the cladding process. In this way clad tracks with large
depth to width ratios can be achieved with pre determinated cross sections.
Figure 13 shows the difference between laser cladding and laser casting.
45
45
10-15 mm
5 mm Unmelted
layer of
powder
particles
No interfacial
melting
Interfacial melting between

the clad layer and substrate
Figure 11. Comparison of laser cladding and casting.
13

Figure 12 shows an example of laser casting.
3 mm
a)
b)
c)
Figure 12. Successful laser clad-casting of cross hatched grooves. a) substrate (mould), b) substrate and
casting, c) casting. Process parameters: laser power 3 kW (Nd:YAG), beam diameter 5 mm, process speed
0.8 m/min., Ni based powder, powder flow 80 g/min (in Ar), inter-track distance 3mm.
Figure 13 shows the difference between standard laser cladding (a+b) and clad-casting (c).
Clad layer
a) Standard clad
cross section
Machining
line
b) Maximum height
clad track (semi circular
cross section)
c) Required clad
cross section
Figure 13. Standard clad track cross section (a, b) and the required cross section (c ).
14

Figure 14 shows the use of moulds in clad casting.
Substrate
Machined
copper blocks
Clamping
Figure 14. Cross section of the clad cast

mould.
Figure 15 shows a successful laser clad cast.
3 mm
Figure 15. A cross section of the clad-cast track deposited between copper blocks. (substrate width:
3mm,clad track height: 3.5 mm). Process parameters: powder feed (Nickel alloy) 40 g/min, cladding
speed 0.5 m/min, laser power 3.5 kW (CO2), beam diameter 4 mm.
Conclusions
It has been demonstrated that two new laser cladding techniques are possible and that they may
provide novel answers to future production requirements.
Laser casting can be used to produce surface castings in high strength alloys to generate tool
bits or stamping dies etc.
Laser clad-casting can be employed to make clad tracks with large depth to width ratios and
pre determined cross sections.
15

3.4. Chapter 5. Laser wire casting
Abstract
This paper describes a new technique for the production of solid wire or rods from powder by
laser melting. Three techniques have been developed to ensure that the molten powder
solidifies as a rod or wire rather than a series of droplets. The straight rods or wires produced in
this way have an almost circular cross section, are several millimetres in diameter and can be
pore free. The techniques can be used to produce welding rods, tensile test samples and other
solid pieces from a wide range of powder mixes. The rapid thermal cycle involved means that
hitherto difficult to produce mixtures and alloys can now be produced in the solid form in
seconds.
Laser beam
Powder
Wire
Powder
Mould
Mould
Substrate
a) Cross section of
mould and powder
before laser irradiation
b) During laser
processing
Figure 16. Laser wire casting.
16
c) The cross section

after laser irradiation

Laser power 3kW
Speed 0.4 m/min
Mould separation
3 mm
3 mm
Cross section
Laser power 3kW

Speed 0.4 m/min
Mould separation
5 mm
5 mm
Cross section
Laser power 3kW

Speed 0.4 m/min
Mould separation
6 mm
6 mm
Cross section
5 cm
General view
General view
General view
Figure 17. A selection of results of the side contact mould laser

casting process.
17
18 a) The powder filled mould

prior to laser melting
18b) After successful

production of a rod
Figure 18. The use of a net shape mould to

form a rod.
19a) Before laser melting
19b) After laser melting
Figure 19. Casting with wires imbedded in

powder beds.
18

Conclusions
Wires or rods can be cast from metal powder using a high power laser as a heat
source.
Metal powders which have been laser melted do not readily solidify as uniform cross
section rods unless the tendency to form strings of droplets is inhibited.
The presence of side wall or net shape moulds can result in rods which are ovoid or
circular in cross section and approximately 100% dense. Wires incorporated into the
powder bed can have the same effect in the absence of moulds.
The casting techniques discussed in this paper could be used to produce wires or rods
of a very wide range of alloys and alloy-ceramic mixtures.
3.5 Chapter 6. Melt-Solid Interactions in laser cladding and laser casting

Abstract
Experimental data in conjunction with mathematical models are used to explain various aspects
of laser casting and laser cladding by the preplaced powder method. Results include an
explanation of the large range of process parameters over which low dilution clad deposits can
be produced. Also the interaction of the melt pool with the powder bed is analysed to identify
why laser castings have microscopically uneven surfaces.
19
a) 0,1 m/min
b) 0,2 m/min
c) 0,9 m/min
d) 2,1 m/min
1 mm
e) 3,3 m/min
f) 3,8 m/min
Figure 20. Cross sections of clad tracks made under identical conditions (laser power 3500 W, powder bed
depth 1 mm) at different speeds.
(0,1 m/min) (0,2 m/min)(0,9 m/min)(2,1 m/min)(3,3 m/min)(3,8m/min)

Figure 21. The top views of the clad tracks shown in figure 20.
20

The main contra- intuitive feature of figure 20 is the surprisingly low amount of substrate
melting over a wide range of process speeds. This phenomenon was first discussed by Powell
who postulated a three stage melting process for preplaced powder laser cladding;
1. The laser rapidly melts the powder before the melt touches the substrate because,
prior to substrate contact the melt is surrounded by low conductivity powder.
2. Once the melt touches the substrate it looses a great deal of heat by conduction.
This leads to partial solidification of the melt. As a result the melt-liquid interface
does not move into the body of the substrate.
3. If the laser energy continues to irradiate the top surface of the melt, the energy
will eventually move the melt/solid interface back down through the clad layer
and across into the body of the substrate.
Figure 22 presents a graphical description of the three stage process derived from a one
dimensional mathematical model.
Figure 22. Vertical temperature distribution through the preplaced powder and substrate for different time
steps [9].
Figure 23. Calculated maximum melting depth through the powder (1 mm thick) and substrate ( >> 1
mm) as a function of the processing speed.
21
Energy, Particle Distribution [a.u.]
Figure 24. Melt-substrate contact history in cross section.

(Black = liquid, Grey = Powder , Shaded = Solid).
50
N
40
E
N*E
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
Particle Diameter [um]
Figure 25. The particle size distribution and proportion of the incident energy needed to melt the particles
of different sizes in this batch.
22

The calculated surface shape and motion is shown in figure 26 for four different grain sizes as a
function of time.
Figure 26. Calculated heating and melting of powder grains of different diameter touched by the melting
front and subsequent smoothing of the droplets.
Figure 27 is a magnified photograph of the surface of a laser casting. The part of the surface
shown is that which was in contact with the substrate. This photograph supports the model
results presented in Figure 10 as it demonstrates that the liquid surface was covered in partially
melted particles.
0,1 mm
Figure 27. The surface of a laser cast specimen (This surface was in contact with the substrate).
23
4 Conclusions
This analysis of melt solid interactions has helped to explain the following points about the
laser cladding and casting processes;
a) There is a wide parameter range over which dilution free cladding can be achieved by
the preplaced powder process. This is primarily due to the difference in thermal
conductivity of the powder bed and substrate.
b) If the process parameters are set outside the range mentioned above the result will be
either a dilute clad layer (see figure 3a) or a casting process (see figure 2) depending on
whether or not the power input to the process is increased or decreased.
c) The physics of powder particle melting by contact with a liquid pool makes it different
to achieve laser casting with a smooth surface.
5 References
1.
Riabkina-Fishman, M., Zahavi, J. (1996). Laser alloying and cladding for

improving surface properties. Applied Surface Science, Vol. 106, no. 1-4, pp.
263-267
2.
Knig, W., Rozsnoki, V., Kirner, P. (1992). Laser Treatment of Materials.

Conference proceedings (ECLAT 92) ISBN 3-88355-185-6, pp. 217-221
3.
Yellup, JM. (1995). Laser Cladding using the powder blowing technique. Surface
Coating Technology, Vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 121-128
4.
Frenk, A., Vandyoussefi, M., Wagnire, J. D., Zryd, A., Kurz, W. (1997).
Analysis of the laser-cladding [laser surfacing] process for stellite on steel.
Metallurgical and Material Transactions B, Vol. 28B, pp. 501-508
5.
Hoadley, A, Rappaz, M. (1992). A thermal model of laser cladding by powder

injection. Metallurgical Transactions B, Vol. 23B, pp. 631-641
6.
Steen, W.M. Laser Material Processing. (1998). Second edition. Springer-Verlag

London. ISBN 3-540-76174-8, pp. 199-202
7.
Hu, U.P., Chen, C.W., Mukherjee, K. (1997). An analysis of powder feeding

systems on the quality of laser cladding. Metal Powder Industries Federation
USA, pp. 21.17-21.31
8.
Powell, J., Henry, P.S., Steen, W.M. (1988) Laser cladding with preplaced
powder. Analysis of thermal cycling and dilution effects. Surface engineering, Vol
4. no. 2, pp. 141-149
9.
Powell, J. (1983). Laser Cladding, PhD-thesis, Imperial College of Science and

Technology
24
H.Gedda: Chapter II-Energy Redistribution During in Laser Cladding; A comparison of

Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers
Chapter II
Energy Redistribution in Laser Cladding; A
comparison of Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers
25
26

Energy Redistribution in Laser Cladding; A

comparison of Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers
The following chapter combines information from two published papers;
1) Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser Cladding
(Published in Journal of Laser Applications. Vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 78-82. May 2002)
H.Gedda*, J.Powell+, G.Wahlstrm**, W-B. Li*, H.Engstrm*,

C.Magnusson*.
* Lule University of Technology, Division of System and Manufacturing Engineering,
S-971 87 Lule, Sweden Phone: +46 920 91169, E-mail: Hans.Gedda@ltu.se
+ Laser Expertise Ltd., Acorn Park Industrial Estate, Harrimans Lane, Nottingham NG7
2TR, U.K.
** Duroc AB, Industrivgen 8, S-90130 Ume Sweden
2) A Process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG and CO2 Laser Cladding
(Published in Welding in the World, vol.46, Special Issue. pp.75-86. July 2002)
H.Gedda*, J.Powell+, A.Kaplan*.

2TR, U.K.
Abstract
Blown powder laser cladding is a cost effective way of producing a surface layer to withstand
wear and corrosion. However, the cladding process is slow. Therefore is it of great interest to
investigate how much of the laser power is used in the cladding process and how much is
reflected etc. In this investigation an Nd:YAG and a CO2 laser have been compared as energy
sources for the process. Every aspect of the energy redistribution during cladding has been
analysed. The main energy loss to the process for both lasers is by reflection from the melt pool
and the powder cloud. It was found that the Nd:YAG laser cladding process is approximately
twice as energy efficient as the CO2 laser cladding process.
Keywords: Laser cladding; Laser processing, Energy redistribution, Surface treatment.
27

1 Introduction
Blown powder laser cladding involves projecting a stream of metal powder (in an inert gas jet)
into a laser generated melt pool on the surface of a metal substrate (see figure 1).
Laser beam
Powder particles
Clad layer
Figure 1. Blown powder laser cladding.

The result of this process is a clad track of the cladding metal on the substrate. Such tracks can
be overlapped to cover areas of the substrate with a harder and/or more corrosion resistant
surface. The process is not energy efficient as a large proportion of the incoming laser power is
reflected or reradiated from the cladding zone as shown in figure 2. Figure 2 demonstrates all
the different ways in which the incident laser energy is redistributed during the cladding
process.
28

Laser beam
PP Laser
beam
Powder stream
PB
PD (Power radiated)
PD
PE
(Power reflected off the

powder particles)
PB
PA
PA
PF
PF

the surface of the clad)
PE (Power lost by
convection)
(Power lost by
conduction)
Substrate
Substrate
Figure 2. The redistribution of laser power during the cladding

process (see text for definition of PA,PB etc).
A power balance for laser cladding can be expressed as follows:
Where:
Ptot = PC+PL
(1)
Ptot = The output power of the laser.

PC = The power utilised in melting the cladding material and welding it to the
surface of the substrate.
PL = The power lost by reflection, radiation, convection etc.
Pc in equation 1 can be expanded as follows:
PC= PP+PS
(2)
Where:
PP = The power utilised in melting the cladding powder.
PS = The power utilised in melting the surface of the substrate in order to
achieve aclad/substrate weld.
PL in equation 1 can be similarly expanded:
PL = PA+PB+PD+PE+PF+PG
29
(3)

Where:
PA = Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone.
PB = Power reflected off the powder particles as they approach the weld pool.
PD = Power lost by radiation from the cladding zone.
PE = Power lost by convection from the cladding zone.
PF = Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate.
PG = Power absorbed by the powder particles which do not enter the cladding melt
pool.
Figure 2 gives a visual representation of equation 3. Of course these losses are to some
extent necessary to the cladding process; It is not possible to heat a metal to well above its
melting point without having radiant or convective thermal losses, a liquid sitting on a
comparatively cool solid will always lose heat by conduction etc. For the purpose of this
discussion however, it will be taken that any influence which could minimise PA, PB, PD, PE, PF
or PG would increase the efficiency of the cladding process. This reduction in any of the factors
of equation 3 would, of course, increase the proportion of the power available to the cladding
process.
The aim of commercial cladding is to cover the surface of one metal with another at the lowest
cost. Clad depths are usually stipulated and the biggest cost element of the process is laser time.
Therefore the simple aim of commercial cladding can be expressed as follows:
To cover metal A with a known thickness of metal B at the fastest possible rate
with a high quality interfacial bond.
Returning to equation 1 it is clear that the process can be speeded up if there is an increase in
the proportion laser power available producing the clad layer PC. The requirement here would
be to melt enough powder to achieve the correct clad thickness at a faster linear speed. Such an
increase in PC must not be employed to melt the substrate to a greater depth. The process must
be accelerated to achieve the same (minimum) substrate melt depth at a higher process speed.
To summarise:
The efficiency of laser cladding could be improved by minimising any of the losses
in equation 3. This would lead to an increase in PC and the process could be
accelerated to produce the same clad depth with a minimal depth of substrate
melting.
Earlier work by the present authors [1] quantified the individual elements of equations 1,2 and
3 for CO2 laser cladding. The results of that work concluded that the laser power was
redistributed in the following proportions:
Power reflected off the workpiece (PA)
Power reradiated from the workpiece (PD)
Power reflected off the particles (PB)
Power absorbed by the process (PC+PF)
= 50%
= 1%
= 9%
= 40%
100%
30

Of the power absorbed by the process (40%) three quarters of it was employed in simply
heating the substrate and only the remaining 10% of the original laser power was used to melt
material to produce a clad layer.
This present work involves repeating this quantification of the power redistribution for
Nd:YAG and CO2 laser cladding in order to compare the efficiency of the two types of laser
for this process. These experimental trials were carried out at a laser power of approximately 3
kW for both types of laser. This allowed a direct comparison of the lasers and also a
confirmation of the previous published results [1] at a different power level (the earlier work
was carried out at a power level of 5 kW).
2 Experimental work
2.1 General
The substrate material used in this study was (SS 2172) steel with the following composition:
Table 1. Steel composition (substrate)
wt %
C
0.16
Si
0.22
Mn
0.94
P
0.014
S
0.022
V
0.06
N
0.009
Fe
98.6
Fe
0.3
Co
63.4
The cladding material was cobalt based with the following composition:
Table 2. Cladding powder composition
wt %
Cr
27.2
C
0.27
Si
1.0
Mo
5.5
Ni
2.3
The substrate specimens were grit blasted before cladding was carried out. The laser used was a
Rofin Sinar RS 6000 CO2 laser with a maximum output power of 6 kW and the Nd:YAG
laser was a Haas Laser HL 3006 D 4 kW. The powder feeder was a TECFLO TM 5102. The
shielding/carrier gas employed to propel the powder was argon.
2.2 The power absorbed by or reflected off the powder cloud above the clad zone
During the cladding process the laser beam must travel through the powder cloud in order to
reach the cladding zone (see figure 2). A proportion of the laser energy is reflected off the
powder cloud and is lost to the cladding process. Another portion of the incident energy is
absorbed by the particles but some of this energy is also lost to the process because not all the
heated particles join the cladding melt pool.
A simple experiment was set up to discover what proportion of the original laser power would
penetrate the powder cloud (see figure3 below). A commercially available power probe was
used to measure the laser power with and without the powder stream turned on. The powder
flow rates were typical of the cladding process as were all the other process parameters. The
average results from several such tests are presented in table 3. The energy absorbed by the
powder cloud was directly measured by measuring the average temperature rise of the powder
31

after it had passed through the beam (see figure 3). The power reflected off the powder cloud
could then be easily calculated as shown in table 3.
Laser Beam
Powder
Particles
Insulated
Calorimeter
Figure 3. The experimental arrangement for the analysis of the absorption and
reflection of the energy by the powder cloud.
Table 3. Power absorbed and reflected by the powder cloud irradiated by the two types of laser
Laser
type
Nd:YAG
CO2
Laser
output
Power *
Powder
flow
rate
Post
powder
cloud
power
(Watts)
(g/min)
(Watts)
2743
(100%)
2695
(100%)
30
2506
(91%)
2457
(91%)
30
Total
power
reflected
and
absorbed by
the powder
cloud **
(Watts)
237
(9%)
238
(9%)
Power
absorbed
by powder
cloud **
Power
Reflected
off powder
cloud (PB)
**
(Watts)
18
(1%)
22
(1%)
(Watts)
224
(8%)
218
(8%)
* Measured by the power probe but with zero powder flow.

** Percentages are approximate
It is clear from table 3 that we now have an approximate value for PB (the power reflected off
the powder cloud) for the parameter range covered here:
PB = 8 % Ptot for the Nd:YAG laser and the CO2 laser
(4)
One other component of equation 3 can also be identified from table 3 after the same
parameters were used for actual cladding. This parameter is PG, the level of power absorbed by
particles which do not enter the cladding melt pool. A number of cladding trials were carried
out and these showed that, over this range of parameters, the proportion of particles which
formed the clad track was 60% (The range was 57%-63%). It can then be concluded that 40%
of the heat collected by the powder cloud (1% Ptot see table 3) does not contribute to the
cladding process.
i.e. PG = 0.4 % Ptot for both types of laser
32
(5)

2.3 The power lost by radiation from the cladding zone (PD).
The total energy radiated from the clad pool can be calculated from the pool temperature,
surface area and emissivity. If the emissivity of the liquid metal pool is taken as equal to one
then the calculation is simplified and the maximum possible radiation power can be estimated:
PD = T4A
(6)
Where:
is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.7*10-8 Wm-2K-4)
T is the surface temperature of the melt (K)

A is the area of the melt surface (m2)
In this case the surface temperature of the melt was approximately 2300 K [1] and its surface
area was 19 mm2.
This gives a maximum value for PD of:
PD= 5.7 * 10 8 * ( 2300) 4 * 19 * 10 6 = 30 Watts
PD 1% of Ptot for both the Nd:YAG and the CO2 laser
(7)
(8)
2.4 Power lost by convection from the clad zone (PE).

The cladding zone is a molten alloy with a surface temperature of 2300 K
and a known surface area. This melt is exposed to a stream of argon which carries the powder
to the clad zone. The argon flow was measured and found to have an average flow velocity of
4.3 m/sec.
The rate of convective cooling of a hot body exposed to a cooler gas is given by:
Q=hAt Watts
(9)
Where:
h = Heat transfer coefficient.
A = Surface area of the hot body.
t = The difference in temperature between the body and the cooling gas.
Evaluation of h from a standard text on the subject [2] gives us a value of approximately 100
W/m2K.
Q = 100 * ( * 0.0025 2 )* 2000
PE = 3.9 Watts
Or PE = 0.1% Ptot for both Nd:YAG and CO2 laser
33
(10)
(11)
(12)

2.5 Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone (PA).
Calorimetry was employed to measure the heat input to each clad sample (Pin). From this
measurement it is possible to measure the power reflected off the cladding zone (PA) in the
following way:
PA = Ptot ( PB+PD+PE+PG+Pin)
(13)
Table 4 shows the average results from the calorimetric measurements over a range of process
parameters.
Table 4. Calorimetric measurements (average values)

Laser
type
Nd:YAG
CO2
From our earlier results:
Laser output
Power (Ptot)
Power input to
clad sample (Pin)
(Watts)
(Watts)
2743
2695
1367
1044
Power % input
to sample
49%
39%
PA = 100 (8+1+0.1+0.8+49) (Nd:YAG)
(14)
PA = 41.1 % (Nd:YAG)
(15)
PA = 100 (9+1+0.1+0.8+39) (CO2)
(16)
PA = 51.1 % (CO2)
(17)
So far this is the first time that the measurements from the two types of laser have shown an
appreciable difference. In summary it can be said that, for the CO2 laser, approximately half of
the laser power is reflected from the cladding zone. For the Nd:YAG laser this value is reduced
to approximately 40%. These generally high reflectivity values confirm the work of other
authors in the field [3] who suggest that the onset of melting is associated with a rise in material
reflectivity. This is because a molten surface in an inert atmosphere (in this case argon) is
smooth and oxide free. This smooth, oxide free surface acts as a better reflector than the solid,
rough, oxidised surface which exists before melting. It is well known [4] that metals have a
lower reflectivity for the 1.06 m radiation of Nd:YAG lasers than for the 10.6 m radiation
of CO2 lasers and this is confirmed by the above results. As we will see later in this paper, this
reduction in reflectivity for the Nd:YAG laser results in a marked increase in process efficiency
when cladding as compared to a CO2 laser.
34

2.6 The power utilised in melting the clad layer to the substrate (PC)
Blown powder laser clad layers usually have a cross sectional geometry similar to that shown in
figures 4 and 5.
Heat affected zone
Clad layer
Melted
substrate
Figure 4. The cross sectional geometry of a blown powder laser clad layer. Note: the melted substrate and
cladding material are mixed together during the process.
As figure 4 demonstrates, the production of a clad layer usually involves melting the surface
layers of the substrate. The amount of substrate melting can range from minimal to levels
where the clad layer is really a dilute alloy of the substrate and cladding material.
Clad layer
HAZ
6.2 mm
Melted
substrate
Figure 5. Macrographs of a typical laser clad sample in cross section

(see also figure 4).
PC, the power utilised in melting the cladding material and welding it to the surface of the
substrate can be calculated as follows:
PC = Av(Cpt + Hm)
Where:
A =
v =
=
Cp =
t =
Hm =
The melt cross sectional area (m2).

The Cladding speed (m/s).
The Density of the material melted.
Specific heat capacity of the material melted.
The difference between the melt temperature and ambient.
Specific heat of melting of the clad melt.
35
(18)

In order to evaluate Pc accurately for both the CO2 and the Nd:YAG laser a set of cladding
trials were carried out. Laser power and focusing conditions were kept identical for the two
lasers (2700 W, 5 mm beam diameter). Powder flow rates of 30, 40 and 50 g/min were
employed at cladding speeds of 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 m/min.
From all these tests an average for Pc was calculated for both types of laser. Figure 6 shows
cross sections of clad traces produced by both types of laser at a powder flow rate of 40 g/min
and speeds of 0.7, 1.0 and 1.4 m/min.
a) CO2 laser
0.7 m/min
1.0 m/min
1.4 m/min
b) Nd:YAG laser
3 mm
0.7 m/min
1.0 m/min
1.4 m/min
Figure 6. Clad cross sections at increasing process speed for both types of laser. (laser power 2700 W,
laser spot diameter 5 mm, powder flow rate 40 g/min.
It is clear that a substantial amount of substrate was melted in each case. On average the melt
was found to consist of a 40% substrate; 60% clad material mix for the CO2 laser and 55%
substrate and 45% metal mix for the Nd:YAG laser. As a simplification, the material properties
necessary for equation 18 were taken as being for a 50:50 mixture of cladding material and
substrate.
= 8020 kg/m3
Cp
= 500 J/kg K
Hm = 300 kJ/Kg
36

From these values and a melt temperature of 2300 K [1], the values for Pc for the two types of
laser were:
PC (Nd:YAG) = 506 W
(19)
Which represents 18% of Ptot

PC (CO2) = 266 W
(20)
Which represents 9.5 % of Ptot

This is a remarkable result. Here we can see that the Nd:YAG laser melts approximately twice
as much material its CO2 counterpart.
In our earlier work [1] we found that for a CO2 laser at a power of 5 kW only 10% of the laser
power was used to melt metal during cladding. This result is confirmed here for a different set
of process parameters. For the Nd:YAG laser however, the proportion of the laser power
involved in melting is almost double the CO2 value. Section 2.5 revealed that 50% of the CO2
laser light was reflected from the clad zone as compared 40% for the Nd:YAG laser. It seems
then, that the difference of 10% is almost exclusively given over to material melting and this
represents a doubling of the energy available for melting.
2.7 Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate (PF)
This value is easily established by subtracting (PC) from the total power absorbed by the
workpiece (Pin). Taking average values:
(Nd:YAG) PF = PIn- PC 30%Ptot
(CO2) PF = PIn- PC 28%Ptot
(21)
(22)
This is the result which would be expected given that all extra laser power which joins the
process when an Nd:YAG laser is used is involved in the melting process , (see previous
section).
37

3 Discussion
Figure 7 presents schematics of the redistribution of energy during the laser cladding process
for both types of laser.
Raw Power of beam (3 kW) (Ptot)

Power Reflected off the workpiece (PA)
CO2
Nd:YAG
% of power % of power
100%
100%
50%
40%
Power Re radiated from the workpiece (PD) 1%
1%
100%
Power Reflected off particles (PB)
8%
8%
Power absorbed by the Process (PC+PF)
40%
50%
Power absorbed by the cladding process
40%
50%
Power used to melt the Clad layer (PC)
10%
20%
Power absorbed in heating the substrate (PF) 30%
30%
Figure7. Schematic of the redistributions of energy during the laser cladding process
(percentages are approximate).
For the sake of clarity PE (convective losses) and PG (lost powder losses) have been left out of
figure 7 as their contribution to the energy balance is negligible.
38

The major mechanism of energy loss to the process is that of reflection from the melt pool and
the powder cloud. Reflection off the melt pool is a function of the condition of the melt
surface. As this melt is produced in an inert atmosphere it experiences no surface oxidation and
thus has a high reflectivity. Dilution of the inert shroud gas with an oxidising agent would
decrease this reflectivity but may have disruptive consequences on the stability of the process
and the metallurgy of the clad track. Overlapping such deliberately oxidised tracks could also
prove problematic.
A reduction of reflective losses from the powder cloud on the other hand would be
comparatively easy. All that is necessary is an increase in the average particle diameter. During
its passage through the laser beam the particle interacts with and reflects light over an area
equal to its cross sectional area (r2) rather than half its surface area (2r2). This because the
shadow cast by any particle has an area of r2 where r is the particle radius. A particle of twice
the original radius would cast a shadow four times as big but would have eight times the mass
(mass r3). Thus it is clear that, for a set mass flow rate, larger particles interact with (and
reflect) less of the beam. This is of course only useful within certain limits as the cladding
process will break down if the particles are too large.
One very important feature of figure 7 is that, although the power absorbed by the process
increases only from 40% to 50% when CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers are compared, the power
employed in melting material increases by a factor of 2 from 10% to 20 %. This doubling of
the energy efficiency of the process is clearly demonstrated in figure 8 which compares a low
speed (0.7 m/min) CO2 laser clad sample with an Nd:YAG laser clad sample carried out at
twice that speed (1.4 m/min).
3 mm
a) CO2 laser 0,7 m/min
b) Nd:YAG laser 1.4 m/min
Figure 8. A demonstration of the doubling of the process speed possible when using an Nd:YAG rather
than CO2 laser.(The powder feed rate was increased from 30 g/min for the CO2 laser to 50 g/min for
the Nd:YAG laser but the laser power ( 3kW) and spot size (5 mm) were kept constant.)
The doubling of the process efficiency shown in figures 7 and 8 would not be possible if the
powder absorbed in heating the substrate (PF see fig 7) changed as more power was absorbed
by the process. PF remains steady (in this case at 30%) because it is determined by the amount
of power the substrate needs to absorb before surface melting is initiated. This is a threshold
value, which will not charge with increasing absorptivity. This being the case, any increase in
absorbed power will be entirely available to the melting process.
39

The CO2 laser results given in figure 7 are almost identical to the earlier published figures from
experiments carried out at 5 kW on different equipment [1]. It is therefore possible to say that
these results are typical of multi kilowatt laser cladding.
4 Conclusions
1. Ignoring the trivial contributions of convective and radiative cooling etc, the laser
power applied to the cladding process is redistributed in the following ways:
Laser type
Nd:YAG
CO2
Power reflected off the cladding melt
50%
40%
Power reflected off the powder cloud
10%
10%
Power used to heat the substrate
30%
30%
Power used to melt the clad layer*
10%
20%
*
This value includes powder and substrate melting.
2. Nd:YAG lasers are approximately twice as energy efficient as CO2 lasers for cladding in
the range of parameters covered in this paper ( and by implication, the higher power (5
kW) range covered in our earlier work [2]) i.e. given the same laser power, Nd:YAG
lasers are capable of approximately double the cladding rates of CO2 lasers.
3. As a large proportion (30%) of the laser power is consumed in heating the substrate it is
likely that substrate pre heating by a cheaper power source* would improve the
profitability of laser cladding. (* flame, plasma, induction etc).
5 References
1.
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Wahlstrm, G., W-B, Li., Engstrm, H., Magnusson, C.
(2002). Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser Cladding. Journal of Laser
Applications, Vol. 14, pp. 78-82
2.
Porier, D.R., Geiger, G.H. (1994). Transport Phenomena in Materials

Processing. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, ISBN 0-87339-272-8,
pp. 219-236
3.
Bloehs, W., Grnenwald, B., Dausinger, F., Hgel. (1996). Recent progress in
laser surface treatment. Part 1: Implications of laser wavelength. Journal of Laser
Applications, Vol. 8, pp. 15-23
4.
Steen, W.M. Laser Material Processing. (1998). Laser surface treatment.

Springer-Verlag London. Second edition, ISBN 3-540-76174-8, pp. 199-202
40
H.Gedda: Chapter III-Laser Cladding into pre machined Grooves
Chapter III
Laser Cladding into pre machined grooves
41
42
Laser Cladding into pre machined grooves.

J.Powell+, H.Gedda*, A.Kaplan*.
2TR, U.K.
Abstract
When laser cladding is used to improve the wear characteristics of a substrate it is not always
necessary to clad the whole surface. Wear resistant individual tracks can be clad directly onto
the substrate or into pre machined grooves. This paper investigates the process parameters
which affect the finished product when cladding into groves including; groove geometry,
powder application method and laser type.
1 Introduction
Laser cladding is a process by which a metal powder is melted onto the surface of a metal
substrate. There are two common methods of providing powder for this process;
a) Pre placed powder; where a layer of powder is applied to the surface of the substrate and
subsequently melted by the laser (see figure 1a).
b) Blown powder; where powder is propelled into the cladding melt pool by means of a non
oxidising gas stream (see figure 1b).
Laser beam
Cladding material
a)
b)
Figure1. (a) Preplaced and (b) blown powder

laser cladding.
43
Laser cladding can be used to provide a protective coating of hard or corrosion resistant metal
on a weaker substrate. Tracks of the harder, powdered material are laid down next to each
other to form a new surface as shown in figure 2.
4 mm
Figure 2. A cross section of a laser clad layer of Ni-based material on a low carbon (SS 2172) steel.
The individual clad tracks which go to make up a clad layer have their cross sectional shape
determined by a number of factors including laser power, laser beam width and powder
characteristics etc. Typical individual clad tracks produced by the preplaced and blown powder
methods are presented in cross section in figure 3.
Heat affected zone

Substrate
(HAZ)
1 mm
Minimal clad layer/substrate
interfacial melting
Figure 3 a. A typical cross section of a single clad track produced by the preplaced powder method.
1 mm
HAZ
Substrate
Significant substrate
melting
Figure 3b. A typical cross section of a clad track produced by the blown powder method.
It is clear from figure 3 that individual tracks of laser melted powder would not generally be
useful in an engineering context as the harder material forms a ridge on the substrate. This is
different situation from that experienced in the field of laser surface hardening. Surface
hardening [1-3] (which does not affect the substrate surface flatness) has been successfully used
to extend the wear life of components by applying single tracks rather than covering an entire
surface with a hardened layer. This use of single tracks reduces laser processing costs and the
thermal input to the component.
44
One early application of single track hardening was employed by the automobile industry to
improve the wear characteristics of a piston and cylinder [4]. In this case a spiral track was
produced on the piston and this interacted with three or four straight hardened lines down the
length of the internal face of the cylinder.
In order to replicate the advantages of the single track approach for cladding it is necessary to
deposit the cladding material into pre machined grooves. This paper investigates the effect of
the cross sectional shape of the grooves on the eventual clad track.
2 Experimental work
If grooves are to be filled with cladding material it is important to optimise the cross sectional
geometry of the groove. For this experiment V shaped grooves were produced with included
angles of 30, 45, 60, and 90.
The gap at the top of the grooves was kept constant at 4 mm. These grooves were clad using
CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers both operating at a power of 3 kW. The substrate was mild steel and
the cladding material was Nickel based super alloy (see table 1).
Both the pre-placed and blown powder techniques were investigated as follows;
a) For blown powder the mass flow of the powder stream (in Argon) was increased in five
steps from 22 to 46 grams per minute.
b) For pre placed powder a wedge of powder was prepared over the groove as shown in
figure 4. The depth of the powder increased from zero at one end of the groove to 2
mm at the other end (200 mm away).
A photograph of a groove clad in this way is presented in figure 5. This use of a wedge of
powder is useful in demonstrating the progressive effect of an increase in powder depth. All
powder wedge samples were produced at a process speed of 0.5 m/min.
Table I. Equipment and Parameters
CO2 laser, Rofin Sinar RS 6000 (6 kW)
Nd:YAG, Haas Laser HL 3006 D (4 kW)
Spot size at top of groove (both laser ) = 4
mm
Substrate, SS 2172 Mild steel (0.16% C)
Cladding Material, Nickel based (80% Ni,
20% Cr)
Powder feeder, Sulzer Metco Single 10 C
45
Powder
depth 0 mm
Wedge of powder
Powder depth 2
mm
Substrate
200 mm
Groove
Figure 4. Schematic preplaced powder.
Figure 5. A grooved powder wedge sample (see

figure 4) after cladding.
3 Results
A. CO2 laser; Preplaced Powder
Figure 6 shows cross sections of the preplaced powder cladding trials at the section in the
sample where there was enough melt to fill the top of the groove. It is clear that for all these
samples the melt has not assumed a flat top surface. In all these cases the melt has retained its
circular curvature towards the top of its cross section. It is also noticeable that there is a pore
along the bottom of the clad groove for angles less than 90.
4 mm
Figure 6. Cross sections of grooves showing that even when there is sufficient
melt to produce a flat surface the clad layer does not do so when preplaced
powder is used.
46
Figure 7 demonstrates that the addition of more powder to the melt results in a clad trace
which over fills the groove. This sample also demonstrates the very low amount of substrate
melting which is often typical of pre placed powder cladding [5].
4 mm
7a)
0.1 mm
7b)
Figure 7. A cross section of the type of clad profile achieved for preplaced powder cladding if the groove must be
completely filled. 7b A micrograph showing the clad substrate interface weld.
B. CO2 laser; Blown Powder
Figure 8 shows the cross sections of blown powder cladding for the four types of groove at a
powder flow rate of 46 g/min and a process speed of 0.5 m/min.
4 mm
Figure 8. Blown powder cladding results for 46 g/min powder flow at a process speed of 0.5 m/min
(CO2 laser).
Figure 8 reveals that the 30 groove is unsuitable to the process because the powder stream does
not project sufficient material into the bottom of the groove. The 45 and 60 groove are
successfully filled with almost flat top surface although there are small linear pores at the bottom
of the grooves. The 90 grooved sample has become overfilled with melt at this powder flow
rate as its cross sectional area is considerably smaller than those for the other angles.
47
As far as producing an overall flat surface is concerned, samples b and c in figure 8 are much
more successful than the preplaced powder samples shown in figure 6. The reason why these
cross section are flatter must be attributed to the action of the powder jet gas flow on the
solidification dynamics of the melt. This point is supported by figure 9 which shows that under
filled grooves produced by the blown powder method had concave rather than convex top
profiles. Figure 9 also demonstrates the increased substrate melting common to blown powder
cladding.
4 mm
Figure 9. The concave top profile of an under filled groove clad

by the blown powder method.
C. Nd:YAG laser; Preplaced Powder
Figure 10 demonstrates that a change of laser type from CO2 to Nd:YAG does not produce a
flat surface when preplaced powder is employed. The results are very similar to those given in
figure 6 for the CO2 laser.
4 mm
Figure 10. Tracks made by Nd:YAG laser and preplaced powder when there is enough melt to fill the
groove. Once more the melt retain its curved upper surface.
D. Nd:YAG laser; Blown Powder
Figure 11 shows the results of blown powder cladding with the Nd:YAG laser and the
maximum flow rate. Once again the 45 groove produces an almost flat top surface and because
of its smaller cross section the 90 groove is overfilled. It was noticed however that the 90
samples for both types of laser did not produce flat clad surfaces even at lower powder flows.
This retention of a curved upper melt surface is possibly related to the superior heat sink
capacity of the 90 grooves.
4 mm
Figure 11. Blown powder cladding results for 46 g/min powder flow at a process
speed of 0.5m/min (Nd:YAG laser).
48
4 Discussion
Before we analyse the cross section of the clad groove samples it is important to make a few
remarks about cladding onto flat surfaces. Figure 12 shows the cross sections of two clad tracks
produced under identical conditions except for the depth of the preplaced powder involved.
4 mm
Figure 12. A pair of preplaced powder clad tracks produced under identical conditions except for
the depth of the powder used. (3.5 kW CO2 laser, spot size 4 mm, cladding speed 0.5 m/min)
powder deep a = 0.75 mm powder deep, b = 1.75 mm of powder.
At first glance the two cross sections in figure 12 look similar to the types of cross section (and
those shown in figure 3) we would expect of droplets of any liquid on a substrate.
It is tempting therefore to apply the same type of physical analysis to the clad cross sections as
far as contact angle and surface tension are concerned. However, the situation for laser cladding
is not that simple. For a droplet of a liquid on a solid surface, the contact angle is determined
by the various surface tensions associated with the liquid, the solid and the surrounding air (see
figure 13). If more liquid is added to the droplet the contact angle does not change but the
contact area between the droplet and the solid increases (see figure 14).
lg = Surface tension; Solid liquid

sl = Surface tension; Liquid gas
sg = Surface tension; Solid gas
lg
Gas
sg
Liquid
sl
Solid
Figure 13. The surface tension forces which determine the contact angle for a
droplet of liquid on a solid.
49
Smaller droplet
Larger droplet
Figure 14. remains the same if the droplet size

changes for a normal liquid droplet.
In the case of laser cladding the contact angle is not determined by the surface tension of the
liquid. This is clearly demonstrated in figure 12 where the contact angle is close to 45 in one
case and close to than 90 in the other for the same liquid on the same substrate. Although it is
true that the two melts may have achieved different temperatures (and therefore surface
tensions) during their melting cycle this effect is unimportant compared with the influence of
the laser beam diameter on the cladding zone. The effect of the laser beam diameter on the
cladding process is to (approximately) fix the width of the melt-substrate contact. As the melt
cannot spread laterally if more powder is added to the cladding process, the clad cross section
changes as shown in figure 15.
Laser beam
Figure 15. The change in cross section of a clad track as more powder is added (x remains
approximately constant as its width is determined by the laser beam diameter on the melt
pool).
It is clear from figure 15 that the upper surface of the melt will always assume a shape which is
part of a circle but this circle is intersected by a cord of (approximately) fixed length and
represents the melt- substrate interface. The cross section shape of an individual clad track is
therefore largely determined by two parameters; the volume of the clad track per unit length
(which gives us the size of the part circle in figure 15) and the diameter of the laser beam on
the cladding melt pool (which gives us the width of the melt-substrate interface). For this
reason it is not possible to match the interaction of a groove angle to the contact angle of the
melt in order to achieve a flat surface. On the other hand the grooves investigated here do have
an effect on the clad finished product.
It is clear from the results given in figures 6 and 8 that if the aspect ratio of the groove is too
large then the melt will not be able to fill it adequately. These figures also demonstrate the
point that grooves with an acute internal angle will tend to have a cavity at their base.
This cavity is probably the result of melt surface tension which would limit minimum radius
achievable by the melt. The larger included angle of 90 tended to encourage complete
penetration of the melt into the groove.
50
The result given here also reveal that there is no fundamental effect on the process by changing
from CO2 to Nd:YAG laser.
If a flat topped clad groove is required these results imply that preplaced powder will never give
the desired product. On the other hand it seems clear that the downward thrust of the
gas/powder feed in blown powder cladding can help to flatten the top surface of the melt.
However, a flat clad surface may not give optimum performance. It has been noted in some
single track hardening studies that the track is accompanied on either side by softened areas
which are prone to accelerated wear. This wear results in erosion as shown in figure 16.
Laser hardened track
Softened eroded area
Substrate
Figure 16. A Schematic cross section of a laser hardened
track.
This eroded channels were found to be beneficial to the wear behaviour of the components as
they allowed the flow of lubricant to the hard, load bearing area and the removal of wear
particles [6].
This principle could be extended to laser cladding of grooves in certain cases. If a clad groove
of the type shown in figure 6 was produced and the protecting clad material was ground away
the remaining shallow grooves next to the clad track could supply lubricant and debris removal
conduits as shown in figure 17.
Clad layer
Removed excess
Lubricant supply
clad material
and debris
removal conduits
Substrate
Figure17. Schematic cross section.
51
5 Conclusions
1. It is possible to produce almost flat topped filled grooves by either CO2 and Nd:YAG
laser if blown powder cladding is employed.
2. Pre placed powder cladding does not give flat typed clad filled grooves. However the
process may be used to produce a clad track with shallow grooves on either side which
could aid lubrication (Once the central protruding part of the clad layer has been
machined away).
3. Grooves with too large an aspect ratio cannot be effectively filled with melt.
4. The contact angle of a clad melt on a substrate can be varied and is determined by the
laser beam diameter and the amount of powder supplied to the melt.
6 Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from VINNOVA, SSF and Kempe
Foundation.
7 References
1.
Migliore, L. (1996). Laser material processing. Marcel Dekker Inc New-York. ISBN 08247-9714-0, pp. 209-237
2.
Ruiz, J., Lopez, V., Fernandez, B J. (1996). Effect of the surface laser treatment on the
microstructure and wear behaviour of grey iron. Materials and Design, ISSN
0261-3069, Vol. 17, no. 5-6, pp. 267-273
3.
Ion, J C. (2002). Review - laser transformation hardening. Surface Engineering, ISSN

0267-0844, Vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 14-31
4.
Eckersley, J, S. (1984) Laser Applications in Metal Surface Hardening. Advances in

Surface Treatments, Technology Applications Effects, Vol. 1, pp. 211-231
5.
Powell. J. (1988) Laser Cladding With Preplaced Powder; Analysis of thermal cycling
and dilutions effects. Surface Engineering, Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 141-149
6.
Steen W, M., Powell, J. (1981). Laser Surface Treatment Materials in Engineering, Vol.
2, no. 3, pp. 157-162
52
H.Gedda: Chapter IV-Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New process for rapid
Chapter IV
Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New
processes for rapid prototyping and
production.
53
54
Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New

processes for rapid prototyping and
production.
J.Powell+, H.Gedda*, A.Kaplan*.
2TR, U.K.
Abstract
This paper presents preliminary experimental results from two new processes:
1. Laser casting involves a process similar to blown powder laser cladding but the final
product is not joined to the substrate. The substrate surface therefore acts as a mould in
a laser casting process and the eventual casting retains the topological features of the
substrate.
2. Laser clad-casting involves the production of clad tracks which are welded as usual to a
substrate but which are laid down between machined copper blocks. The eventual clad
track therefore has its cross sectional profile determined by the blocks which are
removed after completion of the cladding process. In this way clad tracks with large
depth to width ratios can be achieved with pre determinated cross sections.
Keywords: Laser cladding, Laser processing, Laser casting, Laser clad-casting
55
1 Introduction
This paper presents the preliminary results of an experimental program investigating two new
processes: Laser casting and laser clad-casting. As a technique, laser casting is similar to blown
powder laser cladding but the aim in this case is to produce a clad layer which is not fused to
the substrate. The resulting clad layer retains the topological features of the surface of the
substrate which effectively acts as the mould in a casting process. An example of the detached
casting and its mould is presented in figure1.
Figure 1. A Laser casting and the mould it was produced with. (Process parameters:
laser 3 kW (Nd:YAG), cladding speed 0.8 m/min, powder feed (cobalt alloy)
80g/min).
During laser clad-casting the clad track is welded to the substrate as usual but the cross sectional
profile of the track is determined by copper blocks which act as moulds and are later removed.
An example of such a clad-cast track is shown in figure 2.
3 mm
Figure 2. A clad-cast track on the edge of a sample.

(Process parameters: laser 3,5 kW (CO2), cladding speed 0.7 m/min, powder feed 45 g/min)
The reminder of this paper will discuss these two processes separately.
56
2 Laser casting
The experimental set up for laser casting is similar to that for blown powder laser cladding.
Schematics of both processes are presented in figure 3.
Laser beam
Powder feed
45
45
10-15 mm
5 mm
Interfacial melting between

the clad layer and substrate
Unmelted layer of
powder particles
No interfacial
melting
3a. Laser Cladding
3b. Laser Casting
Figure 3. Comparison of laser cladding and casting.

From a process parameter point of view there are only three differences between the two
techniques;
1. The powder mass flow is higher for clad-casting, typically 2 or 3 times the flow needed
for cladding under the same conditions.
2.
The powder feed nozzle is much nearer the melt pool than it is for cladding.
3. The laser beam is defocused to approximately twice the original diameter normally
used for cladding (in this case from 4 to 8 mm diameter).
This reorganisation of the powder delivery and power density has a fundamental effect on the
process which prevents the substrate from melting. This effect is demonstrated in figure 3.
Figure 3a shows that, during blown powder laser cladding, the laser beam directly irradiates
both the surface of the molten cladding material and the substrate. The result is the
establishment of a fusion line beneath the original surface of the substrate. This ensures good
adhesion of the clad layer as it is welded to the substrate. In the case of laser casting (figure3b)
the powder flow conditions are such that a layer of unmelted powder builds up immediately in
front of the molten cladding zone. This has two effects:
57
1. The powder layer shields the substrate from direct laser heating and thereby inhibits
substrate melting.
2. The powder layer cools the lower part of the melt by becoming melted into it.
Another important influence on the temperature distribution in the melt is the shadowing
effect of the powder cloud. The powder cloud absorbs energy from the incident laser beam
and casts an increasingly dense shadow over the melt pool as the mass flow rate is increased.
Also, the upper particles in the powder cloud cast a shadow over the lower particles [1]. The
particle cloud therefore tends to transport energy from the laser beam towards the top part of
the melt (where the hotter upper particles land) and away from the lower part (where the
cooler, shadowed particles land).
All of these effects reduce the ability of the cladding melt-laser combination to melt the
substrate. The result is a clad layer which is not welded to the surface of the substrate.
3 Experimental procedure
3.1 General
For the purposes of the experimental runs the following equipment and materials were
employed:
Laser model: Haas Laser HL 3006 D (4 kW) Nd:YAG. Laser power 3 kW.
Powders: Stellite 8 (Cobalt base), Deloro Alloy NO 35 S (Nickel base), ASP 60 (Iron base).
The powder chemical compositions are presented in table 2-4 below.
Powder feeder: TECFLO TM 5102.
Powder feeding: 80-110 g/min.
Powder feed gas: Argon.
Process speed: 0.6-1.0 m/min.
Substrate (mould): single and cross-hatched V shaped groves with an internal angle of 90
with depths of 2,4 and 6 mm. The mould chemical composition is presented in table 1 below.
Chemical Composition
Table1. Steel composition (mould)
C
0.16
wt %
Si
0.22
Mn
P
S
0.94
0.014
0.022
Melting point (Tm) = 1773 K
V
0.06
N
0.009
Fe
98.6
Table2. Co based powder composition

wt %
Cr
C
Si
Mo
Ni
Fe
27.2
0.27
1.0
5.5
2.3
0.3
Powder size 45-150m (Tm) = 1459-1656 K
58
Co
63.4
Table3. Fe based powder composition
wt %
Cr
C
V
Mo
Fe
4.2
2.3
6.5
7.0
69.5
Powder size 45-150m (Tm) = 1473-1573 K
Co
10.5
Table4. Ni based powder composition

wt %
Cr
C
Si
B
Ni
3.7
0.4
3.5
1.6
86.5
Powder size 38-106m (Tm) = 1223-1423 K
Fe
2.0
3.2 Laser casting: results and discussion

Laser casting involves a large number of inter dependant process variables such as; laser beam
power and diameter, process speed, powder type, substrate type, powder mass feed rate and
particle speed etc.
This introductory paper will not therefore, attempt to map out the whole process. Our aim
here is to demonstrate that which is easily achievable and to point out areas of difficulty.
Figures 1 and 4 show successful examples of the process for single and cross hatched grooved
substrates. Cross sections of these two samples are shown in figures 5 and 6 and these clearly
show that the castings are close to 100% dense. (The actual figures are 95% for these two
cross sections). Although these two samples involved a correct balancing of the process
parameters, much poorer results are achieved if certain guidelines are not followed. These
guidelines are presented in the following notes.
3 mm
a
b
c
Figure 4. Sucessful laser clad-casting of cross hatched grooves. a) substrate (mould), b) substrate and
casting, c) casting. Process parameters: laser power 3 kW (Nd:YAG), beam diameter 5 mm, process speed
0.8 m/min., Ni based powder, powder flow 80 g/min (in argon), inter-track distance 3mm.
59
Figure 5. A polished and

unetched cross section of the
sample shown in figure 1
showing the 95 % density of
the casting.
Figure 6. A polished and unetched cross

section of the sample shown in figure 4
showing the 95% density of the casting.
Powder mass flow rate

If the powder mass flow rate is excessive the melt will rest on a bed of powder rather than the
substrate. The resulting cast will therefore not take on the features of the mould. An
example of this is presented in figure 7.
Figure 7. An example of a casting which failed due

to excessive powder mass flow rate. (process
parameters as fig 1 except powder mass flow rate
increased to 110 g/min).
If the powder mass flow rate is too low then the excess laser energy will melt the surface of the
substrate (either directly or by conduction through the melt pool). In this case the clad layer
will be welded to the substrate and it will not be possible to separate the two later.
Process speed / laser power / laser spot diameter.
These three parameters are inter related in their effect on the process and can be described as a
function of the energy density:
Energy density =
P
VD
(1)
Where P is the laser power, V the process speed and D the laser spot diameter. Generally as
P/VD is increased there is a tendency for increased welding of the clad layer to the substrate.
60
As P/VD is decreased there is a tendency for the melt not to contact the substrate. In this case,
as for excessive powder, the casting bears no relationship to the mould.
Powder and substrate type
In our investigations we found that the easiest and best quality results were achieved with the
nickel based alloy. Tables 1-4 reveal that, of the three powder alloys, the nickel based alloy has
a melting point ( 1300 K) which is furthest removed from that of the substrate ( 1800 K).
This means that the operating window for molten/solid contact between the two materials
without welding would be greater than for the other alloys. Wet contact without welding is
necessary for an accurate casting and this is made easier by a large difference in casting mould
melting point or by melt substrate incompatibility. Other types of incompatibility could be
chemical (i.e ceramic substrate moulds could be used) or thermal (e.g. water cooled substrates
or high conductivity alloys could be used). The difference in performance of the three alloys
used here is clear from figure 8.
The melting point, although important, is not the only powder characteristic governing the
castability of the material. Melt viscosity and surface tension also play a significant role in the
casting process. Both these material properties should be minimised for high quality casting and
this would an interesting topic for future work.
a ) Cobalt based
b) Iron based
c) Nickel based
Figure 8. A comparison of the casting capabilities of the three alloys tested. Process parameters: 3
kW (Nd:YAG), beam diameter 5 mm, process speed 0.8 m/min, Ni based powder, powder flow
90 g/min.
3.3 Possible future development
These early results have demonstrated that it is possible to use the laser as a power source to
produce shallow surface casts in high strength alloys. Although the castings take on the
macroscopic surface features of the moulds they are not microscopically smooth. This is
because the outer surface is covered in powder particles which melted immediately before
solidification began. This is an area for future investigation which may involve the use of high
melting point moulds and cladding material with suitable liquid flow characteristics. At this
early stage it is not possible to forecast future applications of this technique although these may
include the production of abrasive surfaces or hard cutting tools. Refinement of the process
could result in the production of stamping dies.
61
4 Laser Clad-Casting
Laser clad-casting is a simple development of standard laser cladding which was stimulated by
an industrial inquiry. The company involved wanted to extend the life of piston rings by
adding a clad layer to the outer diameter. This clad layer was to be of a wear resistant material
and, to prolong life even further, was to be gradually increasing in thickness towards the edge.
The first concern from the laser cladding point of view was the aspect ratio of the clad track.
Generally, blown powder laser cladding gives a single clad track cross section which is a
truncated semicircle as shown in figure 9a. The maximum height of a single clad track is
achieved when the track is semicircular in cross section as shown in figure 9b. This customer
however, required a better aspect ratio than the 2:1 limit of a semicircle. They needed a post
machined aspect ratio of approximately 1:1 as shown in figure 9c. From figure 9c it is also clear
that they required the clad layer deposit to have sides which were diverging from the line of
the substrate at an angle of 10.
Clad layer
a) Standard clad
cross section
Machining
line
b) Maximum height
clad track (semi circular
cross section)
c) Required clad
cross section
Figure 9. Standard clad track cross section (a, b) and the required cross section (c ).
In order to achieve the clad profile required, copper blocks were machined and clamped to
either side of the substrate as shown in figure 10.
62
Substrate
Machined
Machined
copperblocks
blocks
copper
Clamping
Figure 10. Cross section of the clad cast

mould.
Cladding was now carried out with the laser and the powder stream aiming into the valley
between the copper blocks. The beam diameter was 4 mm on the substrate surface and thus
irradiated the copper blocks on either side. However, the high reflectivity of the copper
prevented it from melting by direct laser irradiation and its high thermal conductivity
prevented melting by contact with the molten cladding metal. As a result the copper blocks
could be easily removed after the cladding was complete. The clad profile produced by this
method is shown in profile in figure 11.
3 mm
Figure 11. A cross section of the clad-cast track deposited between copper blocks. (substrate width:
3mm,clad track height: 3.5 mm). Process parameters: powder feed (Nickel alloy) 40 g/min, cladding
speed 0.5 m/min, laser power 3.5 kW (CO2), beam diameter 4 mm.
Figure 11 clearly shows that the required clad profile has been achieved. The integrity and low
dilution levels of the clad layer are typical of the standard laser cladding process. In this case a
single, high aspect ratio, track has been produced on the edge of a narrow substrate. The depth
of the deposit could of course be increased by overalying another track on this one. The
process could also be extended to the laying of tall, narrow walls on flat substrates to produce
enclosures or stamping tools.
63
Apart from the ability to produce deep clad layers laser clad-casting has two other advantages
over the standard process:
a) The process is more energy efficient than standard laser cladding. In this case 24% of the
laser energy was utilised in the melting process as compared to 20% for standard laser
cladding with an Nd:YAG laser [2] (This value is only 10% for standard CO2 laser
cladding [2]).
b) The powder catchment efficiency is higher for clad-casting than for cladding. i.e. in this
example of clad-casting the powder catchment efficiency was 96 %. (Standard cladding
value 60%) [3]. This improves deposition rates and minimises substrate melting
because a greater proportion of the laser energy is involved in melting the incoming
powder. This improvement in powder catchment efficiency is clearly a function of the
valley-like geometry of the clad-cast melt zone. A geometry of this type tends to
channel powder into the weld pool rather than allowing it to spray all over the substrate
surface. (Which happens in standard laser cladding).
5 Conclusions
It has been demonstrated that two new laser cladding techniques are possible and that they may
provide novel answers to future production requirements.
Laser casting can be used to produce surface castings in high strength alloys to generate tool
bits or stamping dies etc.
Laser clad-casting can be employed to make clad tracks with large depth to width ratios and
pre determined cross sections.
6 References
1.
Li, W.B, Engstrm, H, Powell, J, Tan, Z, Magnusson, C. (1995). Modelling of

the laser cladding process; Pre-heating of the Blown Powder Material. Lasers in
Engineering, Vol 4, pp. 329-341
2.
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A. (2002). A Process Efficiency Comparison of

Nd:YAG and CO2 Laser Cladding. Welding in the World, Vol. 46, Special
Issue, pp.75-86
3.
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Wahlstrm, G., W-B, Li., Engstrm, H., Magnusson,
C. (2002). Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser Cladding. Journal of Laser
Applications, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 78-82
64
H.Gedda: Chapter V-Laser Wire Casting
Chapter V
Laser Wire Casting
65
66
Laser Wire Casting

J.Powell+, H.Gedda*, A.Kaplan*, Katja Rstig# .
2TR, U.K.
#
Material Science and Materials Technolog, Technische Universitt Bergakademie Freiberg, D
Abstract
This paper describes a new technique for the production of solid wire or rods from powder by
laser melting. Three techniques have been developed to ensure that the molten powder
solidifies as a rod or wire rather than a series of droplets. The straight rods or wires produced in
this way have an almost circular cross section, are several millimetres in diameter and can be
pore free. The techniques can be used to produce welding rods, tensile test samples and other
solid pieces from a wide range of powder mixes. The rapid thermal cycle involved means that
hitherto difficult to produce mixtures and alloys can now be produced in the solid form in
seconds.
1 Introduction
Previous work by the present authors [1] investigated novel applications of blown powder laser
cladding techniques to produce castings or castings which were simultaneously clad to substrates
[2]. This paper extends this work to the production of cast wires or rods from pre placed
powder beds. Simply traversing a defocused laser over the surface of a powder bed was found to
give unsatisfactory results because the melt has a natural tendency to form a series of large
droplets which may or may not be connected to each other [3] as shown in figure 1.
15
mm
Figure1. A series of droplets formed by the interaction of a moving,

defocused laser and a bed of metal powder.
67

Three techniques have been developed at the Sirius laboratory, Lule University which
suppress the formation of droplets and allow the production of wires or rods. These methods
involve the employment of moulds or the use of preliminary wire within the powder bed.
2 Experimental work
2.1 Equipment and materials used
For the purposes of the experimental runs the following equipment and materials were
employed:
Laser model: Rofin Sinar RS 6000 CO2. Laser power 3500 W. Laser beam defocused to 3
mm.
Powder: Stellite 8 (Cobalt base). The powder chemical composition is presented in table 1
below.
Process speed: 0.4 m/min.
Wire: (Ni-based) The chemical compositions is presented in table 2 below.
Substrate: The substrate (mould bottom) chemical composition is presented in table 3 below.
Mould: Cu-blocks.
Chemical Composition
Table 1. Co based powder composition
Cr
27.2
wt %
C
0.27
Si
1.0
Mo
5.5
Ni
2.3
Fe
0.3
Co
63.4
Powder size 45-150m (Tm) = 1459-1656 K

Table2. Ni-based wire composition
wt %
Ni
Cr
Mo
Fe
59.3
21.2
13.2
0.2
3.3
2.7
1.3 mm (Tm) 1600 K

Table 3. Steel composition (substrate)
wt %
C
0.16
Si
0.22
Mn
0.94
P
0.014
S
0.022
Melting point (Tm) =1773 K
68
V
0.06
N
0.009
Fe
98.6

2.2 Casting with moulds
The aim of this work was to cast approximately circular cross section wires or rods. Two types
of mould were employed to attempt this; side contact moulds and net shape moulds.
2.2.1 Side contact moulds
Figure 2 shows the very simple principle of the use of side contact moulds. A channel between
two metal blocks is filled with metal powder which is subsequently melted by the laser beam.
Laser beam
Powder
Mould
Wire
Powder
Substrate
a) Cross section of mould and
powder before laser irradiation
b) During laser
processing
c) The cross section after

laser irradiation
Figure 2. The principle of application of side contact moulds.

The side walls of the mould constrain the melt and prevent the formation of droplets (see
figure1). The walls also help to cool the melt by conduction. It is a primary requirement that
the melt does not become clad to the substrate and so the process is designed to leave a residual
layer of powder at the bottom of the channel as shown in figure 2c. This Lack of contact with
the substrate also helps to encourage an approximately circular cross section. A number of wires
were produced in this way and a selection of results is presented in figure 3.
69
Laser power 3kW

Speed 0.4 m/min
Mould separation
5 mm
Laser power 3kW

Speed 0.4 m/min
Mould separation
3 mm
3 mm
Laser power 3kW

Speed 0.4 m/min
Mould separation
6 mm
5 mm
Cross section
6 mm
Cross section
Cross section
5 cm
a)
General view
b)
General view
c)
General view
Figure 3. A selection of results of the side contact mould laser casting process.
It is clear from the results presented in figures 3a-b that the wires or rods produced by this
method are of ovoid cross section and are close to 100% dense. They are also generally straight
along most of their length. Figure 3c demonstrates that, if the mould walls are too far apart, the
melt reverts to its droplet forming behaviour. It is the suppression of this behaviour which is
the main advantage of the use of side walls. The mechanism of suppression will be discussed
later.
70

2.2.2 Net shape moulds
A direct extension of the use of side contact moulds is the employment of moulds which are in
complete contact with the melt and thus control its final shape. Such a mould is shown in
figure 4 in its powder filled state (4a) and after rod production (4b).
4a) The powder filled mould

prior to laser melting
4b) After successful

production of a rod
Figure 4. The use of a net shape mould to form a rod.

This process produces very straight almost 100% dense, circular cross section rods as shown in
figure 5. In this case the adhesion of the melt to the mould has been avoided by making the
mould from high conductivity copper.
4 mm
200 m
5a) Cross section
5b) Polished and unetched

cross section
5c) Macroscopic view

Figure 5. An example of the high quality wire
created when using net shape moulds.
71

2.3 Casting with wires imbedded in powder beds
The aim in this case was to dispense with moulds but to control the casting process by using a
wire imbedded in the powder prior to melting as shown in figure 6.
6a) Before laser melting
6b) After laser melting
Figure 6. Casting with wires imbedded in powder beds.

Once again this proved to be a successful technique for producing rods or wires as the results of
figure 7 show.
50 mm
6 mm
a) Cross sections
b) General view
Figure 7. Examples of rods cast by the wire and powder route.
72
1.3 mm

In this case the wire acts to inhibit droplet formation and this will be discussed in the following
section.
3 Discussion
Figure1 demonstrates that there is a natural tendency for liquid metal to gather together in
droplets. (This is not true if the mass of liquid is large because, in that case, gravity overcomes
the surface tension effects which create droplets). Droplets are formed because the liquid
attempts to achieve its lowest energy state and this is satisfied when the liquid has the lowest
surface to volume ratio. The shape with the lowest surface to volume ratio is the sphere and
therefore small volumes of liquid tend to form spheroids. If a laser melts a track across a bed of
metal powder and does not simultaneously weld the track to the substrate (as in laser cladding)
[4], then the solidifying liquid will attempt to form spheroidal droplets in order to minimise its
surface energy. Figure 1 shows that these spheroids are extended in the direction of movement
of the laser and are often joined together. This sort of morphology is a compromise between
the sphere forming influence of the surface tension of the melt and the line forming influence of
the movement of the melt front (which, obviously, follows the laser movement).
The presence of a side wall or net shape mould prevents the bulging of the melt bead necessary
to the production of spheroids. This is clearly demonstrated by figure 3 which shows that
spheroids are created if the gap between the side wall moulds is too great. At narrower gaps the
side walls only allow the melt to solidify with a linear morphology which creates a wire with a
consistent cross section.
The use of a wire as a melt guidance device also produces rectilinear solidification without
droplet formation. In this case the wire and powder material were Ni-based (Tm 1400 K)
and Co-based alloy (Tm 1600 K) respectively. This proximity in melting point resulted in
the original wire being entirely melted during the process but this doesnt necessarily have to be
the case. Whether or not the original wire is melted it acts as a solidification nucleation site and
inhibits the formation of droplets.
Of the three processes discussed in this paper the one which produces the highest quality
product is, of course, the use of net shape moulds. Using this technique it should certainly be
possible to produce wires or rods over a wide range of diameters and lengths.
The compositional range of rods formed in this way is extremely wide and could include metal
matrices with hard, abrasive ceramic particles as well as exotic alloy combinations.
73
3 Conclusions
Wires or rods can be cast from metal powder using a high power laser as a heat source.
Metal powders which have been laser melted do not readily solidify as uniform cross
section rods unless the tendency to form strings of droplets is inhibited.
The presence of side wall or net shape moulds can result in rods which are ovoid or
circular in cross section and approximately 100% dense. Wires incorporated into the
powder bed can have the same effect in the absence of moulds.
The casting techniques discussed in this paper could be used to produce wires or rods
of a very wide range of alloys and alloy-ceramic mixtures.
4 References
1.
Powell, J., Gedda, H., Kaplan. A. (2002). Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting:
New processes for rapid prototyping and production. Conf. Proc. (ICALEO)
Scottsdale, AR, 14-17, October 2002
2.
Stimper, B. (2000). Using Laser Powder Cladding To Build Up Worn

Compressor Blade Tips. Conf. Proc. Advanced Materials in
Aerospace Industry Berlin 2000
3.
Powell, J. (1983). Laser Cladding. PhD Theses Imperial College of Science and
Technology, Dept. Of Metallurgy, London UK.
4.
Powell. J. (1988). Laser Cladding With Preplaced Powder; Analysis of thermal

cycling and dilutions effects. Surface Engineering, Vol. 4, no. 2. pp. 141-149
74
H.Gedda: Chapter VI-Melt-Solid Interactions in laser cladding and laser casting
Chapter VI
Melt-Solid Interactions in laser cladding and
laser casting
75
76
Melt-Solid Interactions in laser cladding and

laser casting
H.Gedda*, A.Kaplan*, J.Powell*+,

* Lule University of Technology, Division of Manufacturing Systems Engineering,
S-971 87 Lule, Sweden Phone: +46 920 49 1169, E-mail: Hans.Gedda@ltu.se
2TR, U.K.
Abstract
Experimental data in conjunction with mathematical models are used to explain various aspects
of laser casting and laser cladding by the preplaced powder method. Results include an
explanation of the large range of process parameters over which low dilution clad deposits can
be produced. Also the interaction of the melt pool with the powder bed is analysed to identify
why laser castings have microscopically uneven surfaces.
Kewords: laser, cladding, casting
77
1 Introduction
The process of laser cladding has been the subject of scientific research and commercial
applications since the late 1970s [1-5]. There are two basic methods of using a laser to clad one
metal with another; the preplaced powder method and the blown powder method. These two
techniques are illustrated in figure 1.
Laser beam
Cladding material
Figure 1. The preplaced and blown powder cladding methods

a, preplaced powder b, blown powder cladding.
This paper investigates the thermo and fluid dynamics of the preplaced powder cladding
method and of a more recently developed technique called laser casting. Laser casting was
developed at Lule university of technology [6] and involves the deposition of a laser melted
metal into a mould (see figure 2). The process parameters are deliberately chosen to prevent
the clad deposit forming a bond with the substrate and thus cast objects can be produced.
3 mm
Figure 2. Laser casting.
78

Laser casting can be described as laser cladding which has no substrate clad layer bond. This
paper is an investigation into the process by which such substrate clad layer bonds are created
or avoided.
This work uses experimental results to support two theoretical models. The first, which is a
extension of earlier work by Powell et al. [1, 2], investigates macroscopic aspects of melt-solid
interactions during preplaced powder laser cladding. The second model, which builds on
earlier work by Kaplan et al. [7, 8] looks at the microscopic effects of the interaction of the
melt with individual powder particles.
2 Experimental procedure
For the purpose of this study a number of clad tracks were produced over a wide range of
process speeds. The experimental details are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Equipment and Parameters
CO2-laser, Rofin Sinar RS 6000 (6 kW)
Laser power range 100 - 4000 W
Laser spot diameter = 4 mm
Substrate, SS 2172 Mild steel (0.16% C)
Cladding Material, Cobalt based (Stellite 21)
Process speed range 0,1 m/min- 4 m/min
3 Macroscopic Melt-Solid interaction

Figure 3 shows the cross sections of six clad tracks laid down under identical conditions except
for the process speed which is indicated by each photograph. The photographs are all printed
at the same scale and it is clear that as the speed is increased from 0.1 m/min to 2.1 m/min the
amount of material melted decreases. However, figures 3 e and f show a larger cross section of
melt compared to the lower speeds. This is easily understood by reference to figure
4, which shows the top views of the clad tracks and reveals that the cross section is very
unstable for the highest speeds.
79
a) 0,1 m/min
b) 0,2 m/min
c) 0,9 m/min
d) 2,1 m/min
1 mm
e) 3,3 m/min
f) 3,8 m/min
Figure 3. Cross sections of clad tracks made under identical conditions (laser power 3500 W, powder bed
depth 1 mm) at different speeds.
(0,1 m/min) (0,2 m/min)(0,9 m/min)(2,1 m/min)(3,3 m/min)(3,8m/min)

Figure 4. The top views of the clad tracks shown in figure 3.
80

Returning to figure 3, a number of the observations are clear:
Substantial substrate melting is only a feature of the lowest speed even though sound
cladding is possible at speeds over twenty times this value.
There are a broad range of process speeds over which the amount of substrate melting
is trivial (0,2 m/min-2,1 m/min).
Although the melt cross sectional area decreases with process speed the rate of decrease
is surprisingly small. For example the cross section of b is 5.1 mm2 and this decreases to
3.5 mm2 (69 %) for d which was produced at approximately ten times the speed of b.
The contact angles of the melt to the substrate show good wetting characteristics from
a to d but poor wetting in cases e and f. The clad layer in the case of the highest speeds
(e and f) is not in full contact with the substrate.
The main contra- intuitive feature of figure 3 is the surprisingly low amount of substrate
melting over a wide range of process speeds. This phenomenon was first discussed by
Powell [1, 2] who postulated a three stage melting process for preplaced powder laser
cladding;
1. The laser rapidly melts the powder before the melt touches the substrate because,
prior to substrate contact the melt is surrounded by low conductivity powder.
2. Once the melt touches the substrate it looses a great deal of heat by conduction.
This leads to partial solidification of the melt. As a result the melt-liquid interface
does not move into the body of the substrate.
3. If the laser energy continues to irradiate the top surface of the melt, the energy
will eventually move the melt/solid interface back down through the clad layer
and across into the body of the substrate.
Figure 5 presents a graphical description of the three stage process derived from a one
dimensional mathematical model.
Figure 5 Vertical temperature distribution through the preplaced powder and substrate for different time
steps [1,2].
81

The first-stage, the melting of the unmelted powder is shown in the 15 ms and 37 ms curves as
the temperature of the powder rises rapidly above the melting point Tm. At 37 ms the melt
makes contact with the substrate and looses heat by conduction. This second stage is described
by the 46, 66 and 142 ms lines which shows that the Tm point is now back above the
powder-substrate interface. It is only after 252 ms that the melt front returns to the powdersubstrate interface and subsequent laser irradiation will result in substrate melting. This model
therefore suggests that over a wide range of interaction times (or process speeds), the clad layer
will have experienced wet contact with the substrate without melting it.
The mathematical model which given us the results presented in figure 5 is highly simplified in
some respects in order to present the main point clearly. (The main point being the halting or
reversal of the movement of the melt front is the vertical direction as a result of contact with
the substrate) As a continuation of the one-dimensional calculations which gave rise to the
results given in figure 5 a combined two and three dimensional model has been developed as
follows; Before melt-substrate contact the vertical position of the melt above the substrate can
be described by an extension of a standard equation for a moving point source of heat [9]:
T ( x, y, z ) = Ta +
v x2 + y2 + z2 x
exp
2
2K x 2 + y 2 + z 2
APL
(1)
Where :
x,y and z = A Cartesian coordinate system
T(x,y,z) = The temperature field at any position x, y, z.
Ta = Ambient temperature
PL = Laser beam power
A = Absorptance of the surface to the incident laser light
v = The speed traveled by the laser beam in the x direction
K = Thermal conductivity (assumed constant)
= Thermal diffusivity (assumed constant)
The extension of Equation 1 involves the addition of an infinite number of mirror sources [9]
arranged along the vertical axis. This mathematical method replicates the insulating effect of
the powder bed. Thus expanded, Equation 1 becomes;
APL
T ( x, y, z ) = Ta +
2K
i =
1
x 2 + y 2 + ( z + 2id )
v x 2 + y 2 + ( z + 2id )2 x
(2)
exp
where
i = Mirror source index
d = The powder depth
After melt substrate contact the heat flow reverts to that described in Equation 1. This
constitutes a change from two dimensional heat flow (Equation 2) to three dimensional
(Equation 1).
82

These equations have been used to produce figure 6 which shows the maximum depth of
melting for different processing speeds.
Figure 6. Calculated maximum melting depth through the powder (1 mm thick) and substrate ( >> 1
mm) as a function of the processing speed.
Figure 6 qualitatively supports the results shown in figure 3; only the lowest speeds involve
substrate melting, corresponding to 3-dimensional heat conduction, (Equation 1). Then there
is a range of speeds over which no substrate melting takes place but the powder is melted
completely. Throughout this range the calculation continuously flips from three dimensional
to two dimensional heat-flow and this effectively freezes the movement of the melt front at the
substrate surface. At the highest speeds (here 1.6 m/min or higher) the powder is not
completely melted throughout its depth and no melt substrate contact is achieved. The
calculation in this region is governed entirely by Equation 2
Figure 7. Melt-substrate contact history in cross section.

(Black = liquid, Grey = Powder , Shaded = Solid).
This phenomenological model is summed up by figure 7 which indicates the position of the
melt front and the geometry of the melt as time progresses for any point along the cladding
line. (The roughness of the melt-solid contact line on initial contact is one of the topics which
will be covered in the next section).
83
4 Microscopic melt-solid interaction

This section of the paper considers the interaction of the melt with the powder particles which
surround it. During the cladding process the melt moves through the powder layer melting
and collecting these particles.
Melt
Powder bed
Clad layer
Substrate
Figure 8. The geometry of preplaced powder cladding.
4.1 Particle Heating by the Melt Front

The process of particle melting by the melt pool is sensitive to the size of the particles
involved. Commercially available powders have a range of particle sizes in each batch and the
size of a particle determines how rapidly it will melt.
The energy needed to heat and melt the particle is proportional to rp3;
P =
4rp3
3
[c p (Tm Ta ) + H m ]
(3)
Where:
P = Thermal power flowing into the particle
= Interaction duration until melting
rp = Powder particle radius
= Specific mass density of the particle
cp = Specific heat capacity
Tm = Melting temperature
Hm = Latent heat of melting
Figure 9 shows the distribution of the particle diameters in the powder used in this
investigation. The dotted line on this figure shows the level of energy needed to melt the
particles as a function of radius and the broken line demonstrates the proportion of the incident
energy needed to melt the various particle sizes in the batch.
84
Energy, Particle Distribution [a.u.]

50
N
40
E
N*E
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
Particle Diameter [um]
Figure 9. The particle size distribution and proportion of the incident energy needed to melt the particles of
different sizes in this batch.
As particle heating by the advancing melt front is a highly complex mechanism, the simplified
model of Eq. (3) is applied here in order to estimate the duration for heating and melting a
particle for given heat flux.
According to figure 9 the energy required for heating and melting a particle is proportional to
its volume. Table 2 gives the melting times for a number different sized particles and it can be
seen that doubling the particle diameter multiplies the melting time by a factor of eight. It
must also be born in mind that a change in incident power (or heat flux) leads only to a linear
change in melting time.
Diameter 2rp [m]
60 m
90 m
120 m
150 m
Melting time [ms]
0.8 ms
2.7 ms
6.4 ms
12.5 ms
Table 2: Calculated melting time of a single particle depending on its diameter (steel,
prescribed power per particle 0,885 W)
4.2 Surface Tension Driven Droplet-Melt Front Interactions

As the particle comes in contact with the hot melt it melts and becomes incorporated into the
main body of the liquid. Surface tension forces tend to minimize the surface to volume ratio of
any melt. The surface tension forces acting on liquid bodies of radii R and R which are in
contact with each other can be expressed at each point of the surfaces follows in the Young
Laplace Equation :
1
1
(4)
pS =
+
R
R
85
Where:
p = Pressure from surface tension
s
= Surface tension
R , R = Local radii of curvature of the two liquids
Earlier work by Kaplan [7] modelled the collapse of gaseous cavities (bubbles and keyholes) in
liquid weld pools and the force acting upon them. This approach, based on the theory of water
bubbles and drops [12-15] can be used to model the reverse situation i.e. liquid droplets
surrounded by a gas. Potential flow theory is applied via the time dependent Bernoulli
Equation which considers the curvature affected surface tension force and the inertia of the
melt close to the surface:
2
s
p u s,n
(5)
= s
l
2
t
s = Velocity potential at the surface
l = Liquid density
us,2n = Surface speed normal component
Locally the flow can be split into two cylindrical components , perpendicular to each other,
which can be superimposed. Continuity liquid mass flow in a cylindrical coordinate system
with the radial coordinate r is determined by the flow potential field [12, 14]:
M& (t ) 1
(t ) =
(6)
4 l r
Spatial derivation yields the velocity field:
u (t ) =
M& (t ) 1
4 l r 2
(7)
Note that the mass flow rate M& implicitely results from the calculation.
As for the heat conduction equation, superposition of the surface solutions of two
perpendicular cylinders of radius R, R, respectively, at their coinciding surface gives:
s (t ) =
u s,n (t ) =
M&
4 l
1
1
R
R
1
M& (t ) 1
+ 2
2
4 l R (t ) R (t )
(8)
(9)
Again, this solution is valid only at the surface and its vicinity, but is important to take into
account the local surface curvature in the radial and vertical direction governing the
consolidation situation studied here. The above solution can be locally applied to the surface
position r as a function of (z,t).
s
86
rs ( z , t ) = rs ( z ,0) + u s,n ( z , t ) cos ( z , t )dt
(10)
Where:
= Inclination of the surface

From the above equation the advancement of the front can be calculated point by point in
space and iteratively in time, resulting in a model of the surface tension driven melt front
motion.
Particles touching the melting front are first heated and melted, e.g. according to Table 2,
followed by consolidation which is driven by surface tension forces that are in turn governed
by the surface curvature, according to Eq. (4). The calculated surface shape and motion is
shown in figure. 10 for four different grain sizes as a function of time.
Figure 10. Calculated heating and melting of powder grains of different diameter touched by the melting
front and subsequent smoothing of the droplets.
The black spheres correspond to the solid state and the percentage of the enthalpy consumed
related to the enthalpy required for melting is shown in each solid sphere, (refer also to Table
1). In the calculation the particles are assumed to have penetrated the melt by 20 % of their
radius, however, the sensitivity of this parameter is low. Note that wetting and liquid motion is
87

neglected in this calculation, based on the assumption that the speed of the process is governed
by inertia, i.e. by the acceleration of the melt.
It is probable that the melt front in contact with the substrate is covered in a disproportionate
number of larger particles because the smaller ones are much more rapidly absorbed into the
melt. As the melt moves through the powder bed it effectively coats itself in larger particles as
they have a longer residence time on the liquid surface. This type of melt surface, covered in
semi molten protrusions will not wet the substrate surface sufficiently to allow a strong bond or
weld to form. This sort of surface is typical of laser casting (see figure 2) and is equivalent to
the cladding process being interrupted at stage c of figure 7. In the case of laser cladding there
is sufficient time and heat available to produce a sound band (see figure 3a-d and figure 7d-f)
Figure 11 is a magnified photograph of the surface of a laser casting. The part of the surface
shown is that which was in contact with the substrate. This photograph supports the model
results presented in figure 10 as it demonstrates that the liquid surface was covered in partially
melted particles.
0,1 mm
Figure 11. The surface of a laser cast specimen (This surface was in contact with the substrate).
5 Conlusions
This analysis of melt solid interactions has helped to explain the following points about the
laser cladding and casting processes;
a) There is a wide parameter range over which dilution free cladding can be achieved by
the preplaced powder process. This is primarily due to the difference in thermal
conductivity of the powder bed and substrate.
b) If the process parameters are set outside the range mentioned above the result will be
either a dilute clad layer (see figure 3a) or a casting process (see figure 2) depending
on whether or not the power input to the process is increased or decreased.
c) The physics of powder particle melting by contact with a liquid pool makes it difficult
to achieve laser casting with a smooth surface.
88
6 Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the Swedish funding bodies VINNOVA
and SSF within the VINST programme.
7 References
1.
Powell, J. (1983). Laser Cladding, PhD-thesis, Imperial College of Science

and Technology
2.
Powell, J., Henry, P.S, Steen, W. M. (1988). Laser cladding with preplaced
powder. Analysis of thermal cycling and dilution effects. Surface Engineering,
Vol.4 no.2, pp. 141-149
3.
Riabkina- Fishman, M., Zahavi, J. (1996). Laser alloying and cladding for
improving surface properties. Applied Surface Science, Vol. 106, no. 1-4, pp.
263-267
4.
Yellup, JM. (1995). Laser Cladding using the powder blowing technique.
Surface Coating Technology, Vol 71. no. 2, pp 121-128
5.
Steen, W. M. Laser Material Processing. (1998). Laser surface treatment.

Springer-Verlag, London. Second edition, ISBN 3-540-76174-8, pp. 199-202
6.
Powell, J., Gedda, H., Kaplan, A. (2002). Laser Casting and Laser Clad
Casting: New processes for rapid prototyping and productionn. Conf. Proc.
(ICALEO) Scottsdale, AR, 14-17 October 2002
7.
Kaplan, A. F. H. and G. Groboth. (2001) Process analysis of laser beam

cladding, Transactions of the ASME: Journal of Manufacturing Science and
Engineering, Vol. 123, pp. 609-61
8.
Kaplan, A. F. H., G. Liedl, J. Zimmermann and D. Schucker. (1998). Laser

dispersing of TiC-powder into Al-substrates, Lasers in Engineering, Vol. 7, no.
3-4, pp. 165-178
9.
Carslaw, H. S., Jaeger, J. C. (1959). Conduction of Heat in Solids (Oxford,

Clarendon), pp. 258-259 and pp. 338-339
10.
Kaplan, A. F. H. (1997). Surface processing by non-Gaussian beams, Applied

Physics Letters, Vol. 70, no 2, pp 264-266
11.
Kaplan, A. F. H., Mizutani, M., Katayama, S., Matsunawa, A. (2002).

Unbounded keyhole collapse and bubble formation during pulsed laser
interaction with liquid zinc, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, Vol. 35, no.
11, pp. 1218-1228
12.
Rayleigh, L. (1917). Philos. Mag. Vol. 34, pp. 94-98
89

13.
Plesset, M. S., Zwick, A. (1954). Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 25,

pp. 493-500
14.
Florschuetz, L. W., Chao, B. T. (1965). Transactions of the ASME, Journal of

Heat Transformation, Vol. 87, pp. 209-220
15.
Legendre, D., Bore, J., Magnaudet, J. (1998). Physics of Fluids, Vol. 10, pp.
1256-1272
16.
Picasso, M., Marsden, C. F., Wagnire, J. D., Frenk, A. Rappaz, M. (1994). A

simple but realistic model for laser cladding, Metallurgical Transactions B, Vol.
25B, no. 2, pp. 281-291.
17.
Kaplan, A. F. H., Groboth, G. (2001). Process analysis of laser beam cladding.

Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering,
Vol. 123, pp. 609-614
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Laser Cladding: An Experimental

Lule University of Technology

This thesis is dedicated to my family

I: Introduction to laser cladding

Chapter II: Energy Redistribution in Laser Cladding: A comparison of

Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A.: Conference proceedings

Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A.: Conference proceedings

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

1 Introduction to laser cladding

Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of laser cladding process.

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Figure 2. Schematic of the overlapping cladding process [4].

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Improved corrosion resistance

Repairing turbine parts, moulds, tools etc

Building up complex geometries

Figure 4. Laser clad parts.

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Figure 5. Cladding on turbine blade.

Figure 6. Laser clad chopping tool for the wood industry.

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

3. Summary of the chapters

(Power reflected off

(Power reflected off

Figure 1. The redistribution of laser power during the cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Figure 10. Schematic cross section.

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Interfacial melting between

Figure 11. Comparison of laser cladding and casting.

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Figure 14. Cross section of the clad cast

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Figure 16. Laser wire casting.

c) The cross section

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Laser power 3kW

Laser power 3kW

Figure 17. A selection of results of the side contact mould laser

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

18 a) The powder filled mould

18b) After successful

Figure 18. The use of a net shape mould to

19a) Before laser melting

19b) After laser melting

Figure 19. Casting with wires imbedded in

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

3.5 Chapter 6. Melt-Solid Interactions in laser cladding and laser casting

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

(0,1 m/min) (0,2 m/min)(0,9 m/min)(2,1 m/min)(3,3 m/min)(3,8m/min)

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

H.Gedda: Chapter I-Introduction to Laser Cladding

Energy, Particle Distribution [a.u.]

Figure 24. Melt-substrate contact history in cross section.

Particle Diameter [um]

H.Gedda*, J.Powell+, G.Wahlstrm**, W-B. Li, H.Engstrm,

H.Gedda, J.Powell+, A.Kaplan.