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OVERVIEW
Objectives
Upon completion of this continuing nursing education activity, the participant should be
able to:
1. Define hypothermia.
2. Distinguish the phases of unplanned perioperative hypothermia.
3. Identify the common patient complications associated with unintended
perioperative hypothermia as documented in the literature.
4. Describe the clinical and economic benefits of maintaining normothermia
throughout a patients surgical experience.
5. Discuss the role of intraoperative irrigation fluid warming in hypothermia
prevention.
INTENDED AUDIENCE
This continuing education activity is intended for nurses and other health care personnel
who are interested in learning more about the role of intraoperative irrigation fluid warming
in preventing unplanned perioperative hypothermia.
CREDIT/CREDIT INFORMATION
AST Credit
This continuing education activity is approved for 3.0 CE credits by the Association of
Surgical Technologists, Inc. for continuing education for the Certified Surgical Technologist
and Certified Surgical First Assistant. This recognition does not imply that AST approves or
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This continuing education activity was planned and provided in accordance with accreditation
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April 2015 without being updated; therefore, this continuing education activity expires in April
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Julia A. Kneedler, RN, MS, EdD
Director of Education
Pfiedler Enterprises
Aurora, CO
Aurora, CO
Aurora, CO
Elizabeth, CO
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INTRODUCTION
Maintaining normal body temperature (ie, a core body temperature in the range of 36C
to 38C [96.8F to 100.4F]1) throughout all phases of a patients surgical experience is
a critical aspect of care for the perioperative nurse. One of the expected outcomes for
all patients undergoing surgical or invasive procedures is that they are at or returning
to normothermia at the conclusion of the immediate postoperative period.2 However,
unintended or unplanned perioperative hypothermia, defined as a core temperature
below 36C (96.8F), is one of the most common complications associated with surgical
intervention, with an incidence of up to 20%.3 The untoward effects of unintended
hypothermia and the benefits of maintaining normothermia are well documented in
the literature. Therefore, perioperative nurses should understand the importance of
maintaining normothermia in all surgical patients and implement effective measures to
prevent hypothermia and its associated adverse effects; intraoperative irrigation fluid
warming is one measure that plays a key role in achieving this outcome.
Surgical site infections (SSIs) and impaired wound infections are common and serious
complications of anesthesia and surgery.22 Today, SSIs are important clinical concerns.
According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in 2002
an estimated 14 million operative procedures were performed in the U.S. SSIs have
been identified as the second most common healthcare-associated infection (HAI), as
they account for 17% of all HAIs in hospitalized patients.23 A similar rate was obtained
from hospitals reporting data for 2006-2008 (15,862 SSIs following 830,748 operative
procedures) with an overall rate of nearly 2%. While advances have been made in
infection control practices, SSIs remain a substantial cause of morbidity and mortality
among hospitalized patients. In one study, among the approximately 100,000 HAIs
reported in one year, SSIs were associated with deaths in over 8,000 cases.24
It is estimated that SSIs increase postoperative hospitalization by an average of four
days and result in an increased attributable cost of $8,00025 to $25,00026 for each patient.
Hypothermia may contribute to perioperative wound infections in two ways. First, cooler
temperatures may directly impair neutrophil function; second, hypothermia may also
trigger thermoregulatory vasoconstriction.27 The subsequent reduction in cutaneous
blood flow results in subcutaneous tissue hypoxia and failure of humoral immune defense
systems to reach target areas to fight infection.
Vasoconstriction-induced tissue hypoxia may also impair wound healing.28 Scar formation
requires hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues to allow cross-linking within and
between collagen strands to provide tensile strength. The hydroxylases catalyzing this
reaction depend on oxygen; because hypothermic vasoconstriction reduces the oxygen
supply to tissues, there is a decrease in collagen deposition.
An early study conducted by Kurz, et al, examined 200 patients undergoing colorectal
surgery. The patients were randomly assigned to routine intraoperative thermal care
(ie, the hypothermia group) or additional warming (ie, the normothermia group); the
patients anesthetic care was standardized.29 In a double-blind protocol, their wounds
were evaluated daily until discharge from the hospital and subsequently in the clinic
after two weeks. Wounds containing culture-positive pus were considered infected. The
mean final intraoperative core temperature was 34.7C 0.6C in the hypothermia
group and 36.6C 0.5C in the normothermia group. Surgical wound infections were
found in 18 of 96 (19%) patients in the hypothermia group, but in only six of 104 (6%)
patients in the normothermia group. In addition, suture removal was delayed by one day
in the hypothermia patients and their duration of hospital stay was prolonged by 2.6 days
(approximately 20%). The authors concluded that hypothermia itself may delay healing
and predispose patients to wound infections; maintaining normothermia intraoperatively
is likely to reduce the incidence of infectious complications in patients undergoing
colorectal resection and shorten their hospital stay.
Melling, et al, also demonstrated the benefits of warming patients to reduce the incidence
of wound infection.30 In this study, 421 patients having clean surgical procedures (eg,
breast, varicose vein, or hernia) were randomly assigned to either a non-warmed (the
10
standard) group or one of two warmed groups (either local or systemic). Warming was
applied for at least 30 minutes prior to surgery. The results of this study showed 19
wound infections in 139 non-warmed patients (14%) but only 13 in the 277 patients
who received warming (5%). There was no significant difference in the development
of hematomas or seromas postoperatively, but patients in the non-warmed group were
prescribed significantly more postoperative antibiotics. The authors concluded that
warming patients before clean surgery appears to aid the prevention of postoperative
wound infection.
More recently, Hedrick, et al, who previously reported a 26% incidence of SSI in
patients undergoing elective colorectal resection, examined the effect of implementing
a multidisciplinary wound management protocol that addressed several risk
factors, including hypothermia, in reducing the incidence of SSI.31 The protocol
included maintenance of intraoperative normothermia (>36C [96.8F]) on patients
undergoing elective colorectal resection; the results were compared to baseline prior
to implementation of the protocol. The results demonstrated that compliance with
normothermia increased from 64% to 71%; the incidence of SSI fell from 25.6% to
15.9%. The authors concluded that, after implementation of a multidisciplinary woundmanagement protocol, the incidence of SSI improved 39%. These results demonstrate
that compliance with a prospectively designed protocol for perioperative care can
effectively reduce operative morbidity in patients undergoing colorectal procedures.
Hannan, et al, performed a retrospective study of 2,294 patients who underwent off-pump
coronary artery bypass grafting to determine predictors of hypothermia and hyperthermia,
and the impact of hypothermia and hyperthermia on postoperative outcomes for off-pump
coronary artery bypass grafting.32 The patients were classified as moderately to severely
hypothermic (34.5C), mildly hypothermic (34.6C to 35.9C), or mildly hyperthermic
(37.5C to 38.8C) after leaving the operating room. Significant independent predictors
of these temperature states and the independent impact of each of these states on
in-hospital mortality and complications were identified. The results showed that a total of
37.7% of patients were mildly hypothermic, 9.0% of patients were moderately to severely
hypothermic, and 5.6% of patients were mildly hyperthermic. Significant independent
predictors for postoperative hypothermia included older age, female gender, lower body
surface area, congestive heart failure, higher ventricular function, non-Hispanic ethnicity,
single/double-vessel disease, low postoperative hematocrit, previous cardiac surgery,
race other than white or black, and organ transplant. The patients with moderate to
severe hypothermia and those with mild hyperthermia had significantly higher riskadjusted in-hospital mortality than patients with normothermia. The patients with either
mild or moderate to severe hypothermia had significantly higher rates of respiratory
failure and unplanned surgical procedures. Patients with mild hyperthermia had a
significantly higher rate of respiratory failure than normothermic patients. The authors
concluded that it is important to maintain normal postsurgical core temperatures in
patients who have undergone cardiac surgery to minimize or avoid complications and
death.
11
An early randomized controlled trial conducted by Frank, et al, examined the relationship
between body temperature and morbid cardiac events (defined as unstable angina/
ischemia, cardiac arrest, or myocardial infarction) during the perioperative period.33 Three
hundred patients who either had documented coronary artery disease or were at high
risk for coronary disease undergoing non-cardiac (ie, abdominal, thoracic, or vascular)
procedures were assigned to the routine thermal care (ie, hypothermic) group or to the
additional supplemental warming care (ie, normothermic) group. The results showed
that the mean core temperature postoperatively was lower in the hypothermic group
(35.4C 0.1C) than in the normothermic group (36.7C 0.1C) and remained lower
during the early postoperative period. Perioperative morbid cardiac events occurred less
frequently in the normothermic group than in the hypothermic group (1.4% versus 6.3%,
respectively). Hypothermia was an independent predictor of morbid cardiac events, ie,
there was a 55% reduction in risk when normothermia was maintained. Postoperative
ventricular tachycardia also occurred less frequently in the normothermic group than in
the hypothermic group (2.4% versus 7.9%, respectively). The authors concluded that in
patients with cardiac risk factors who are undergoing noncardiac surgery, maintaining
perioperative normothermia is associated with a decrease in the incidence of morbid
cardiac events and ventricular tachycardia.
By decreasing drug metabolism, even mild hypothermia can lead to delayed awakening
and a prolonged length of stay in the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU).34,35 Hypothermia
alters the effects of several classes of drugs, including muscle relaxants, volatile agents,
and intravenous anesthetic agents.36,37 Both hepatic and renal blood flow are diminished
in patients with mild hypothermia, which in turn decreases metabolism and drug
excretion, respectively; this results in a decrease in plasma clearance and an increase in
drug effects.38
12
Cost Savings
(high end)
$117.60
$229.43
Plasma (units)
$71.50
$76.90
Platelets (units)
$33.07
$38.07
$1,534.00
$4,602.00
$104.75
$314.25
Wound infections
$545.40
$1,696.80
Myocardial infarction
$67.67
$90.23
Mechanical ventilation
$16.05
$25.68
$2,495.11
$7,073.55
After mortality
$2,412.57
$6,839.55
Outcome
Prevention Initiatives
These additional costs of care associated with adverse patient events have significant
economic consequences as health care facilities face increasing pressure from various
initiatives to improve the quality and safety of patient care.
As of 2009, hospitals are no longer reimbursed by the Centers for Medicare and
Medicaid Services (CMS) for additional costs of care associated with certain hospitalacquired conditions, including some SSIs which CMS deems as preventable.41 The
acute-care Inpatient Prospective Payment System final rule, which updated Medicare
payments to hospitals for fiscal year 2009, provided additional incentives for health care
facilities to improve the quality of care provided to Medicare patients by the inclusion
of payment provisions to reduce preventable medical errors. In particular, if certain
conditions are not present upon admission, but are acquired during the course of the
patients hospital stay, Medicare no longer pays the additional costs of the hospitalization
and care; in addition, the patient is not responsible for these costs and cannot be billed.
Many private insurers followed this payment policy. CMS issued a final rule that updated
fiscal year 2012 payment policies and rates for hospitals on August 1, 2011, as part of
the 2010 Affordable Care Act. This rule continues the payment approach that incentivizes
hospitals to adopt practices that reduces errors and prevents patients from acquiring new
illnesses or injuries during a hospital stay.42
As noted above, SSIs are common healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) today
and represent one of the leading causes of postoperative morbidity and mortality and
additional unplanned costs of care. Therefore, the Surgical Care Improvement Project
(SCIP), sponsored by CMS in collaboration with a number of other national partners,
13
continues to focus on measures to reduce SSIs.43 The 2013 National Prevention Target
is 95% adherence to process measures that prevent SSI, eg, appropriate prophylactic
antibiotic administration and discontinuation; postoperative serum glucose level for
cardiac surgery patients, and hair removal for surgery patients. Preventing HAIs and
SSIs also continues to be a focus of The Joint Commission.44 Goal seven of the 2013
Joint Commission National Patient Safety Goals is to reduce the risk of HAIs and SSIs
by compliance with current hand hygiene guidelines and implementing evidence-based
prevention practices.
Two professional nursing organizations support the use of warmed irrigation solutions to
prevent unintended perioperative hypothermia.
The Association of periOperative Registered Nurses (AORN) Recommended
Practices for the Prevention of Unplanned Perioperative Hypothermia47 state
that interventions should be implemented to prevent unplanned perioperative
hypothermia. These recommendations include the use of warmed irrigation fluid
(near 37C [98.6F]) inside the abdomen, pelvis, or thorax as an adjunct therapy
to reduce heat loss. When using warmed irrigation fluids, to prevent patient injury,
the temperature of the solution should be measured with a thermometer at the
point of use and verified prior to instillation.
The American Society of PeriAnesthesia Nurses (ASPAN) Evidence-Based
Clinical Practice Guideline for the Promotion of Perioperative Normothermia48
also cites there is evidence that warmed irrigation fluids, when used alone or in
combination with forced-air warming, may maintain normothermia.
The benefits of using warmed irrigation fluids in preventing hypothermia across multiple
surgical specialties are also well documented in clinical literature.
Recently, Jin, et al, conducted a systematic review of randomized controlled trials to
establish whether warmed irrigation fluid temperature could reduce the drop in body
temperature and the incidence of shivering and hypothermia in patients undergoing
endoscopic procedures; this review included 13 studies with 686 patients.49 The results
demonstrated that the use of room temperature irrigation fluid caused a greater drop in
14
core body temperature in patients, compared to the use of warmed irrigation fluid. The
occurrence of shivering and hypothermia was also lower in the patients who received
warmed irrigation fluid than those patients who received room temperature fluid. The
investigators concluded that in endoscopic surgical procedures, irrigation fluid should be
warmed in order to decrease the drop in core body temperature and reduce the risk of
perioperative shivering and hypothermia; furthermore, warming irrigating fluid should be
considered standard practice in all endoscopic surgeries.
Mirza, et al, conducted a prospective observational study of 100 patients undergoing
various types of endoscopic urological procedures (eg, cystoscopies, transurethral
resection of the prostate [TURP], transurethral resection of a bladder tumor [TURBT]
percutaneous nephrolithotomy [PCNL]) to determine the temperature difference
between preoperative and postoperative core temperatures and also to establish if this
change was related to patient age, weight, type of anesthetic, type and duration of the
procedure, amount of irrigation fluid used, and if warming the irrigation fluid to 37C
made a difference in the degree of core temperature change.50 The highest degree of
temperature drop was seen in the patients in the PCNL group. There was a significant
relationship between the duration of the procedure and the temperature drop and also
the amount of irrigation fluid used. The mean temperature drop for patients who received
irrigation fluid at room temperature (43 patients) was 1.37C and 0.95C for those
patients who received fluids that were warmed to body temperature (57 patients). This
temperature difference is statistically significant. These authors concluded that there
is a decrease in temperature in patients undergoing most genitourinary endoscopic
procedures; the cause appears to be multifactorial in origin, relating significantly to
weight, amount of irrigation fluid used, and the type and duration of the operation.
Warming irrigation fluid to body temperature appears to significantly reduce the degree of
core temperature drop and consequently has potential benefits.
Kim, et al, evaluated the effect of irrigation fluid temperature on body temperature and
other variables in a prospective randomized study of 50 patients undergoing arthroscopic
shoulder surgery who received irrigation fluid either at room temperature or warmed to
37C to 39C.51 Core body temperature was checked at regular intervals and additional
variables, such as length of anesthesia and surgery, amount of irrigation fluid and
intravenous fluid used, amount of bleeding, weight gain, and postoperative pain were
collected intraoperatively and postoperatively. The results demonstrated that the final
core body temperature was 35.5C 0.3C in the room temperature fluid group and
36.2C 0.3C in the warmed fluid group. The temperature drop was 0.86C 0.2C
in the room temperature fluid group and 0.28C 0.2C in the warmed fluid group.
Hypothermia occurred in 91.3% of patients in the room temperature fluid group; whereas
the incidence of hypothermia was only 17.4% in the warmed fluid group. Of the variables
measured, the patients age and amount of irrigation fluid used correlated with core body
temperature in the room temperature fluid group; no variables correlated with core body
temperature in the warmed fluid group. The authors concluded that hypothermia occurred
more often in shoulder arthroscopic surgery when room temperature fluid is used for
irrigation than with warmed fluid irrigation. The patients age and amount of irrigation
fluid used correlate with core body temperature when using room temperature irrigation
15
fluid. The use of warm irrigation fluid during arthroscopic shoulder surgery decreases
perioperative hypothermia, especially in elderly patients.
An earlier study conducted by Board and Srinivasan designed to investigate the
relationship between irrigation fluid temperature and core body temperature in patients
undergoing arthroscopic shoulder surgery demonstrated similar results.52 Twentyfour consecutive patients undergoing arthroscopic subacromial decompression were
assigned to receive irrigation fluid at either room temperature (22C) or warmed to 36C.
There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in any of the
preoperative parameters. Core temperature was monitored throughout the procedure; the
maximum drop in core temperature for each patient was calculated. The results showed
that the mean maximum drop in core temperature was 1.67C in the room temperature
fluid group and 0.33C in the warmed fluid group. Additionally, the drop in core
temperature in the room temperature fluid group persisted throughout surgery and only
normalized postoperatively; however, the drop in the warmed fluid group was transient,
with core body temperature stabilizing after 30 minutes in most cases. Two patients in
the room temperature fluid group were noted to suffer from severe shivering during the
immediate postoperative period. The authors concluded that, since core temperature
may be affected by the temperature of the irrigation fluid, all arthroscopic shoulder
surgeries should be performed with irrigation fluid warmed to 36C.
When using warmed irrigation solution, it is important that it is at the right temperature
at the time of use during the surgical procedure (see Figure 1) to minimize the risk for
patient injury.
Risks to patient safety can occur when irrigation fluid is either colder (risk of low core
temperatures and hypothermia) or too hot (risk of patient burn, tissue damage).
1 Patient
Associated
Irrigation
Temperature
FigureFigure
1 Patient
RisksRisks
Associated
WithWith
Irrigation
FluidFluid
Temperature
Normothermia
Risk of Hypothermia
There are three methods for warming irrigation fluid. Each of these is described in greater detail below
1. Saline bottles in a cabinet warmer,
16
2. Closed fluid warming systems, and
There are three methods for warming irrigation fluid. Each of these is described in greater
detail below:
1. Saline bottles in a cabinet warmer,
2. Closed fluid warming systems, and
3. Open basin active warming systems.
1. Saline bottles in a cabinet warmer (see Figure 2). Solution bottles for irrigation
and blankets should be stored in separate warming cabinets. ECRI recommends
that the temperature of solution warming cabinets should be limited to 110F
(43.3C), as temperatures above this level unnecessarily increase the risk of
burns and pose a patient safety risk.54 AORN recommends that the solutionwarming cabinet temperatures should be limited to the specifications provided
by the solution manufacturer; additionally, the cabinet temperature should
be routinely monitored and documented on a temperature log or on a record
provided by an electronic recording system, according to facility policy.55
However, storing saline bottles in a warming cabinet is not really that simple.
Because irrigation fluid is considered a medication and saline has a limited
lifespan once placed in the warmer, the solution bottles must be labeled and
rotated in the cabinet. Some of the specific guidelines are:
Limit storage of bottles from three to 30 days at elevated temperature,
depending on the saline brand;
Label each bottle with an expiration date and discard after this date; and
Do not put bottles back into cabinet after they are already warmed.
The AORN Recommended Practices also state that fluids kept in warmers should
be labeled with the date they should be removed or the date on which they are
placed in the warmer; solutions should be rotated on a first-in, first-out basis.56
17
Another concern with this method is that even bottles taken from a warming
cabinet cool down quickly over time. It takes approximately seven minutes for a
bottle of fluid to cool down to room temperature after it has been taken from the
cabinet warmer. In addition, fluids that are too hot can risk injury, and those that
are too cold can risk hypothermia. Therefore, there is a very short time window of
five to seven minutes during which the fluid temperature is appropriate for use.
2. Closed irrigation fluid warming systems (see Figure 3). This type of system
warms the fluid as it is being delivered to the patient. Its advantages include:
Closed irrigation systems are typically used when using large volumes of solution,
and delivery of the fluid must be under pressure to deliver precise volumes to
a small surgical site, as with laparoscopic surgeries. Unlike open fluid warming
systems, the method of closed irrigation systems do not allow cleaning the
surgical site or tissues with sponges, or washing the surgical site using a basin,
graduate, or container filled with fluid.
18
Considerations for use include that this type of system is typically used for
procedures requiring large volumes of fluid or laparoscopic procedures; single
patient use tubing sets are required; and regular maintenance and/or calibration
of equipment may be required.
3. Open irrigation fluid warming system (see Figure 4). An open irrigation fluid
warming system warms the fluid in an open basin, similar in practice to an open
basin on a ring stand, only the warming system provides immediate access to
warm irrigation fluid within the sterile field at a visible and controlled temperature.
The visible display confirms the temperature of the fluid at the time of
delivery of the fluid to the patient. This eliminates the guesswork of nurses
and surgeons trying to determine the right temperature of the fluid with
their hands.
The temperature setting can be adjusted and locked with an accuracy of
2F.
Immediate access to continuously warmed irrigation fluid, at a verifiable
temperature, is superior to using fluid warmed in a cabinet, as this practice
reduces the risk of patient burns from hot solutions or the risk of inadvertent
hypothermia from solutions that have cooled down.
An early study by Harioka, et al, showed that the use of a continuously
warmed irrigation system could prevent a decrease in body
temperature in patients undergoing transurethral resection of bladder
and prostate tumors under spinal anesthesia.58
A case report of an accidental burn during routine knee arthroscopy
due to use of hot irrigation fluid suggested that the temperature of any
warmed arthroscopic irrigation fluid should be checked before and
during its use, since a warming cabinet may have a wide range of
temperatures within it despite an external thermometer and possibly
an unreliable temperature setting mechanism.59
The perioperative nurse can control and document fluid temperature in the
sterile field, which assures optimal temperature in order to:
Minimize the risk for injury due to hot fluids;
Improve patient safety and outcomes (eg, reducing the risk for costly
SSIs);
Comply with the AORN recommendations for temperature control and
verification of fluid temperature before installation; and
Achieve the goals of CMS, SCIP, and The Joint Commission in
reducing SSIs.
Considerations for use include that the system needs to be started during room
set up and covered with sterile drapes, as seen in Figure 4.
The key advantages and considerations for use of the three fluid warming
methods are summarized in Table 2.
20
Considerations
21
SUMMARY
22
GLOSSARY
Ambient Temperature
Conduction
Convection
Evaporation
Healthcare-Associated
Infection (HAI)
Hypothermia
Mild Hypothermia
Normothermia
Radiation
Redistribution Hypothermia
Unintended Perioperative
Hypothermia
24
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31. Hedrick TL, Heckman JA, Smith RL, Sawyer RG, Friel CM, Foley EF. Efficacy of
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36. Leslie K, Sessler DI, Bjorksten AR, Moayeri A. Mild hypothermia alters propofol
37. Heier T, Caldwell JE, Sessler DI, Miller RD. Mild intraoperative hypothermia
41. CMS. Medicare and Medicaid move aggressively to encourage greater patient
42. HAI focus. CMS issues Medicare final payment rule; strengthens tie between
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http://www.hhs.gov/ash/initiatives/hai/nationaltargets/index.html#scip. Accessed
January 10, 2013.
44. The Joint Commission. National Patient Safety Goals. Effective January 1, 2013.
http://www.jointcommission.org/assets/1/18/NPSG_Chapter_Jan2013_HAP.pdf.
Accessed January 10, 2013.
45. Hooper VD, Chard R, Clifford T, et al. ASPANs evidence-based clinical practice
guideline for the promotion perioperative normothermia. J PeriAnesth Nurs.
2009;24(5):271-287.
27
48. Hooper VD, Chard R, Clifford T, et al. ASPANs evidence-based clinical practice
guideline for the promotion of perioperative normothermia. J Perianesth Nurs.
2009:24(5):271-287.
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