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Cognitivedissonance
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inpsychology,cognitivedissonanceisthementalstressordiscomfortexperiencedbyanindividualwho
holdstwoormorecontradictorybeliefs,ideas,orvaluesatthesametime,performsanactionthatis
contradictorytooneormorebeliefs,ideasorvalues,orisconfrontedbynewinformationthatconflictswith
existingbeliefs,ideas,orvalues.[1][2]
LeonFestinger'stheoryofcognitivedissonancefocusesonhowhumansstriveforinternalconsistency.An
individualwhoexperiencesinconsistency(dissonance)tendstobecomepsychologicallyuncomfortable,
andismotivatedtotrytoreducethisdissonanceaswellasactivelyavoidsituationsandinformation
likelytoincreaseit.[1]

Contents
1 Relationshipbetweencognitions
1.1 Magnitudeofdissonance
2 Reducing
3 Theoryandresearch
3.1 Beliefdisconfirmationparadigm
3.2 Inducedcomplianceparadigm
3.3 Freechoiceparadigm
3.4 Effortjustificationparadigm
4 Examples
4.1 "TheFoxandtheGrapes"
4.2 Otherrelatedphenomena
5 Applicationsofresearch
5.1 Education
5.2 Therapy
5.3 Promotinghealthyandprosocialbehavior
5.4 Consumerbehavior

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5.4 Consumerbehavior
5.5 Socialengineering
6 Challengesandalternativetheories
6.1 Selfperceptiontheory(Bem)
6.2 Balancetheory("POX"Theory)(Heider)
6.3 Costbenefitanalysis(Dupuit)
6.4 Selfdiscrepancytheory(Higgins)
6.5 Averseconsequencesvs.inconsistency(Cooper&Fazio)
6.6 Freechoiceparadigmcriticism(Chenetal.)
6.7 Actionand/ormotivationbasedmodel(HarmonJones)
7 Neurosciencefindings
8 Modelinginneuralnetworks
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

Relationshipbetweencognitions
Individualscanadjusttheirattitudesoractionsinvariousways.Adjustmentsresultinoneofthree
relationshipsbetweentwocognitionsorbetweenacognitionandabehavior.[1]
Consonantrelationship
Twocognitions/actionsthatareconsistentwithoneanother(e.g.,notwantingtogetintoxicatedwhile
out,thenorderingwaterinsteadofalcohol)
Irrelevantrelationship
Twocognitions/actionsthatareunrelatedtooneanother(e.g.,notwantingtogetintoxicatedwhile
out,thentyingyourshoes)
Dissonantrelationship
Twocognitions/actionsthatareinconsistentwithoneanother(e.g.,notwantingtogetintoxicated
whileout,thenconsumingalargequantityofalcohol)

Magnitudeofdissonance
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Theamountofdissonanceproducedbytwoconflictingcognitionsoractions(aswellasthesubsequent
psychologicaldistress)dependsontwofactors:
1.Theimportanceofcognitions:Themorethattheelementsarepersonallyvalued,thegreaterthe
magnitudeofthedissonantrelationship.
2.Ratioofcognitions:Theproportionofdissonanttoconsonantelements
Thepressuretoreducecognitivedissonanceisafunctionofthemagnitudeofthisdissonance.[1]

Reducing
Cognitivedissonancetheoryisfoundedontheassumptionthatindividualsseekconsistencybetweentheir
expectationsandtheirreality.Becauseofthis,peopleengageinaprocesscalleddissonancereductionto
bringtheircognitionsandactionsinlinewithoneanother.Thiscreationofuniformityallowsfora
lesseningofpsychologicaltensionanddistress.AccordingtoFestinger,dissonancereductioncanbe
achievedinfourways.[1]Inanexamplecasewhereapersonhasadoptedtheattitudethattheywillno
longereathighfatfood,buteatsahighfatdoughnut,thefourmethodsofreductionare:
1.Changebehaviororcognition("Iwillnoteatanymoreofthisdoughnut")
2.Justifybehaviororcognitionbychangingtheconflictingcognition("I'mallowedtocheateveryonce
inawhile")
3.Justifybehaviororcognitionbyaddingnewcognitions("I'llspend30extraminutesatthegymto
workthisoff")
4.Ignoreordenyanyinformationthatconflictswithexistingbeliefs("Thisdoughnutisnothighinfat")

Theoryandresearch
Mostoftheresearchoncognitivedissonancetakestheformofoneoffourmajorparadigms.Important
researchgeneratedbythetheoryhasbeenconcernedwiththeconsequencesofexposuretoinformation
inconsistentwithapriorbelief,whathappensafterindividualsactinwaysthatareinconsistentwiththeir
priorattitudes,whathappensafterindividualsmakedecisions,andtheeffectsofeffortexpenditure.Akey
tenetofcognitivedissonancetheoryisthatthosewhohaveheavilyinvestedinapositionmay,when
confrontedwithdisconfirmingevidence,gotogreaterlengthstojustifytheirposition.

Beliefdisconfirmationparadigm
Dissonanceisfeltwhenpeopleareconfrontedwithinformationthatisinconsistentwiththeirbeliefs.Ifthe
dissonanceisnotreducedbychangingone'sbelief,thedissonancecanresultinrestoringconsonance
throughmisperception,rejectionorrefutationoftheinformation,seekingsupportfromotherswhosharethe
beliefs,andattemptingtopersuadeothers.[3]
AnearlyversionofcognitivedissonancetheoryappearedinLeonFestinger's1956bookWhenProphecy
Fails.Thisbookgivesanaccountofthedeepeningofcultmembers'faithfollowingthefailureofacult's
prophecythataUFOlandingwasimminent.Thebelieversmetatapredeterminedplaceandtime,
believingtheyalonewouldsurvivetheEarth'sdestruction.Theappointedtimecameandpassedwithout
incident.Theyfacedacutecognitivedissonance:hadtheybeenthevictimofahoax?Hadtheydonated
theirworldlypossessionsinvain?Mostmemberschosetobelievesomethinglessdissonanttoresolve
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realitynotmeetingtheirexpectations:theybelievedthatthealienshadgivenEarthasecondchance,and
thegroupwasnowempoweredtospreadthewordthatEarthspoilingmuststop.Thegroupdramatically
increasedtheirproselytismdespite(becauseof)thefailedprophecy.[4]
AnotherexampleofthebeliefdisconfirmationparadigmisanorthodoxJewishgroupthatin1994believed
thattheirhighestrankingJewishRabbimightbetheMessiah.WhentheRabbidiedofastroke,insteadof
acceptingthathewasnottheMessiah,someofthemconcludedthathewasstilltheMessiahbutwould
soonberesurrectedfromthedead.[5]Somehavesuggestedthesameprocessmightexplainthebelieftwo
thousandyearsagothatJesuswasresurrectedfromthedead.[6]

Inducedcomplianceparadigm
InFestingerandCarlsmith'sclassic1959experiment,studentswereaskedtospendanhouronboringand
tedioustasks(e.g.,turningpegsaquarterturn,overandoveragain).Thetasksweredesignedtogeneratea
strong,negativeattitude.Oncethesubjectshaddonethis,theexperimentersaskedsomeofthemtodoa
simplefavour.Theywereaskedtotalktoanothersubject(actuallyanactor)andpersuadetheimpostorthat
thetaskswereinterestingandengaging.Someparticipantswerepaid$20(equivalentto$162inpresent
dayterms[7])forthisfavour,anothergroupwaspaid$1(equivalentto$8inpresentdayterms[7]),anda
controlgroupwasnotaskedtoperformthefavour.
Whenaskedtoratetheboringtasksattheconclusionofthestudy
(notinthepresenceoftheother"subject"),thoseinthe$1group
ratedthemmorepositivelythanthoseinthe$20andcontrolgroups.
ThiswasexplainedbyFestingerandCarlsmithasevidencefor
cognitivedissonance.Theresearcherstheorizedthatpeople
experienceddissonancebetweentheconflictingcognitions,"Itold
someonethatthetaskwasinteresting",and"Iactuallyfoundit
boring."Whenpaidonly$1,studentswereforcedtointernalizethe
attitudetheywereinducedtoexpress,becausetheyhadnoother
justification.Thoseinthe$20condition,however,hadanobvious
externaljustificationfortheirbehaviour,andthusexperiencedless
dissonance.[8]
Insubsequentexperiments,analternativemethodofinducing
dissonancehasbecomecommon.Inthisresearch,experimentersuse
counterattitudinalessaywriting,inwhichpeoplearepaidvarying
amountsofmoney(e.g.,$1or$10)forwritingessaysexpressing
opinionscontrarytotheirown.Peoplepaidonlyasmallamountof
moneyhavelessexternaljustificationfortheirinconsistency,and
mustproduceinternaljustificationtoreducethehighdegreeof
dissonancetheyexperience.
Avariantoftheinducedcomplianceparadigmistheforbiddentoy
paradigm.AnexperimentbyAronsonandCarlsmithin1963
examinedselfjustificationinchildren.[9]Inthisexperiment,
childrenwereleftinaroomwithavarietyoftoys,includinga
highlydesirabletoysteamshovel(orothertoy).Uponleavingthe
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Aftersomeonehasperformed
dissonantbehavior,theymayfind
externalconsonantelements.Asnake
oilsalesmanmayfindajustification
forpromotingfalsehoods(e.g.,large
personalgain),butmayotherwise
needtochangehisviewsaboutthe
falsehoodsthemselves.
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room,theexperimentertoldhalfthechildrenthattherewouldbeaseverepunishmentiftheyplayedwith
thatparticulartoyandtoldtheotherhalfthattherewouldbeamildpunishment.Allofthechildreninthe
studyrefrainedfromplayingwiththetoy.[9]Later,whenthechildrenweretoldthattheycouldfreelyplay
withwhatevertoytheywanted,theonesinthemildpunishmentconditionwerelesslikelytoplaywiththe
toy,eventhoughthethreathadbeenremoved.Thechildrenwhowereonlymildlythreatenedhadtojustify
tothemselveswhytheydidnotplaywiththetoy.Thedegreeofpunishmentbyitselfwasnotstrongenough
so,toresolvetheirdissonance,thechildrenhadtoconvincethemselvesthatthetoywasnotworth
playingwith.[9]
A2012studyusingaversionoftheforbiddentoyparadigmshowedthathearingmusicreducesthe
developmentofcognitivedissonance.[10]Withnomusicplayinginthebackground,thecontrolgroupof
fouryearoldchildrenweretoldtoavoidplayingwithaparticulartoy.Afterplayingalone,thechildren
laterdevaluedtheforbiddentoyintheirranking,whichissimilarfindingstoearlierstudies.However,in
thevariablegroup,classicalmusicwasplayedinthebackgroundwhilethechildrenplayedalone.Inthat
group,thechildrendidnotlaterdevaluethetoy.Theresearchersconcludedthatmusicmayinhibit
cognitionsthatresultindissonancereduction.[10]Musicisnottheonlyexampleofanoutsideforce
lesseningpostdecisionaldissonancea2010studyshowedthathandwashinghadasimilareffect.[11]

Freechoiceparadigm
InadifferenttypeofexperimentconductedbyJackBrehm,225femalestudentsratedaseriesofcommon
appliancesandwerethenallowedtochooseoneoftwoappliancestotakehomeasagift.Asecondroundof
ratingsshowedthattheparticipantsincreasedtheirratingsoftheitemtheychose,andloweredtheirratings
oftherejecteditem.[12]
Thiscanbeexplainedintermsofcognitivedissonance.Whenmakingadifficultdecision,therearealways
aspectsoftherejectedchoicethatonefindsappealingandthesefeaturesaredissonantwithchoosing
somethingelse.Inotherwords,thecognition,"IchoseX"isdissonantwiththecognition,"Therearesome
thingsIlikeaboutY."Morerecentresearchhasfoundsimilarresultsinfouryearoldchildrenandcapuchin
monkeys.[13]
Inadditiontointernaldeliberations,thestructuringofdecisionsamongotherindividualsmayplayarolein
howanindividualacts.Researchersina2010studyexaminedsocialpreferencesandnormsasrelated,ina
linearmanner,towagegivingamongthreeindividuals.Thefirstparticipant'sactionsinfluencedthe
second'sownwagegiving.Theresearchersarguethatinequityaversionistheparamountconcernofthe
participants.[14]

Effortjustificationparadigm
Dissonanceisarousedwheneverindividualsvoluntarilyengageinanunpleasantactivitytoachievesome
desiredgoal.Dissonancecanbereducedbyexaggeratingthedesirabilityofthegoal.Aronson&Mills[15]
hadindividualsundergoasevereormild"initiation"tojoinagroup.Inthesevereinitiationcondition,the
individualsengagedinanembarrassingactivity.Thegrouptheyjoinedturnedouttobedullandboring.
Theindividualsinthesevereinitiationconditionevaluatedthegroupasmoreinterestingthanthe
individualsinthemildinitiationcondition(cf.sunkcosts).
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Alloftheaboveparadigmscontinuetobeusedinfruitfulresearch.
Washingone'shandshasbeenshowntoeliminatepostdecisionaldissonance,presumablybecausethe
dissonanceiscommonlycausedbymoraldisgust(withoneself),whichisrelatedtodisgustfromunsanitary
conditions.[16][17]

Examples
"TheFoxandtheGrapes"
Aclassicillustrationofcognitivedissonanceisexpressedinthefable
"TheFoxandtheGrapes"byAesop(ca.620564BC).Inthestory,a
foxseessomehighhanginggrapesandwishestoeatthem.Whenthe
foxisunabletothinkofawaytoreachthem,hedecidesthatthegrapes
areprobablynotwortheating,withthejustificationthegrapesprobably
arenotripeorthattheyaresour(hencethecommonphrase"sour
grapes").Themoralthataccompaniesthestoryis"Anyfoolcan
despisewhathecannotget".Thisexamplefollowsapattern:one
desiressomething,findsitunattainable,andreducesone'sdissonance
bycriticizingit.JonElstercallsthispattern"adaptivepreference
formation".[18]

Otherrelatedphenomena
Cognitivedissonancehasalsobeendemonstratedtooccurwhenpeople
seekto:
"TheFoxandtheGrapes"by
Explaininexplicablefeelings:Whenadisasteroccursina
Aesop.Whenthefoxfailsto
community,irrationallyfearfulrumorsspreadinnearby
reachthegrapes,hedecideshe
communitiesnotinvolvedinthedisasterbecauseoftheneedof
doesnotwantthemafterall.
thosewhoarenotthreatenedtojustifytheiranxieties[19]
Rationalization(makingexcuses)
Minimizeregretofirrevocablechoices:Bettorsataracetrackare
isofteninvolvedinreducing
moreconfidentintheirchosenhorsejustafterplacingthebet
anxietyaboutconflicting
becausetheycannotchangeit(thebettorsfelt"postdecision
cognitions,accordingtocognitive
dissonance").[20]
dissonancetheory.
Justifybehaviorthatopposedtheirviews:Studentsjudge
cheatinglessharshlyafterbeinginducedtocheatonatest.[21]
Alignone'sperceptionsofapersonwithone'sbehaviourtowardthatperson:theBenFranklineffect
referstothatstatesman'sobservationthattheactofperformingafavourforarivalleadstoincreased
positivefeelingstowardthatindividual.
Reaffirmalreadyheldbeliefs:Congenialitybias(alsoreferredtoasconfirmationbias)referstohow
peoplereadoraccessinformationthataffirmstheiralreadyestablishedopinions,ratherthan
referencingmaterialthatcontradictsthem.[22]Forexample,apersonwhoispoliticallyrightleaning
mightonlywatchnewscommentarythatisfromconservativenewssourcesjustasleftleaning
individualsmightonlywatchnewscommentaryfromprogressivenewssources.Thisbiasis
particularlyapparentwhensomeoneisfacedwithdeeplyheldbeliefs,i.e.,whenapersonhas'high
commitment'totheirattitudes.[22]
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Balancetheorysuggestspeoplehaveageneraltendencytoseekconsonancebetweentheirviews,andthe
viewsorcharacteristicsofothers(e.g.,areligiousbelievermayfeeldissonancebecausetheirpartnerdoes
nothavethesamebeliefsasheorshedoes,thusmotivatingthebelievertojustifyorrationalizethis
incongruence).Peoplemayselfhandicapsothatanyfailuresduringanimportanttaskareeasiertojustify
(e.g.,thestudentwhodrinksthenightbeforeanimportantexaminresponsetohisfearofperforming
poorly).

Applicationsofresearch
Inadditiontoexplainingcertaincounterintuitivehumanbehaviour,thetheoryofcognitivedissonancehas
practicalapplicationsinseveralfields.

Education
Creatingandresolvingcognitivedissonancecanhaveapowerful
impactonstudents'motivationforlearning.[23]Forexample,
researchershaveusedtheeffortjustificationparadigmtoincrease
students'enthusiasmforeducationalactivitiesbyofferingno
externalrewardforstudents'efforts:preschoolerswhocompleted
puzzleswiththepromiseofarewardwerelessinterestedinthe
puzzleslater,ascomparedtopreschoolerswhowereofferedno
rewardinthefirstplace.[24]Theresearchersconcludedthat
studentswhocanattributetheirworktoanexternalrewardstop
workingintheabsenceofthatreward,whilethosewhoare
forcedtoattributetheirworktointrinsicmotivationcametofind
thetaskgenuinelyenjoyable.

Aneducatormightintroducetopicsby
challengingstudents'intuitions.For
instance,astudentmaybemorewilling
tolearntherealcauseoftheseasonsafter
wronglyguessingthatithassomethingto
dowithchangesinthedistanceofEarth's
orbitfromtheSun.

Psychologistshaveincorporatedcognitivedissonanceinto
modelsofbasicprocessesoflearning,notablyconstructivist
models.Severaleducationalinterventionshavebeendesignedto
fosterdissonanceinstudentsbyincreasingtheirawarenessof
conflictsbetweenpriorbeliefsandnewinformation(e.g.,by
requiringstudentstodefendpriorbeliefs)andthenprovidingor
guidingstudentstonew,correctexplanationsthatresolvetheconflicts.[25]

Forexample,researchershavedevelopededucationalsoftwarethatusestheseprinciplestofacilitatestudent
questioningofcomplexsubjectmatter.[26]Metaanalyticmethodssuggestthatinterventionsthatprovoke
cognitivedissonancetoachievedirectedconceptualchangehavebeendemonstratedacrossnumerous
studiestosignificantlyincreaselearninginscienceandreading.[25]

Therapy
Thegeneraleffectivenessofpsychotherapyandpsychologicalinterventionhasbeenexplainedinpart
throughcognitivedissonancetheory.[27]Somesocialpsychologistshavearguedthattheactoffreely
choosingaspecifictherapy,togetherwiththeeffortandmoneytheclientinveststocontinuethechosen
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therapy,positivelyinfluencestheeffectivenessoftherapy.[28]Thisphenomenonwasdemonstratedina
studywithoverweightchildren,inwhichcausingthechildrentobelievethattheyfreelychosethetypeof
therapytheyreceivedresultedingreaterweightloss.[29]
Inanotherexample,individualswithophidiophobia(fearofsnakes)whoinvestedsignificanteffortto
engageinactivitieswithouttherapeuticvaluefortheircondition,butwereframedaslegitimateandrelevant
therapy,showedsignificantimprovementinphobicsymptoms.[30]Inthesecases,andperhapsinmany
similarsituations,patientscametofeelbetterasawaytojustifytheireffortsandratifytheirchoices.
Beyondtheseobservedshorttermeffects,effortexpenditureintherapyalsopredictslongtermtherapeutic
change.[31]

Promotinghealthyandprosocialbehavior
Ithasalsobeendemonstratedthatcognitivedissonancecanbeusedtopromotebehaviourssuchas
increasedcondomuse.[32]Otherstudiessuggestthatcognitivedissonancecanalsobeusedtoencourage
individualstoengageinprosocialbehaviourundervariouscontextssuchascampaigningagainst
littering,[33]reducingprejudicetoracialminorities,[34]andcompliancewithantispeedingcampaigns.[35]
Thetheorycanalsobeusedtoexplainreasonsfordonatingtocharity.[36][37]

Consumerbehavior
Existingliteraturesuggeststhatthreemainconditionsexistforarousalofdissonanceinpurchases:the
decisioninvolvedinthepurchasemustbeimportant,suchasinvolvementofalotofmoneyor
psychologicalcostandbepersonallyrelevanttotheconsumer,theconsumerhasfreedominselecting
amongthealternatives,andfinally,thedecisioninvolvementmustbeirreversible.[38]
AstudyperformedbyLindsayMallikinshowsthatwhenconsumersexperienceanunexpectedprice
encounter,theyadoptthreemethodstoreducedissonance:[39]Consumersmayemployastrategyof
constantinformation,theymayhaveachangeinattitude,ortheymayengageintrivialization.Consumers
employthestrategyofconstantinformationbyengaginginbiasandsearchingforinformationthatsupports
theirpriorbeliefs.Consumersmightsearchforinformationaboutotherretailersandsubstituteproducts
consistentwiththeirbeliefstates.Alternatively,consumersmayshowchangeinattitudesuchas
reevaluatingpriceinrelationtoexternalreferencepricesorassociatinghighorlowpriceswithquality.
Lastly,trivializationmayoccurandtheimportanceoftheelementsofthedissonantrelationshipisreduced
consumerstendtotrivializeimportanceofmoney,andthusofshoppingaround,saving,andreceivinga
betterdeal.
Cognitivedissonanceisalsousefultoexplainandmanagepostpurchaseconcerns.Aconsumerwhofeels
analternatepurchasewouldhavebeenbetterwilllikelynotbuytheproductagain.Tocounterthis,
marketershavetoconvincebuyersconstantlythattheproductsatisfiestheirneedandtherebyhelpsreduce
theircognitivedissonance,ensuringrepurchaseofthesamebrandinthefuture.Anexampleofpost
purchasedissonanceresolutionusedinaclientrelationisasalespersoncongratulatinghisbuyeron"having
madetherightchoice".

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Attimescognitivedissonanceisinduced,ratherthanresolved,tomarketproducts.TheHallmarkCardstag
line"Whenyoucareenoughtosendtheverybest"isanexampleofamarketingstrategythatcreatesguilt
inthebuyerifheorshegoesforalessexpensivecard.Suchaggressivemarketingensuresthattherecipient
alsoisawarethattheproducthasapremiumprice.Thisencouragestheconsumertobuytheexpensive
cardsonspecialoccasions.

Socialengineering
Socialengineeringasappliedtosecurityistheexploitationofvarioussocialandpsychologicalweaknesses
inindividualsandbusinessstructures,sometimesforpenetrationtestingbutmoreoftenfornefarious
purposes,suchasespionageagainstbusinesses,agencies,andindividuals,typicallytowardtheendof
obtainingsomeillegalgain,eitherofusefulbutrestrictedorprivateinformationorformonetarygain
throughsuchmethodsasphishingtoobtainbankingaccountaccess,orforpurposesofidentitytheft,
blackmail,andsoforth.Exploitationofweaknessescausedbyinducingcognitivedissonanceintargetsis
oneofthetechniquesusedbyperpetrators.

Challengesandalternativetheories
Whilecognitivedissonancetheoryhasbeenutilizedinexperimentsandis
generally(althoughnotentirely)acceptedbythoseinthepsychologyfield,
therearealternativetheoriesthataccountforhumanattitudesand
behaviors.

Selfperceptiontheory(Bem)
DarylBemwasanearlycriticofcognitivedissonancetheory.He
proposedselfperceptiontheoryasamoreparsimoniousalternative
explanationoftheexperimentalresults.AccordingtoBem,peopledonot
thinkmuchabouttheirattitudes,letalonewhethertheyareinconflict.
Bem'sselfperceptiontheoryfunctionsunderthenotionthatpeople
developattitudesbyobservingtheirownbehaviorandconcludingwhat
attitudescausedit.Thisisparticularlytruewheninternalcuesareweakor
ambiguous.Individualsareinthesamepositionasanobservermeaning
theymustrelyonexternalcuestoinfertheirowninnerstate.Self
perceptiontheorysuggestspeopleadoptattitudeswithoutaccessing
internalcognitionandmoodstates.[40]
BeminterpretedpeopleintheFestingerandCarlsmithstudyorthe
inducedcomplianceparadigmasinferringtheirattitudesfromtheir
behavior.Thus,whenasked"Didyoufindthetaskinteresting?"they
decidedthattheymusthavefounditinterestingbecausethatiswhatthey
toldsomeone.Bemsuggestedthatpeoplewhowerepaid$20hadasalient,
externalincentivefortheirbehaviorandwerelikelytoperceivethemoney
astheirreasonforsayingthetaskwasinteresting,ratherthanconcluding
thattheyactuallyfounditinteresting.[41][42]

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Alawyermayexperiencethe
negativetensionofdissonance
iftheymustdefend,andcall
"innocent",aclientthatthey
thinkisactuallyguilty.On
Aronson'sview,however,the
lawyermayfeeldissonance
specificallybecausefalsely
callingthedefendant
"innocent"conflictswiththe
lawyer'sownselfconceptof
beinganhonestperson.

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Inmanyexperimentalsituations,Bem'stheoryandFestinger'sdissonancetheorymakeidentical
predictions,butonlydissonancetheorypredictsthepresenceofunpleasanttensionorarousal.Lab
experimentshaveverifiedthepresenceofarousalindissonancesituations.[43][44]Thisprovidessupportfor
cognitivedissonancetheoryandmakesitunlikelythatselfperceptionbyitselfcanaccountforallthe
laboratoryfindings.
In1969,ElliotAronsonreformulatedthetheorybylinkingittotheselfconcept,clarifyingthatcognitive
dissonancearisesfromconflictsbetweencognitionswhenthoseconflictsthreatenaperson'snormally
positiveselfimage.Thus,AronsonreinterpretedthefindingsoftheoriginalFestingerandCarlsmithstudy
usingtheinducedcomplianceparadigm,statingthatthedissonancewasbetweenthecognition,"Iaman
honestperson"andthecognition,"Iliedtosomeoneaboutfindingthetaskinteresting."[45]Other
psychologistshavearguedthatmaintainingcognitiveconsistencyisawaytoprotectpublicselfimage,
ratherthanprivateselfconcept.[46]However,arecentresult[47]seemstoruleoutsuchanexplanationby
showingrevaluationofitemsfollowingachoiceevenwhenpeoplehaveforgottentheirchoices.

Balancetheory("POX"Theory)(Heider)
FritzHeiderproposedamotivationaltheoryofattitudechangethatfunctionsontheideathathumansare
driventoestablishandmaintainpsychologicalbalance.Thisdriveisknownastheconsistencymotivethe
urgetomaintainone'svaluesandbeliefsovertime.Accordingtobalancetheorytherearethreethings
interacting:(1)you(P),(2)anotherperson(O),and(3)anelement(X).Theseareeachpositionedatone
pointofatriangleandsharetworelations:[40]
1.Unitrelationsthingsandpeoplethatbelongtogetherbasedonsimilarity,proximity,fate,etc.
2.Sentimentrelationsevaluationsofpeopleandthings(liking,disliking)
Asindividuals,weseekabalancedstatewithharmoniousrelationsbetweenthethreepositions(3positive
or2negative,1positive):
P=you
O=John
X=John'sdog

"Idon'tlikeJohn"
"Johnhasadog"
"Idon'tlikethedogeither"
Wealsoavoidunbalancedstates(3negativesor2positive,1negative)
P=you
O=yourchild
X=pictureyourchilddrew

"Ilovemychild"
"Shedrewmethispicture"
"Ilovethispicture"

Costbenefitanalysis(Dupuit)
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JulesDupuitclaimsbehaviorsandcognitionscanbeunderstoodfromaneconomicstandpointsuchthat
individualsengageinthesystematicprocessingandcomparisonofthecostsandbenefitsofadecision.This
processhelpsjustifyandassessthefeasibilityofadecisionandprovidesabasisforcomparison
(determiningifthebenefitsoutweighthecostsandtowhatextent).Althoughthisanalysisworkswellin
economicsituations,humansareinefficientwhenitcomestocomparingcostsandbenefits.[48]

Selfdiscrepancytheory(Higgins)
E.ToryHigginsproposedthatindividualshavethreeselvesthattheycomparethemselvesto:
1.Actualselfrepresentationoftheattributesyoubelieveyouactuallypossess(basicselfconcept)
2.Idealselfattributesyouwouldideallyliketopossess(hopes,aspiration,whatmotivatesyouto
change/improve)
3.Oughtselfattributesyoubelieveyoushouldpossess(duties,obligations,responsibilities)
Whentheseselfguidesarecontradictorytheyresultinemotionaldiscomfort.Individualsaremotivatedto
reduceselfdiscrepancy(thegapbetweentwoselfguides).[49]

Averseconsequencesvs.inconsistency(Cooper&Fazio)
Duringthe1980s,CooperandFazioarguedthatdissonancewascausedbyaversiveconsequences,rather
thaninconsistency.Accordingtothisinterpretation,thebeliefthatlyingiswrongandhurtful,notthe
inconsistencybetweencognitions,iswhatmakespeoplefeelbad.[50]Subsequentresearch,however,found
thatpeopleexperiencedissonanceevenwhentheyfeeltheyhavenotdoneanythingwrong.Forexample,
HarmonJonesandcolleaguesshowedthatpeopleexperiencedissonanceevenwhentheconsequencesof
theirstatementsarebeneficialaswhentheyconvincesexuallyactivestudentstousecondoms,whenthey,
themselvesarenotusingcondoms.[51]

Freechoiceparadigmcriticism(Chenetal.)
Chenandcolleagueshavecriticizedthefreechoiceparadigmandhavesuggestedthatthe"Rank,choice,
rank"methodofstudyingdissonanceisinvalid.[52]Theyarguethatresearchdesignreliesontheassumption
thatifthesubjectratesoptionsdifferentlyinthesecondsurvey,thenthesubject'sattitudestowardsthe
optionshavethereforechanged.Theyshowthatthereareotherreasonsonemightgetdifferentrankingsin
thesecondsurveyperhapsthesubjectswerelargelyindifferentbetweenchoices.Althoughsomefollow
upstudieshavefoundsupportiveevidenceforChen'sconcerns,[53]otherstudiesthathavecontrolledfor
Chen'sconcernshavenot,insteadsuggestingthatthemereactofmakingachoicecanindeedchange
preferences.[13][54][55]Nevertheless,thisissueremainsunderactiveinvestigation.[56]

Actionand/ormotivationbasedmodel(HarmonJones)
Thismodelstatesthatinconsistenciesincognitionsmakepeopledistressedsinceinconsistenciescan
interferewithactions.Anumberofcognitivestrategiesarethenimplemented.Onemay"freely"chooseto
actinbehaviorsthatarenotconsistentwithacurrentattitudeorbelief,butlatertrytoaltertheirbeliefto
matchacurrentbehavior.Dissonanceoccursbecausecognitionsdonotmatchactions.Ifonechangesone's
attitudeafterdissonanceoccurs,onethenhasanobligationtocommittothebehavior.Whendissonance
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happens,thepersonhasanegativeaffectivestatethatmakesthemreconsidertheirbehaviortosolvethe
inconsistencythatistheproblem(BeckmannandKuhl,1984,HarmonJones,1999,HarmonJones,2000a,
JonesandGerard,1967,McGregoretal.,1999andNewbyClarketal.,2002).)Asapersonworkstowards
acommitment,thenthemotivationalprocessisactivatedintheleftfrontalcortex.[57][58][59][60][61]

Neurosciencefindings
Usingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI),Van
Veenandcolleaguesinvestigatedtheneuralbasisofcognitive
dissonanceinamodifiedversionoftheclassicinduced
complianceparadigm.Whileinthescanner,participants
"argued"thattheuncomfortableMRIenvironmentwas
neverthelessapleasantexperience.Theresearchersreplicated
thebasicinducedcompliancefindingsparticipantsinan
experimentalgroupenjoyedthescannermorethanparticipants
inacontrolgroupwhosimplywerepaidtomaketheir
argument.[62]
Importantly,respondingcounterattitudinallyactivatedthe
dorsalanteriorcingulatecortexandtheanteriorinsularcortex
furthermore,thedegreetowhichtheseregionswereactivated
predictedindividualparticipants'degreeofattitudechange.Van
Veenandcolleaguesarguethatthesefindingssupportthe
originaldissonancetheorybyFestinger,andsupportthe
"conflicttheory"ofanteriorcingulatefunctioning.[62]

Thereisevidencesuggestingthatthemore
theanteriorcingulatecortexsignals
conflict,themoredissonanceaperson
experiencesandthemoretheirattitudes
maychange.

Usingthefreechoiceparadigm,Sharotandcolleagueshaveshownthataftermakingachoice,activityin
thestriatumchangestoreflectthenewevaluationofthechoiceobject,increasingiftheobjectwaschosen
anddecreasingifitwasrejected.[63]Followupstudieshavelargelyconfirmedtheseresults.[54][64][65]
SubsequentfMRIstudies,alsousingthefreechoiceparadigm,haveexaminedthedecisionmakingprocess
inthebrain.A2010studyshowedthatduringdecisionmakingprocesseswheretheparticipantistryingto
reducedissonance,activityincreasedintherightinferiorfrontalgyrus,medialfrontoparietalregionand
ventralstriatum,whereasactivitydecreasedintheanteriorinsula.[65]Researchersconcludedthat
rationalizationactivitymaytakeplacequickly(withinseconds)withoutconsciousdeliberation.Inaddition,
theresearchersstatedthatthebrainmayengageemotionalresponsesinthedecisionmakingprocess.[65]
Cognitivedissonancehasbeenassociatedwithleftfrontalactivityinthecortex(HarmonJones,1999and
HarmonJonesandHarmonJones,2002).Inaddition,theleftfrontalcortexhasbeenassociatedwithanger,
withangersupportingamotivationalpurposebehinditsangershowingtheleftfrontalactivitybeingactive.
Together,cognitivedissonanceandangeraresupportedwiththemotivationaldirectionalmodel.Approach
motivationisassociatedwiththeleftfrontalcortexwhenitcanbedetectedthatapersonmayabletotake
controlofasituationthatmayhavemadethemangry.Conversely,ifapersondoesnothavecontrolof
changingthesituation,thenthereisnomotivationinvolvedandotheremotionsmayarise.[58][66][67]

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Theanteriorcingulatecortexactivityincreaseswhenerrorsoccurandarebeingmonitoredaswellas
havingbehavioralconflictswiththeselfconceptasaformofhigherlevelthinking(Amodioetal.,2004).
Astudywasdonetotestthepredictionthattheleftfrontalcortexwouldhaveincreasedactivity.University
studentshadtowriteapaperdependingoniftheywereassignedtoahighchoiceorlowchoicecondition.
Thelowchoiceconditionrequiredstudenttowriteaboutsupportinga10%increaseintuitionattheir
university.Thepointofthisconditionwastoseehowsignificantthecounterchoicemayaffectaperson
abilitytocope.Thehighchoiceconditionaskedstudentstowriteinfavoroftuitionincreaseasifitwas
theirchoiceandthatitwascompletelyvoluntary.EEGwasusedtoanalyzestudentsbeforewritingthe
essayasdissonanceisatitshighestduringthistime(BeauvoisandJoule,1996).Highchoicecondition
participantsshowedahigherleveloftheleftfrontalcortexthanthelowchoiceparticipants.Resultshave
shownthattheinitialexperienceofdissonancecanbeapparentintheanteriorcingulatecortex,thentheleft
frontalcortexisactivated,whichalsoactivatestheapproachmotivationalsystemtoreduceanger.[68][69]
Theremaybeevolutionaryforcesbehindcognitivedissonancereduction.Researchersina2007study
examinedhowpreschoolchildrenandcapuchinmonkeysreactedwhenofferedthechoicebetweentwo
similaroptions.Theresearchershadthetwosubjectgroupschoosebetweentwodifferentkindsofstickers
andcandies.Afterchoosing,thetwogroupswereofferedanewchoicebetweentheitemnotchosenanda
similarlyattractiveoptionasthefirst.Inlinewithcognitivedissonancetheory,thechildrenandthe
monkeyschosethe"novel"optionovertheiroriginallyunchosenoption,eventhoughallhadsimilarvalues.
Theresearchersconcludedthattherewerepossibledevelopmentandevolutionaryforcesbehindcognitive
dissonancereduction.[70]

Modelinginneuralnetworks
Neuralnetworkmodelsofcognitionhaveprovidedthenecessaryframeworktointegratetheempirical
researchdoneoncognitivedissonanceandattitudesintoonemodelofexplanationofattitudeformationand
change.[71]
Variousneuralnetworkmodelshavebeendevelopedtopredicthowcognitivedissonanceinfluencean
individual'sattitudeandbehavior.Theseinclude:
Parallelconstraintsatisfactionprocesses[71]
Themetacognitivemodel(MCM)ofattitudes[72]
Adaptiveconnectionistmodelofcognitivedissonance[73]
Attitudesasconstraintsatisfactionmodel[74]

Seealso
Affectiveforecasting
Ambivalence,particularlythereferencetoTheagonyofambivalenceandwaystoresolveit,[75]Lovehate
relationship,Psychoanalyticconceptsofloveandhate,andSplitting(psychology)
Antiprocess
Buyer'sremorseisaformofpostdecisiondissonance.
Carnism
Choicesupportivebiasisamemorybiasthatmakespastchoicesseembetterthantheyactuallywere.
Cognitivebias
Cognitivedistortion
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Cognitiveinertia
Culturaldissonanceisdissonanceonalargerscale.
Doublebindisacommunicativesituationwhereapersonreceivesdifferentorcontradictorymessages.
Doubleconsciousnessisconceivingofone'sselfbothasitselfandassociety'simageofit.
DoublethinkisaconceptpresentinGeorgeOrwell'sNineteenEightyFourthatallowsapersontoholdtwo
contradictoryideassimultaneouslyandacceptbothofthemascorrect.
Effortjustificationisthetendencytoattributeagreater(thanobjective)valuetoanoutcomethatdemandsagreat
efforttoresolveadissonance.
Emotionalconflictisthepresenceinthesubconsciousofdifferentandopposingemotionsconcerningthesame
situation.
TheGreatDisappointmentof1844isanexampleofcognitivedissonanceinareligiouscontext.
Illusionoftrutheffectstatesthatapersonismorelikelytobelieveafamiliarstatementthananunfamiliarone.
Informationoverload
Liminality
Limitsituation
Metanoia(psychology)
Narcissisticrageandnarcissisticinjury
Rationalization(makingexcuses)
Shame
Speciesism
Techniquesofneutralization
Terrormanagementtheory
Truebelieversyndromedemonstratescarryingapostcognitivedissonancebeliefregardlessofnewinformation.
Wishfulthinking
Memoryconformity

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Furtherreading
Cooper,J(2007),Cognitivedissonance:Fiftyyearsofaclassictheory,London:Sagepublications,
ISBN9781412929721,retrieved6March2013
Gawronski,B.,&Strack,F.(Eds.).(2012).Cognitiveconsistency:Afundamentalprincipleinsocial
cognition.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
HarmonJones,E.,&J.Mills.(Eds.)(1999).CognitiveDissonance:ProgressonaPivotalTheoryin
SocialPsychology.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
Matin,I.Metin,S.(2011)."TheAdvancesintheHistoryofCognitiveDissonanceTheory".
InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience1(6).
Tavris,C.Aronson,E.(2007).Mistakesweremade(butnotbyme):Whywejustifyfoolishbeliefs,
baddecisions,andhurtfulacts.Orlando,FL:Harcourt.ISBN9780151010981.
McLeod,S."CognitiveDissonance".Retrieved3December2013.

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CognitivedissonanceWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Externallinks
CognitivedissonanceentryinTheSkeptic'sDictionary
(http://www.skepdic.com/cognitivedissonance.html)
FestingerandCarlsmith'soriginalpaper(http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/index.htm)
LeonFestinger,AnIntroductiontotheTheoryofCognitiveDissonance
(http://www.panarchy.org/festinger/dissonance.html)(1956)
Videos
TEDxTalkbyAshDonaldsononcognitivedissonanceandhowitaffectsdecisionmaking
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqONzcNbzh8)onYouTube
SongbyBradWray"CognitiveDissonance(DissonantandJustified)"
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bp39qSdyTc4)onYouTube
DummiezMovie:CognitiveDissonanceTheory(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyL9tHdyhY)
onYouTube
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Categories: Cognitivedissonance Socialpsychology Attitudechange Motivationaltheories
Cognition Belief Mentalprocesses Interpersonalcommunication Communicationtheory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance

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