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Hernn Corts

1 Name

This name uses Spanish naming customs: the rst or


paternal family name is Corts de Monroy and the second
or maternal family name is Pizarro.

See also: Spanish naming customs

Hernn Corts de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marquis of


the Valley of Oaxaca (Spanish pronunciation: [erna kortes e monroj i piaro]; 1485 December 2, 1547)
was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that
caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large
portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King
of Castile in the early 16th century. Corts was part of
the generation of Spanish colonizers who began the rst
phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

While he is often now referred to as Hernn or Hernando Corts (/krtz/; Spanish: [korte]), in his time,
he called himself Hernando or Fernando Corts (Spanish: [kortes]). The names Hernn, Hernando, and Fernando are all equally correct. The latter two were most
commonly used during his lifetime, but the former shortened form has become common in both the Spanish and
English languages in modern times, and is the name by
which many people know him today.[1]

Born in Medelln, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility,


Corts chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World.
He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda and, for a short time, became alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on
the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly
funded. His enmity with the Governor of Cuba, Diego
Velzquez de Cullar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Corts ignored.

2 Early life

Corts was born in 1485 in the town of Medelln, in


modern-day Extremadura, Spain. His father, Martn
Corts de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy
Fernndez de Monroy and his wife Mara Corts, was
an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slenArriving on the continent, Corts executed a successful der means. Hernns mother was Catalina Pizarro
strategy of allying with some indigenous people against Altamirano.[2]
others. He also used a native woman, Doa Marina, as
Through his mother, Hernn was the second cousin once
an interpreter; she would later bear Corts a son. When
removed of Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the
the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Corts, he
Inca Empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with
fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforceanother Francisco Pizarro who joined Corts to conquer
ments. Corts wrote letters directly to the king asking
the Aztecs), through her parents Diego Altamirano and
to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished
wife and cousin Leonor Snchez Pizarro Altamirano, rst
for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Corts
cousin of Pizarros father.[2] Through his father, Hernn
was awarded the title of Marqus del Valle de Oaxaca,
was a twice distant relative of Nicols de Ovando, the
while the more prestigious title of Viceroy was given to
third Governor of Hispaniola. His paternal grandfather
a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. In 1541
was a son of Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of
Corts returned to Spain, where he died peacefully but
Monroy, and wife Menca de Orellana y Carvajal.
embittered, six years later.
Hernn Corts is described as a pale, sickly child by his
Because of the controversial undertakings of Corts and
biographer, chaplain, and friend Francisco Lpez de Gthe scarcity of reliable sources of information about him,
mara. At the age of 14, Corts was sent to study Latin
it has become dicult to assert anything denitive about
under an uncle-in-law in Salamanca.[3]
his personality and motivations. Early lionizing of the
conquistadors did not encourage deep examination of After two years, Corts, tired of schooling, returned
Corts. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors char- home to Medelln, much to the irritation of his parents,
acter in the context of modern anti-colonial sentiment who had hoped to see him equipped for a protable legal
also did little to expand understanding of Corts as an career. However, those two years at Salamanca, plus his
individual. As a result of these historical trends, descrip- long period of training and experience as a notary, rst
tions of Corts tend to be simplistic, and either damning in Seville and later in Hispaniola, would give him a close
acquaintance with the legal codes of Castile that helped
or idealizing.
him to justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.[4]
1

4 CONQUEST OF MEXICO (15181520)

At this point in his life, Corts was described by Gmara


as restless, haughty and mischievous.[4] This was probably
a fair description of a 16-year-old boy who had returned
home only to nd himself frustrated by life in his small
provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Christopher Columbus in the New World was
streaming back to Spain.

Early career in the New World

Plans were made for Corts to sail to the Americas with


a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicols de
Ovando, the newly appointed governor of Hispaniola
(currently Haiti and the Dominican Republic), but an injury he sustained while hurriedly escaping from the bedroom of a married woman from Medelln prevented him
from making the journey. Instead, he spent the next year
wandering the country, probably spending most of his
time in the heady atmosphere of Spains southern ports of
Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucar, and Seville, listening to the tales
of those returning from the Indies, who told of discovery
and conquest, gold, Indians, and strange unknown lands.
He nally left for Hispaniola in 1504 where he became a
colonist.[5]

3.1

Arrival

Corts reached Hispaniola in a ship commanded by


Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and
reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quinteros mutinous conduct may have
served as a model for Corts in his subsequent career.
The history of the conquistadores is rife with accounts of
rivalry, jockeying for positions, mutiny, and betrayal.[6]
Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo, the capital of
Hispaniola, the 18-year-old Corts registered as a citizen,
which entitled him to a building plot and land to farm.
Soon afterwards, Nicols de Ovando, still the governor,
gave him an encomienda and made him a notary of the
town of Azua de Compostela. His next ve years seemed
to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Corts took
part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a
large estate of land and Indian slaves for his eorts from
the leader of the expedition.

3.2

Cuba (15111518)

In 1511, Corts accompanied Diego Velzquez de Cullar, an aide of the Governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. Velzquez was appointed as governor. At the age of 26, Corts was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown
received the quinto, or customary one fth of the prots
from the expedition.

The Governor of Cuba, Diego Velzquez, was so impressed with Corts that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. He became secretary for Governor Velzquez. Corts was twice appointed municipal
magistrate (alcalde) of Santiago. In Cuba, Corts became
a man of substance with an encomienda to provide Indian
labor for his mines and cattle. This new position of power
also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514,
Corts led a group which demanded that more Indians be
assigned to the settlers.
As time went on, relations between Corts and Governor
Velzquez became strained.[7] This began once news of
Juan de Grijalva, establishing a colony on the mainland
where there was a bonanza of silver and gold, reached
Velzquez; it was decided to send him help. Corts
was appointed Captain-General of this new expedition
in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before
Velzquez changed his mind.[7]
With Cortss experience as an administrator, knowledge
gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men,
within a month. Predictably, Velzquezs jealousy exploded and decided to place the leadership of the expedition in other hands. However, Corts quickly gathered
more men and ships in other Cuban ports.
Corts also found time to become romantically involved
with Catalina Xurez (or Jurez), the sister-in-law of
Governor Velzquez. Part of Velzquezs displeasure
seems to have been based on a belief that Corts was
triing with Catalinas aections. Corts was temporarily distracted by one of Catalinas sisters but nally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor
Velzquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the
good will of both her family and that of Velzquez.[8]
It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies,
that Corts began to look beyond his substantial status as
mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of aairs in
the thriving colony. He missed the rst two expeditions,
under the orders of Francisco Hernndez de Crdoba and
then Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velzquez to Mexico
in 1518.

4 Conquest of Mexico (15181520)


Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
In 1518, Velzquez put Corts in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for
colonization. At the last minute, due to the old argument
between the two, Velzquez changed his mind and revoked Cortss charter. He ignored the orders and, an
act of open mutiny, went anyway in February 1519. He
stopped in Trinidad, Cuba, to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500
men, 13 horses, and a small number of cannon, Corts

4.1

March on Tenochtitlan

3
repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Corts was determined. Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Corts
marched on Tenochtitlan in mid-August 1519, along with
600 soldiers, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons, and hundreds of
indigenous carriers and warriors.[9]

On the way to Tenochtitlan, Corts made alliances with


indigenous peoples such as the Totonacs of Cempoala
and the Nahuas of Tlaxcala. The Otomis initially, and
A map depicting Cortss invasion route from the coast to the then the Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish a series of three
Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.
battles from 2 Sept. to 5 Sept. 1519, and at one point
Diaz remarked, they surrounded us on every side. After Corts continued to release prisoners with messages of
landed on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mayan territory.[9] peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of MonThere he encountered Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish tezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder, and Maxixcatzin, perFranciscan priest who had survived a shipwreck followed suaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger,
by a period in captivity with the Maya, before escaping.[9] that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to
Aguilar had learned the Chontal Maya language and was kill them.[11]:143155,171
able to translate for Corts.[10]
In October 1519, Corts and his men, accompanied by
In March 1519, Corts formally claimed the land for the about 1,000 Tlaxcalteca,[11]:188 marched to Cholula, the
Spanish crown. Then he proceeded to Tabasco, where second largest city in central Mexico. Corts, either in a
he met with resistance and won a battle against the na- pre-meditated eort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waittives. He received twenty young indigenous women from ing for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed, when
the vanquished natives, and he converted them all to he was being investigated) wishing to make an example
Christianity.[10]
when he feared native treachery, massacred thousands of
Among these women was La Malinche, his future unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central
mistress and mother of his son Martn. Malinche knew plaza, then partially burned the city.[11]:199200
both the Nahuatl language and the Chontal Maya, thus
enabling Corts to communicate with the Aztecs through
Aguilar.[11]:82,8687 At San Juan de Ula on Easter Sunday 1519, Corts met with Moctezuma II's Aztec Empire
governors Tendile and Pitalpitoque.[11]:89

Corts scuttling his own eet o the coast of Veracruz in order to


eliminate the possibility of retreat.

In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz. By this act,


Corts dismissed the authority of the Governor of Cuba to
place himself directly under the orders of King Charles.[9]
In order to eliminate any ideas of retreat, Corts scuttled
his ships.[12]

Corts and La Malinche meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan,


November 8, 1519.

By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlan the Spaniards had


a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by Moctezuma II.[13] Moctezuma deliberately let Corts enter the Aztec capital, the island city of
Tenochtitlan, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later.[9]

Moctezuma gave lavish gifts of gold to the Spaniards


which, rather than placating them, excited their ambitions
for plunder. In his letters to King Charles, Corts claimed
In Veracruz, he met some of the tributaries of the Aztecs to have learned at this point that he was considered by the
and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma II, Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent
the tlatoani (ruler) of the Aztec Empire.[12] Moctezuma god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself a belief which

4.1

March on Tenochtitlan

5 APPOINTMENT TO GOVERNORSHIP OF MEXICO AND INTERNAL DISSENSIONS

has been contested by a few modern historians.[14] But


quickly Corts learned that several Spaniards on the coast
had been killed by Aztecs while supporting the Totonacs,
and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his own
palace, indirectly ruling Tenochtitlan through him.[15]
Meanwhile, Velzquez sent another expedition, led by
Pnlo de Narvez, to oppose Corts, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men.[9] Corts left 200 men
in Tenochtitlan and took the rest to confront Narvez. He
overcame Narvez, despite his numerical inferiority, and
convinced the rest of Narvezs men to join him.[9] In
Mexico, one of Cortss lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado,
committed the massacre in the Great Temple, triggering a
local rebellion.[16]
Corts speedily returned to Tenochtitln. On July 1,
1520 Moctezuma was killed (the Spaniards claimed he
was stoned to death by his own people; other claim he
was murdered by the Spanish once they realized his inability to placate the locals). Faced with a hostile population, Corts decided to ee for Tlaxcala. During the
Noche Triste (June 30 July 1, 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlan across the Tlacopan causeway, while their backguard was being massacred. Much of the treasure looted by Corts was lost
(as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from
Tenochtitln.[9]

4.2

Destruction of Tenochtitlan

After a battle in Otumba, they managed to reach Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men.[9] With the assistance of their
allies, Cortss men nally prevailed with reinforcements
arriving from Cuba. Corts began a policy of attrition
towards Tenochtitlan, cutting o supplies and subduing
the Aztecs allied cities. The siege of Tenochtitln ended
with Spanish victory and the destruction of the city.[17]
In January 1521, Corts countered a conspiracy against
him, headed by Antonio de Villafana, who was hanged for
the oense.[9] Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtmoc,
the tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitln, on August 13, 1521,
the Aztec Empire disappeared, and Corts was able
to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico
City. From 1521 to 1524, Corts personally governed
Mexico.[9]

Appointment to governorship of
Mexico and internal dissensions

Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that


Corts was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and
that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in
establishing New Spain. This picture is the one Corts
presents in his letters and in the later biography written
by Francisco Lpez de Gmara. However, there may be

A painting from Diego Muoz Camargo's History of Tlaxcala


(Lienzo Tlaxcala), c. 1585, showing La Malinche and Hernn
Corts.

more to the picture than this. Cortss own sense of accomplishment, entitlement, and vanity may have played
a part in his deteriorating position with the king:
Corts personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufcient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the
Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so
in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15,
1524 (Ycazbalceta, Documentos para la Historia de Mxico, Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Corts, besides recalling in a rather abrupt
manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to
him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression.[18]
King Charles appointed Corts as governor, captain general and chief justice of the newly conquered territory,
dubbed "New Spain of the Ocean Sea. But also, much to
the dismay of Corts, four royal ocials were appointed
at the same time to assist him in his governing in eect,
submitting him to close observation and administration.
Corts initiated the construction of Mexico City, destroying Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on
the Aztec ruins what soon became the most important
European city in the Americas.[9]
Corts managed the founding of new cities and appointed
men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the encomienda system in 1524.[9] He reserved
many encomiendas for himself and for his retinue, which
they considered just rewards for their accomplishment in
conquering central Mexico. However, later arrivals and
members of factions antipathetic to Corts complained
of the favoritism that excluded them.[19]

5
white eld, which are the arms of the empire.[21]:43 Below that is a golden lion on a red eld, in memory of the
fact that you, the said Hernando Corts, by your industry
and eort brought matters to the state described above
(i.e., the conquest).[21]:43 The specicity of the other two
quadrants is linked directly to Mexico, with one quadrant
showing three crowns representing the three Aztec emperors of the conquest era, Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and
Cuauhtemoc[21]:43 and the other showing the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.[21]:43 Encircling the central shield are
symbols of the seven city-states around the lake and their
lords that Corts defeated, with the lords to be shown as
prisoners bound with a chain which shall be closed with
a lock beneath the shield.[21]:4445
Cristbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in
the conquests of Jalisco, 1522.

In 1523, the Crown (possibly inuenced by Cortss enemy, Bishop Fonseca),[20] sent a military force under the
command of Francisco de Garay to conquer and settle
the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pnuco. This
was another setback for Corts who mentioned this in his
fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself
as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego
Velzquez de Cullar, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Francisco Garay. The inuence of Garay
was eectively stopped by this appeal to the King who
sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a ght.

Granted Coat of Arms by the


King, 1525

Although Corts had outed the authority of Diego


Velzquez in sailing to the mainland and then leading an
expedition of conquest, Cortss spectacular success was
rewarded by the crown with a coat of arms, a mark of high
honor, following the conquerors request. The document
granting the coat of arms summarizes Cortss accomplishments in the conquest of Mexico. The proclamation
of the king says in part
We, respecting the many labors, dangers,
and adventures which you underwent as stated
above, and so that there might remain a perpetual memorial of you and your services and that
you and your descendants might be more fully
honored...it is our will that besides your coat of
arms of your lineage, which you have, you may
have and bear as your coat of arms, known and
recognized, a shield....[21]:43
The grant species the iconography of the coat of arms,
the central portion divided into quadrants. In the upper portion, there is a black eagle with two heads on a

7 Death of his First Wife and Remarriage


Cortss wife Catalina Sarez arrived in New Spain from
sometime around summer 1522, along with sister and
brother.[22] His marriage to Catalina was at this point extremely awkward, since she was a kinswoman of governor
of Cuba Diego Velzquez, whose authority Corts had
thrown o and now his enemy. Catalina lacked the noble title of doa, so at this point his alliance with her no
longer raised his status. The marriage had been childless. Since Corts had sired children with a variety of
indigenous women, including a son ca. 1522 by his cultural translator, Doa Marina, Corts knew he was capable of fathering children. Cortss only male heir at
this point was illegitimate, but nonetheless named after
Cortss father, Martn Corts. This natural son Martn
Corts was sometimes called El Mestizo. Cortss wife,
Catalina Surez, died under mysterious circumstances the
night of November 12, 1522. There were accusations
at the time that Corts had murdered his wife. There
was an investigation into her death, interviewing a variety of household residents and others.[23] The documentation of the investigation published in the nineteenth century in Mexico and archival documents uncovered in the
twentieth century.[24][25] The death of Catalina Surez
had produced a scandal and a major investigation, but
weathering that Corts was now free to marry someone
of high status more appropriate to his wealth and power.
In 1529 he had been accorded the noble designation of
don, but more importantly was given the noble title of
Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Spanish noblewoman Doa Juana de Ziga. The marriage
produced three children, including another son, who was
also named Martn. As the rst-born legitimate son, Don
Martn Corts y Ziga was now Cortss heir and succeeded his father as holder of the title and estate of the
Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca.[26] Cortss legitimate daughters were Doa Maria, Doa Catalina, and
Doa Juana.[27]

Corts and the Spiritual Conquest of Mexico

Since the conversion to Christianity of indigenous peoples was an essential and integral part of the extension of
Spanish power, making formal provisions for that conversion once the military conquest was completed was an
important task for Corts. During the Age of Discovery,
the Catholic Church had seen early attempts at conversion in the Caribbean islands by Spanish friars, particularly mendicant orders. Corts made a request to the
Spanish monarch to send Franciscan and Dominican friars to Mexico to begin the daunting work of converting
vast populations indigenous to Christianity. In his fourth
letter to the king, Corts pleaded for friars rather than
diocesan or secular priests because those clerics were in
his view a serious danger to the Indians conversion.
If these people [Indians] were now to see
the aairs of the Church and the service of God
in the hands of canons or other dignitaries, and
saw them indulge in the vices and profanities
now common in Spain, knowing that such men
were the ministers of God, it would bring our
Faith into much harm that I believe any further
preaching would be of no avail.[28]
He wished the mendicants to be the main evangelists.
Mendicant friars did not usually have full priestly powers
to perform all the sacraments needed for conversion of
the Indians and growth of the neophytes in the Christian
faith, so Corts laid out a solution to this to the king.
Your Majesty should likewise beseech His
Holiness [the pope] to grant these powers to
the two principal persons in the religious orders
that are to come here, and that they should be
his delegates, one from the Order of St. Francis and the other from the Order of St. Dominic. They should bring the most extensive
powers Your Majesty is able to obtain, for, because these lands are so far from the Church of
Rome, and we, the Christians who now reside
here and shall do so in the future, are so far
from the proper remedies of our consciences
and, as we are human, so subject to sin, it is
essential that His Holiness should be generous with us and grant to these persons most
extensive powers, to be handed down to persons actually in residence here whether it be
given to the general of each order or to his
provincials.[29]

EXPEDITION TO HONDURAS AND AFTERMATH

Geronimo de Mendieta claimed that Cortss most important deed was the way he met this rst group of Franciscans. The conqueror himself was said to have met the
friars as they approached the capital, kneeling at the feet
of the friars who had walked from the coast. This story
was used by Franciscans as a demonstration of Cortss
piety and humility was a powerful message to all, including the Indians, that Cortss earthly power was subordinate to the spiritual power of the friars. However, one of
the rst twelve Franciscans, Fray Toribio de Benavente
Motolinia does not mention it in his history.[30] Corts
and the Franciscans had a particularly strong alliance in
Mexico, with Franciscans seeing him as the new Moses
for conquering Mexico and opening it to Christian evangelization. In Motolinias 1555 response to Dominican
Bartolom de Las Casas, he praises Corts.
And as to those who murmur against the
Marqus del Valle [Corts], God rest him, and
who try to blacken and obscure his deeds, I believe that before God their deeds are not as acceptable as those of the Marqus. Although
as a human he was a sinner, he had faith and
works of a good Christian, and a great desire to employ his life and property in widening and augmenting the fair of Jesus Christ,
and dying for the conversion of these gentiles...
Who has loved and defended the Indians of this
new world like Corts?... Through this captain,
God opened the door for us to preach his holy
gospel and it was he who caused the Indians
to revere the holy sacraments and respect the
ministers of the church.[31]
In Fray Bernardino de Sahagn's 1585 revision of the
conquest narrative rst codied as Book XII of the
Florentine Codex, there are laudatory references to
Corts that do not appear in the earlier text from the
indigenous perspective. Whereas Book XII of the Florentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards
search for gold, in Sahagns 1585 revised account, he
ends with praise of Corts for requesting the Franciscans
be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians.[32]

9 Expedition to Honduras and aftermath


See also: Spanish conquest of Yucatn Hernn Corts
in the Maya lowlands, 152425

From 1524 to 1526, Corts headed an expedition to


Honduras where he defeated Cristbal de Olid, who had
The Franciscans arrived in May of 1524, a symbolically claimed Honduras as his own under the inuence of
powerful group of twelve known as the Twelve Apostles the Governor of Cuba Diego Velzquez. Fearing that
of Mexico, led by Fray Martn de Valencia. Franciscan Cuauhtmoc might head an insurrection in Mexico, he

9.1

First return to Spain (1528) and Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca

brought him with him to Honduras. In a controversial move, Cuauhtmoc was executed during the journey.
Raging over Olids treason, Corts issued a decree to arrest Velzquez, whom he was sure was behind Olids treason. This, however, only served to further estrange the
Crown of Castile and the Council of Indies, both of which
were already beginning to feel anxious about Cortss rising power.[33]

Ponce de Len suspended Corts from his oce of governor of New Spain. The Licentiate then fell ill and died
shortly after his arrival, appointing Marcos de Aguilar
as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick
and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor, who was conrmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527.
Corts, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government.
Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south. De Figueroa
raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his
end when the ship carrying these treasures sank. Albornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Salazar
and Chirinos. When Corts complained angrily after one
of his adherents hands was cut o, Estrada ordered him
exiled. Corts sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to King
Charles.

9.1 First return to Spain (1528) and Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca

The coat of arms awarded to Corts, by King/Emperor Charles


V.

Cortss fth letter to King Charles attempts to justify


his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on various
and powerful rivals and enemies who have obscured the
eyes of your Majesty.[34] Charles, who was also Holy Roman Emperor, had little time for distant colonies (much
of Charless reign was taken up with wars with France,
the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Empire),[35] except insofar as they contributed to nance his
wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles was attending to matters in his German domains and Bishop Adrian
of Utrecht functioned as regent in Spain.
Velzquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint
a commissioner with powers, (a Juez de residencia, Luis
Ponce de Len), to investigate Cortss conduct and even
arrest him. Corts was once quoted as saying that it was
more dicult to contend against (his) own countrymen
than against the Aztecs. Governor Diego Velzquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop
Juan Rodrguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him in the Council of the
Indies.

Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16thcentury artist Jakob Seisenegger.

In 1528, Corts returned to Spain to appeal to the justice


of his master, Charles V. Juan Altamirano and Alonso
A few days after Cortss return from his expedition, Valiente stayed in Mexico and acted as Corts represen-

10 LATER LIFE AND DEATH

tatives during his absence. Corts presented himself with


great splendor before Charles Vs court. By this time
Charles had returned and Corts forthrightly responded
to his enemys charges. Denying he had held back on gold
due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more
than the quinto (one-fth) required. Indeed, he had spent
lavishly to build the new capital of Mexico City on the
ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitln, leveled during
the siege that brought down the Aztec empire.
He was received by Charles with every distinction, and
decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Corts
was rewarded in 1529 by being accorded the noble title of
don but more importantly named the Marqus del Valle
de Oaxaca" Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Spanish noblewoman, Doa Juana Ziga, after
the 1522 death of his much less distinguished rst wife,
Catalina Surez. The noble title and senorial estate of
the Marquesado was passed down to his descendants until 1811. The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest
region of New Spain, and Corts had 23,000 vassals in
23 named encomiendas in perpetuity.[9][36]
Although conrmed in his land holdings and vassals, he
was not reinstated as governor and was never again given
any important oce in the administration of New Spain.
During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged
by abusive colonial administrators. He sided with local
natives in a lawsuit. The natives documented the abuses
in the Huexotzinco Codex.

Hernn Corts Monroy, with his coat of arms on the upper left
corner. Painting reproduced in the book America, (R. Cronau
19th century).

published. Had the Government declared him innocent,


it would have greatly increased his popularity. Had it declared him a criminal, a crisis would have been precipiThe entailed estate and title passed to his legitimate son tated by the accused and his party. Silence was the only
Don Martn Corts upon Cortss death in 1547, who be- safe policy, but that silence is suggestive that grave danger
came the Second Marquis. Don Martns association with was feared from his inuence.
the so-called Encomenderos Conspiracy endangered the
entailed holdings, but they were restored and remained After reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort
the continuing reward for Hernn Cortss family through of order, Corts retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about
30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he conthe generations.
centrated on the building of his palace and on Pacic
exploration. Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and
1541, Corts quarreled with Nuo Beltrn de Guzmn
9.2 Return to Mexico
and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today
California with Antonio de Mendoza, the rst viceroy.
Corts returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and
honors, but with diminished power. Although Corts still In 1536, Corts explored the northwestern part of Mexico
retained military authority and permission to continue and discovered the Baja California Peninsula. Corts also
his conquests, viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza was ap- spent time exploring the Pacic coast of Mexico. The
pointed in 1535 to administer New Spains civil aairs. Gulf of California was originally named the Sea of Cortes
This division of power led to continual dissension, and by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539. This was
caused the failure of several enterprises in which Corts the last major expedition by Corts.
was engaged.
On returning to Mexico, Corts found the country in a
state of anarchy. There was a strong suspicion in court 10 Later life and death
circles of an intended rebellion by Corts, and a charge
was brought against him that cast a fatal blight upon his 10.1 Second return to Spain
character and plans. He was accused of murdering his
rst wife. The proceedings of the investigation were kept After his exploration of Baja California, Corts returned
secret.
to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians,
No report, either exonerating or condemning Corts, was who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts,

10.3

Last years, death, and remains

abuse of power, etc.).[9]

died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on DeOn his return he was utterly neglected, and could scarcely cember 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at the age of 62.
obtain an audience. On one occasion he forced his way Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man.
through a crowd that surrounded the emperors carriage, He left his many mestizo and white children well cared
and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He
at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. I am a requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried
man, replied Corts proudly, who has given you more in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the
provinces than your ancestors left you cities.[37][38]
natural status of three of his children (legitimizing them
in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he
had with Doa Marina (also known as La Malinche), said
10.2 Expedition against Algiers
to be his favourite.
After his death his body has been moved more than eight
Main article: Algiers expedition (1541)
The emperor nally permitted Corts to join him and his times for several reasons. On December 4, 1547 he was
buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the
church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla. Three years
later (1550) due to the space being required by the duke,
his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the
same church. In his testament, Corts asked for his body
to be buried in the monastery he had ordered to be built
in Coyoacan in Mxico, ten years after his death, but the
monastery was never built. So in 1566, his body was sent
to New Spain and buried in the church of San Francisco
de Texcoco, where his mother and one of his sisters were
buried.
In 1629, Don Pedro Corts fourth Marquez del Valle,
his last male descendant, died, so the viceroy decided to
move the bones of Corts along with those of his descendant to the Franciscan church in Mxico. This was delayed for nine years, while his body stayed in the main
room of the palace of the viceroy. Eventually it was
moved to the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where it
stayed for 87 years. In 1716, it was moved to another
place in the same church. In 1794, his bones were moved
to the "Hospital de Jesus" (founded by Corts), where a
statue by Tolsa and a mausoleum were made. There was
a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang
their bells.
An engraving of a middle aged Corts by 19th-century artist
William Holl.

eet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition


against Algiers in the Barbary Coast in 1541, which was
then part of the Ottoman Empire and was used as a base
by Hayreddin Barbarossa, a famous Turkish corsair and
Admiral-in-Chief of the Ottoman Fleet. During this unfortunate campaign, which was his last, Corts was almost
drowned in a storm that hit his eet while he was pursuing
Barbarossa.[39]
1000 Spanish pesetas

10.3

Last years, death, and remains

Having spent a great deal of his own money to nance


expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February
1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was
given a royal runaround for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When
he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He

In 1823, after the independence of Mxico, it seemed


imminent that his body would be desecrated, so the mausoleum was removed, the statue and the coat of arms were
sent to Palermo, Sicily, to be protected by the Duke of
Terranova. The bones were hidden, and everyone thought
that they had been sent out of Mxico. In 1836, his bones
were moved to another place in the same building.

10

11 DISPUTED INTERPRETATION OF HIS LIFE

It was not until November 24, 1946 that they were honorable cavalier.
rediscovered,[40]:467 thanks to the discovery of a secret document by Lucas Alamn. His bones were put
in charge of the Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e 11.1 Representations in Mxico
Historia (INAH). The remains were authenticated by
INAH.[40]:468 They were then restored to the same place,
this time with a bronze inscription and his coat of
arms.[41] When the bones were rst rediscovered, the supporters of the Hispanic tradition in Mexico were excited,
but one supporter of an indigenist vision of Mexico proposed that the remains be publicly burned in front of
the statue of Cuauhtemoc, and the ashes ung into the
air.[40]:468 Following the discovery and authentication of
Cortss remains, there was a discovery of what were described as the bones of Cuauhtmoc occurred, resulting
in the so-called battle of the bones[40]:468 In 1981, when
a copy of the bust by Tolsa was put in the church, there
was a failed attempt to destroy his bones.

11

Disputed interpretation of his


life

Monument in Mexico City commemorating the encounter of


Corts and Moctezuma at the Hospital de Jess Nazareno.

There are relatively few sources to the early life of Corts;


his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of
Mexico and it was only after this that people became interested in reading and writing about him.
Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he
wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are written with the specic purpose of putting his eorts in a
favourable light and so must be read critically. Another
main source is the biography written by Cortss private
chaplain Lopez de Gmara, which was written in Spain
several years after the conquest. Gmara never set foot
in the Americas and knew only what Corts had told him,
and he had an anity for knightly romantic stories which
he incorporated richly in the biography. The third major source is written as a reaction to what its author calls
the lies of Gomara, the eyewitness account written by
the Conquistador Bernal Daz del Castillo does not paint
Corts as a romantic hero but rather tries to emphasize
that Cortss men should also be remembered as important participants in the undertakings in Mexico.

Monument in Mexico City known as Monumento al Mestizaje.

In Mxico there are few representations of Corts. However, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle
in the city of Cuernavaca to some street names throughout the republic.

The only authentic monuments are in Mexico City at the


pass between the volcanoes Iztacchuatl and Popocatpetl
In the years following the conquest more critical ac- where Corts took his soldiers on their march to Mexico
counts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written. City. It is known as the Paso de Corts.
The Dominican friar Bartolom de Las Casas wrote his A
Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies which raises The muralist Diego Rivera painted several representation
strong accusations of brutality and heinous violence to- of him but the most famous, depicts him as a powerful
wards the Indians; accusations against both the conquista- and ominous gure along with Malinche in a mural in the
dors in general and Corts in particular.[42] The accounts National Palace in Mexico City.
of the conquest given in the Florentine Codex by the Fran- In 1981, President Lopez Portillo tried to bring Corts to
ciscan Bernardino de Sahagn and his native informants public recognition. First, he made public a copy of the
are also less than attering towards Corts. The scarcity bust of Corts made by Manuel Tols in the Hospital de
of these sources has led to a sharp division in the descrip- Jess Nazareno with an ocial ceremony, but soon a nation of Cortss personality and a tendency to describe tionalist group tried to destroy it, so it had to be taken out
him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and of the public.[43] Today the copy of bust is in the Hospi-

11
tal de Jess Nazareno [44] while the original is in Napoli,
Italy, in the Villa Pignatelli.

of vividness that moves the reader and creates a heightened sense of realism in his letters.

Later, another monument, known as Monumento al


Mestizaje by Julin Martnez y M. Maldonado (1982)
was commissioned by Mexican president Jos Lpez Portillo to be put in the Zcalo (Main square) of Coyoacan, near the place of his country house, but it had to be
removed to a little known park, the Jardn Xicotncatl,
Barrio de San Diego Churubusco, to quell protests. The
statue depicts Corts, Malinche and their son Martn.[45]

His rst letter is lost, and the one from the municipality
of Veracruz has to take its place. It was published for
the rst time in volume IV of Documentos para la Historia de Espaa, and subsequently reprinted. The rst
carta de relacin is available online at the University of
Wisconsin.[46]

There is another statue by Sebastin Aparicio, in Cuernavaca, was in a hotel El casino de la selva. Corts is
barely recognizable, so it sparked little interest. The hotel
was closed to make a commercial center, and the statue
was put out of public display by Costco the builder of the
commercial center.[43]

12

Writings: the Cartas de Relacin

The Segunda Carta de Relacion, bearing the date of October 30, 1520, appeared in print at Seville in 1522. The
third letter, dated May 15, 1522, appeared at Seville in
1523. The fourth, October 20, 1524, was printed at
Toledo in 1525. The fth, on the Honduras expedition, is
contained in volume IV of the Documentos para la Historia de Espaa. The important letter mentioned in the text
has been published under the heading of Carta indita de
Corts by Ycazbalceta. A great number of minor documents, either by Corts or others, for or against him, are
dispersed through the voluminous collection above cited
and through the Coleccin de Documentos de Indias, as
well as in the Documentos para la Historia de Mxico of
Ycazbalceta. There are a number of reprints and translations of Cortss writings into various languages.[47][48]

Corts personal account of the conquest of Mexico


is narrated in his ve letters addressed to Charles V.
These ve letters, the cartas de relacin, are Corts
only surviving writings. See Letters and Dispatches of
Corts, translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843);
Prescotts Conquest of Mexico (Boston, 1843); and 13 Children
Sir Arthur Helpss Life of Hernando Cortes (London,
1871).[37]
Natural children of Don Hernn Corts
As one specialist describes them:
doa Catalina Pizarro, born between 1514 and 1515
in Santiago de Cuba or maybe later in Nueva Espaa,
The Cartas de relacin have enjoyed an
daughter of a Cuban woman, Leonor Pizarro. Doa
unequaled popularity among students of the
Catalina married Juan de Salcedo, a conqueror and
Conquest of Mexico. Corts was a good writer.
encomendero, with whom she had a son, Pedro.[49]
His letters to the emperor, on the conquest,
deserve to be classed among the best Spanish
don Martn Corts, born in Coyoacn in 1522, son
documents of the period. They are, of course,
of doa Marina (La Malinche), called the First
coloured so as to place his own achievements in
Mestizo; about him was written The New World of
relief, but, withal, he keeps within bounds and
Martn Corts; married doa Bernaldina de Porras
does not exaggerate, except in matters of Inand had two children:
dian civilization and the numbers of population
doa Ana Corts
as implied by the size of the settlements. Even
don Fernando Corts, Principal Judge of
there he uses comparatives only, judging from
Veracruz. Descendants of this line are alive
outward appearances and from impressions.
today in Mexico.
Historians, sociologists and political scientists use them to glean information about the
don Luis Corts, born in 1525, son of doa AnAztec Empire and the clash between the Eurotonia or Elvira Hermosillo, a native of Trujillo
pean and Indian cultures. However, as early as
(Cceres)[50]
the 16th century doubt has been cast on the his doa Leonor Corts Moctezuma, born in 1527 or
toricity of these Conquest accounts. It is gener1528 in Ciudad de Mexico, daughter of Aztec
ally accepted that Corts does not write a true
princess Tecuichpotzin (baptized Isabel), born in
history, but rather combines history with cTenochtitlan on July 11, 1510 and died on July 9,
tion. That is to say, in his narrative Corts ma1550, the eldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma
nipulates reality in order to achieve his overarII Xocoyotzin and wife doa Mara Miahuaxuchitl;
ching purpose of gaining the favor of the king.
married to Juan de Tolosa, a Basque merchant and
Corts applies the classical rhetorical gure of
miner.[51]
evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full

12

16

doa Mara Corts de Moctezuma, daughter of an


Aztec princess; nothing more is known about her
except that she probably was born with some deformity.

REFERENCES

16 References
[1] For example, the English-language version of his letters is
called Hernn Corts: Letters from Mexico, etc.

He married twice: rstly in Cuba to Catalina Surez Marcaida, who died at Coyoacn in 1522 without issue, and
secondly in 1529 to doa Juana Ramrez de Arellano de
Ziga, daughter of don Carlos Ramrez de Arellano, 2nd
Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess doa Juana de
Ziga, and had:

[2] Machado, J. T. Montalvo, Dos Pizarros de Espanha aos


de Portugal e Brasil, Authors Edition, 1st Edition, Lisbon,
1970.

don Luis Corts y Ramrez de Arellano, born in


Texcoco in 1530 and died shortly after his birth.

[5] Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles,


California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed.
p.73

doa Catalina Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca


in 1531 and died shortly after her birth.

[6] Famous Hispanics: Hernn Corts. Coloquio.com. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

don Martn Corts y Ramrez de Arellano, 2nd Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in Cuernavaca in
1532, married at Nalda on February 24, 1548 his
twice cousin once removed doa Ana Ramrez de
Arellano y Ramrez de Arellano and had issue, currently extinct in male line

[3] Hernn Corts


[4] Hernan Corts

[7] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman


Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 4546
[8] Sanderson Beck, Corts in Mexico
[9] Bernard Grunberg, La folle aventure d'Hernan Corts", in
L'Histoire n322, JulyAugust 2007

doa Mara Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca


between 1533 and 1536, married to don Luis de [10] Crowe, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed.
Quiones y Pimentel, 5th Count of Luna
p.75

doa Catalina Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca


between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in Sevilla
after the funeral of her father
doa Juana Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca
between 1533 and 1536, married Don Fernando
Enrquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of
Alcal de los Gazules, 3rd Marquess of Tarifa and
6th Count of Los Molares, and had issue

14

Ancestors

[11] Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London:


Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239
[12] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 5354
[13] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 82, 86
[14] Restall, Matthew (2003). Seven Myths of the Spanish
Conquest. Oxford University Press; Townsend, Camilla
(2003). Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on
the Conquest of Mexico. American Historical Review
108, no. 3: 659687.

Ancestors of Hernn Corts de Monroy y Pizarro,


[15] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 8889

15

See also

Barbary corsairs (pirates)

[16] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman


Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 9192
[17] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 108143

"Cortez the Killer", a song by Neil Young

[18] Catholic Encyclopedia, Hernan Corts

Ottoman-Habsburg wars

[19] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New


Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press
1991.

General:
History of Mexico
History of Mexico City

[20] p. 3031 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony


Pagdens translation of Cortss letters Hernan Corts
letters from Mexico 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University
NotaBene books

13

[21] Grant of coat of arms to Hernando Corts, 1525


transcription and translation by J. Benedict Warren.
The Harkness Collection in the Library of Congress:
Manuscripts concerning Mexico. Washington DC: Library
of Congress 1974.

[37] Hernn Corts. Virtualology.com. 2001-04-02. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

[22] Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Corts, and the Fall


of Old Mexico, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993, p.
579.

[39] Sandra Arlinghaus. Naval Battle of Preveza, 1538. Personal.umich.edu. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

[23] Hugh Thomas, Conquest, pp. 580-82.


[24] Hugh Thomas, Conquest, cites documents from the residencia against Corts published by Ignacio Lpez Rayon,
Documentos para la historia de Mexico, Mexico, 1852-3
and the documentation in the Archivo General de Indias
(AGI), Justicia, leg. 220, . 316-42.
[25] Hugh Thomas, Conquest also included a summary of evidence found in the AGI, Justicia, leg. 224, p. 1 (f.660v722r), which is found on p. 635.
[26] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press
1991, 145-148.
[27] Francisco Lpez de Gmara, Corts: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary, Ed. and trans. Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1964, p.
408.
[28] Hernn Corts, Letters from Mexico, translated and edited
by A.R. Pagden. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1971,
p. 333.
[29] Hernn Corts, Letters from Mexico, translated and edited
by A.R. Pagden. New York: Grossman Publishers,
1971,p. 334
[30] John Leddy Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World, chapter 3, Hernn Corts, the
Moses of the New World, Berkeley: University of California Press, second edition, revised, 1971, pp. 33-34.
[31] Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, The Franciscan reply
(to the Dominicans) in Letters and People of the Spanish
Indies, Sixteenth Century, translated and edited by James
Lockhart and Enrique Otte. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976 pp. 244-246.
[32] Bernardino de Sahagn, Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision, translated by Howard F. Cline. Salt Lake City:
University of Utah Press, 1989.
[33] p34 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony Pagdens
translation of Corts letters Hernan Corts letters from
Mexico 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University NotaBene
books

[38] spanishtreasure. Students.ou.edu. Archived from the


original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

[40] Benjamin Keen, The Aztecs Image in Western Thought,


New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1971.
[41] Xavier Lpez Medelln: Los huesos de Hernn Corts.
Motecuhzoma.de. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[42] Mirror of the Cruel and Horrible Spanish Tyranny Perpetrated in the Netherlands, by the Tyrant, the Duke of
Alba, and Other Commanders of King Philip II. World
Digital Library. 1620. Retrieved 2013-08-25.
[43] Reconocer a Corts por Leonardo Tarifeo. Letras Libres. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[44] Recuerdos de Espaa en Mexico: Hernn Cortes. 200302-05. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[45] Manuel M. Cascante, Corresponsal en Ciudad de Mxico
(2006-10-13). Corts y sus 9 entierros Domingos
Domingos. Abc.es. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[46] Ibero-American Electronic Text Series: Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda: Contents.
Digicoll.library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[47] Hernn Corts (14851547), Conqueror, Spain. Famous Hispanics. Coloquio. 2006.
[48] Catholic Encyclopedia: Hernando Cortes.
vent.org. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

Newad-

[49] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New


Spain,, pp. 147, 235
[50] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991, p. 147
[51] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991, pp. 195-96.

17 Related reading
17.1 Primary sources

[35] Charles V. Everything2.com. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

Corts, Hernn. Letters available as Letters from


Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden. Yale University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-300-09094-3. Available
online in Spanish from an 1866 edition.

[36] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New


Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991, pp.146-47

Daz del Castillo, Bernal. The Conquest of New


Spain available as The Discovery and Conquest of
Mexico: 15171521 ISBN 0-306-81319-X

[34] Cartas y relaciones de Hernan Corts al emperador Carlos


V (in Spanish). Everything2.com. Retrieved 2009-07-26.

14

18

EXTERNAL LINKS

Lpez de Gmara, Francisco. Hispania Victrix;


First and Second Parts of the General History of the
Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things
that have happened since they were acquired until
the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New
Spain University of California Press, 1966

Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19516077-0

Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando
Cortes

The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov


(1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1

Last Will and Testament of Hernn Corts


Letter From Hernan Cortes to Charles the V
Hernn Corts Power of Attorney, 1526 From the
Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the
Library of Congress
Praeclara Ferdinandi Cortesii de noua maris oceani
Hyspania narratio sacratissimo... 1524. From the
Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the
Library of Congress

17.2

Secondary sources

Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and


the Last Stand of the Aztecs by Buddy Levy 2008
ISBN 978-0-553-80538-3
Myth and Reality: The Legacy of Spain in America
by Jesus J. Chao. Culture/Society Opinion. February 12, 1992. The Institute of Hispanic Culture of
Houston
Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin America. 4th ed.
New York: University of California P, 1992.
Hernando Corts by Jacobs, W.J., New York,
N.Y.:Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974.
The Worlds Greatest Explorers: Hernando Corts.
Chicago, by Stein, R.C., Illinois: Chicago Press Inc.
1991.
Len-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The
Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of
Mexico. ngel Mara Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish
trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.),
Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated
ed.). Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-5501-8.
Maura, Juan Francisco.Cobarda, falsedad y opportunismo espaol: algunas consideraciones sobre
la verdadera historia de la conquista de la Nueva
Espaa Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del
Renacimiento) 7 (2003): 129.
Passuth, Lszl. The Rain God cries over Mexico

Hernando Corts by Fisher, M. & Richardson K.


Hernando Corts Crossroads Resource Online.

Thomas, Hugh (1993). Conquest: Corts, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico ISBN 0-67151104-1
White, Jon Manchip. (1971) Corts and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire ISBN 0-7867-0271-0

18 External links
The letters by Corts, in which Corts describes the
events related to the conquest of Mexico
Genealogy of Hernn Corts
Origin of the Surname Corts
Biography of Hernn Corts
The change of Hernn Corts self-image by means
of the conquest
Hernando Cortes on the Web web directory with
thumbnail galleries
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood website for
2001 PBS documentary
Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented
online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.
Hernan Cortes The Conquistador of the Aztecs;
Informational Link Blog about the History of
Cortes, the Aztecs along with a variety of sources,
pictures and educational resources
Latin American studies center, material on Corts
Fernand Cortez opera by Gaspare Spontini, JeanPaul Penin
Cortes, Hernando Belinda H. Nanney
Hernan Cortes, marques del Valle de Oaxaca,
Encyclopdia Britannica

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Hernn Corts Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s?oldid=708188881 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Paul Drye, Derek Ross, Mav, Tarquin, Youssefsan, Tsja, Rmhermen, Christian List, Karen Johnson,
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inca, L Kensington, Nebulousness, Erod101, Adelson Velsky Landis, GrayFullbuster, ClueBot NG, Princess19990, Max Tomos, Tanbircdq, BarrelProof, Joefromrandb, Baseball Watcher, Alphasinus, Cntras, Chihuahua State, Marechal Ney, Widr, , Tomseattle, Sparty1212, Fltyingpig, Pragmaticstatistic, Helpful Pixie Bot, Grin20, Calabe1992, KLBot2, Danielleissexy, Arnavchaudhary,
Freeze0117, Abject Normality, Werevertumorro123, Cyberpower678, Metricopolus, Markebaer, Cloudbiography, Mothdust79, Aranea
Mortem, Soritlopez, Lkjhg631, Giftedlyarsenine, Mythic Writerlord, LeftAire, Corlier, Miro900, Donut123123, Jbslaya, Brycebot9000,
Nitrobutane, Vvven, BattyBot, Gylatshalit, TheSuperToaster, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Mediran, Khazar2, Asqueladd, Esszet, JYBot,
Dexbot, Xochiztli, Wwiiipage, Zoro19999, MarioZelda128, Cei Trei, Sluna016, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Eyesnore, Pi3.124, Jonjon082693,
Noyster, Yeyinpe, Katastasi, Accord, Amuseclio, Ephemeratta, Emanuelito martinez, Wiki improver0, KasparBot, Eldizzino and Anonymous: 1067

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File:1000_pesetas,_12_de_octubre_de_1992,_Hernn_Corts.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/


1000_pesetas%2C_12_de_octubre_de_1992%2C_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 es Contributors: Own
work Original artist: HombreDHojalata
File:CartedAmerique.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/CartedAmerique.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cortes-Hernan-LOC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Cortes-Hernan-LOC.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital
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This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: ?
File:Cortez_&_La_Malinche.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/Exhibits/nativeamericans/lg25_1.html Bancroft Library Original artist:
unknown Tlaxcalan artists
File:Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ningyou.
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File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Hernan_Cortes_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Hernan_Cortes_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://images.virtualology.com/images/1050.
gif Original artist: Connormah, Hernan Cortes
File:Hernan_Fernando_Cortes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Hernan_Fernando_Cortes.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Book of America, R. Cronau Original artist: Anonymous
File:Hernando_Cortes_crest_from_Charles_V.jpg Source:
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Cortes_crest_from_Charles_V.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The True HIstory of the Conquest of Spain, by the Hakluyt
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File:Jal-ixco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Jal-ixco.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//bancroft.berkeley.edu/Exhibits/nativeamericans/lg25_2.html Original artist: unknown Aztec scribes
File:Malinche_Tlaxcala.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Malinche_Tlaxcala.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_V_Holy_Roman_Emperor,_Charles_I_as_King_of_Spain.svg
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as_King_of_Spain.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Herldica hispnica Original artist: Heralder, elements by Sodacan
File:Monumento_al_Mestizaje.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Monumento_al_Mestizaje.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Javier Delgado Rosas
File:Monumento_de_Moctezuma_y_Hernan_Corts.jpg
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Monumento_de_Moctezuma_y_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia;
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Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Ruta_de_Corts.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg License: CC BY
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File:ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG License:
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