Neuropsychology: Chapter 5 pg 147-179

The Neural Control of Behaviour

Aristotle and many other ancient Greeks suggested that the brains main
function was to cool the blood
Proposed that the heart and blood are the source of feelings, thoughts and all
else that we today call "psychology"
Hippocrates (Greek Physician) observed the effects of head injuries on
peoples thoughts and actions
Fourth Century Hippocrates wrote "From the brain, and from the brain only
arise out pleasures, joys, laughter and jests as well as our sorrows, pains,
grief's and tears"
Psychology focuses on the complex aspects of what the nervous system does

Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Brain

Brain is the most dynamic organ of the body, consumes 20% of the persons
metabolic energy , the most complex and compact computing machine in
the known universe
Brain contains 80-100 billion neurons and roughly 100 trillion points of
communication or synapses between neurons
Constantly active & their collective activity monitors our internal and external
environments, creates all out mental experiences and controls all our
behaviour
Each neuron is a complex decision making machine, they receive info from
multiple sources, integrates that info and sends its response out to many
other neurons or to muscle cells or glands
3 Basic Varieties of Neurons, and Structures Common to Them
Central Nervous System - the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System - extensions from the central nervous system
called nerves not 2 different systems but part of an integrated whole
Neruon is a single cell of the nervous system
Nerve is a bundle of many neurons or more precisely a bundle consisting
of axons of many neurons (within peripheral nervous system)
Nerves connect CNS to body's sensory organs, muscles and glands
Sensory Neurons bundled together to form nerves, carry info to sensory
organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin) into CNS
Motor Neurons bundles into nerves, carry messages out from CNS to
operate muscles and glands
Interneuron's exist in CNS and carry messages from one set of neurons
to another, they collect, organize and integrate messages from various
sources
Human Nervous System - few million sensory and motor neurons & 100
billion interneuron's
Interneuron's make sense of the input coming from sensory neuron,
generate our mental experiences and initiate and coordinate all out
behavioural actions through connection with motor neurons

Parts of all 3 Neurons: (Diagram in Textbooks will help

undestanding)
o Cell Body - widest part of neuron, contains cell nucleus & basic
machinery common to all bodily cells
o Dendrites - are thin, tube-like extensions (branch extensively) &
function to receive input for the neuron
motor neurons and interneuron's dendrites extend directly off
cell body forming bush like structures
structures increase the surface area of cell which allows
receipt of signals from many other neurons
Sensory neurons, dendrites extend from one end of axon (rather
than directly from cell body) , extend into sensory organs and
respond to sensory signals (sound waves in ears or touch on the
skin)
o Axon - another thin, tube like extension from the cell body
carry messages to other neurons or in the case of motor
neurons to muscle cells
some axons are extremely long
some axons form branches ( a distance) away from the cell
body
branch ends with a small swelling called axon terminal
designed to release chemical transmitter molecules onto other
neurons (or in case of motor neurons onto muscle cells or
glandular cells)
some axons of neurons are surrounded by a casing called
myelin sheath fatty substance produced by supportive
brain cells called glial cells , helps speed up movement of
neural impulses along axon
How Neurons Send Messages Down Their Axons

action potentials - neurons fire off all or none impulses to exert influence
on other neurons/muscle cells
in motor and interneuron's, action potentials are triggered at the junction
between cell body and axon ---- travel rapidly down axon to the axon terminal
in sensory neurons , action potentials are triggered at dendritic end of the
axon --- pass through cell body to axon terminals
action potentials either occur or dont occur ( all or none)
action potentials are same strength every time they are produced by the
same neuron
neuron can convey varying degrees of intensity in message by varying rate of
producing action potentials
neuron might fire of action potential at a rate of 0/s or 1000/s

The Resting Neuron Has a Constant Electrical Charge Across Its Membrane
o Cell Membrane encloses each membrane
o Membrane - porous skin that permits certain chemicals to flow into and
out of the cell while blocking others
o Neuron = "tube" with walls that are the cell membrane

Tube is filled with solution of water and dissolved chemicals called

intracellular fluid, bathed outside by another solution of water and
dissolved chemicals called extracellular fluid
Chemicals dissolved have electrical charges
soluble protein molecules (A-) negative charges ---- Intracellular
fluids only
potassium (K+) ---- more concentrated in intracellular than
extracellular fluid
sodium ions ( Na+) & chlorine ions (Cl-) ----- more concentrated in
extracellular than intracellular fluid
more negatively charged ions exist inside the cell than outside
imbalance results in electrical charge across the membrane with
inside of -70 millivots relative to outside
charge across membrane of an inactive neuron is called resting
potential (source of electrical energy that makes action potential
possible)

The Action Potential Derives from a Brief Change in Membrane Permeability

(come back)
action potential - is a wave of change in the electrical charge
across the axon membrane, moves rapidly from each ends of the
axon
action potential - is initiated by change in structure of cell
membrane at one end of axon
thousands of tiny channels that let Na + ions to pass through them
open up, enough Na+ moves inward to cause electrical charge
across membrane to reverse itself and become momentarily
positive inside relative to outside
depolarization phase - sudden shift ( rising part of wave)
channels that had Na+ go through them close, channels that
permit K+ stay open
How Neurons Are Influenced by Other Neurons: Synaptic Transmission

neurons generate action potentials at rates that are influenced by all the info
that is sent to them from other neurons
cell body & dendrites of motor/interneuron blanketed by thousands of axon
terminals which come from branching axons of thousands of different neurons
Synapse - junction between each axon terminal & cell body or dendrite of
receiving neuron
when action potential reaches axon terminal it causes terminal to release
packets of chemicals called Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter move across space between the cells & alter receiving
neurons in ways that influence its production of action potentials
Too much of neurotransmitters causes physical & psychological disorders -ex. Parkinsons disease, degeneration of dopamine
Synaptic cleft - a narrow gap that separates the axon terminal from the
membrane of the cell that it influences
Presynaptic membrane -membrane of the axon terminal that touches the
cleft and cell on the other side of the cleft is Postsynaptic membrane
Vesicles -globe like things inside axon terminal, contain several thousand
molecules of chemical neurotransmitters

When action potential reaches axon terminal-- some vesicles spill their
neurotransmitter molecules into cleft--- molecules diffuse though the fluid in
cleft--- some attach to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitter molecule = key, receptor = lock put lock in key and
opens a gate in channel allowing ions to pass through
Postsynaptic cell = muscle cell, flow of ions triggers biochemical process
causing cell to contract
Direction of polarization change depend on if synapse is excitatory or
inhibitory
Excitatory Synapse - the transmitter opens Na+ channels in postsynaptic
membrane, movement of positive charges ions into cell = depolarization or
receiving neuron (neuron becomes less negative inside) increase rate of
action potentials triggered in the neuron
Inhibitory Synapse - transmitter opens Cl- or K+ channel, movement of
negative charged CL- ions into cell or positive charged K+ ions out of cell =
slight hyperpolarisation of receiving neuron ( neuron become more negative
inside than before) decrease rate of action potentials triggered in the
neuron

Postsynaptic Neurons Integrate Their Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs

o Any moment neuron may receive input at dozens, hundreds,
thousands of fast synapse
o