Chapter 20 Notes

20.1 Electromotive Force and Current

Battery
o A source of stored energy
o It has a potential difference across the positive and
negative terminals
o The maximum potential difference provided by battery
is called the Electromotive Force (emf).
o Potential difference causes movement of charges
between terminals. This is known as electric current.
o The voltage supplied to charges at one terminal must be
used up entirely by the time they reach the other
terminal.
o Symbol for the battery is:
Electromotive Force (emf), E
o It is not a force, but a potential difference or voltage.
o Emf is measured in volts (V).
o Emf indicates how much higher potential at positive
terminal is than the negative terminal.
Electric current, I
q
o Current is the amount of charge per unit time, I t
o Current is measured in amperes or amps (A).
o Common analogy used for current is that of water (+
charges) flowing down a hill (potential difference).
o Direct current (DC) is current produced by batteries.
It only flows in one direction at all times
o Alternating current (AC) is current produced by
generators. It continuously switches direction.
o Current flow is comprised of electrons moving from
negative terminal towards the positive terminal.

o The symbol I stands for the conventional current,

which is the flow of positive charges.

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.2 Ohms Law
Resistance,R, is defined as the ratio between the voltage
applied across a material and the current going through the
material.
It is measured in ohms ().
Resistance impedes the current. The bigger the resistance in
an object, the less current that will go through it.
The formula illustrating the relationship between R, V, and I
is known as Ohms Law:
V
R
or V I R (R is constant)
I
Symbol for a resistor is:
Wires that connect devices together have negligible
resistance. Wires are illustrated as straight lines.
Ohms law may be applied to an individual device or to an
entire circuit (i.e. V1 = I1 R1 or Vtotal = Itotal Rtotal).
All devices have some resistance in them, even a battery.

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.3 Resistivity
Think of a conductor as a pipe, and current as the water
flowing through that pipe per second.
The longer the conductor (pipe), and the thinner the
conductor, the more resistance to water flowing through it.
The resistance of a material relates to the length and crosssection area (thickness) of the material in the following way,
R

L
A

where is the resistivity of the material,

L is the length of the material, and
A is the cross-section area of the material.
Resistivity is a proportionality that is used to find the
resistance of a material based on its thickness and length.
o Each material has its own resistivity constant.
o Conductors have low resistivity values, and insulators
have high resistivity values.
o Semiconductors have intermediate values for resistivity.
The resistivity of a material is affected by temperature.
o For conductors, as temperature increases, resistivity
increases. For semiconductors, the opposite is true.
o The resistivity of a material due to its temperature is
found using the following equation,
o 1 T To

where and o are resistivity values,

T and To are temperature values measured in oC or
K (Kelvin),
and is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
o is positive for conductors and negative for
semiconductors.

o Room temperature is 20C (or 253 K).

 Resistance due to temperature changes is given by the

following,
R Ro 1 T To

where R and Ro are the resistance values,

T and To are temperature values measured in oC or
K (Kelvin),
and is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
is positive for conductors and negative for semiconductors.
Superconductor a conductor whose resistance and
resistivity equals zero when it falls below a certain
temperature, TC.
o TC is called the critical temperature.
o Each superconductive material has its own critical
temperature which is usually a few degrees above
absolute zero (0 K or 273C).
o Once a current has been put in a superconductor, the
current will flow indefinitely even without the emf
source (battery) present.
Material
Conductor
Semiconductor Insulator
Resistivity
Low
Intermediate
High
Positive
Negative
Value for
=0
As T increases R, goes up
R, goes down R, constant

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.4 Electric Power
Power, P, is the rate at which work is done or change in
energy per unit time.
Since the magnitude of work done for charges is qV, then:
work
qV
q

V
time
t
t
PI V
P

Power is measured in watts (W).

By substituting in Ohms law equation, we can get other
formulas for finding power:
P = I2 R
P

V2
R

Electric bills are calculated in terms of kilowatt-hour (kWh).

o A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy.
o 1 kWh = (1000 Watts)(3600 seconds) = 3.6 x 106 Joules

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.5 Alternating Current
Direct current (dc) is produced by batteries.
Alternating current (ac) is produced by
generators that rely on magnetic forces to
function.
The direction of charge flow reverses
periodically with an ac current.
Electrical outlets in a house provide ac
current.
The voltage, V, fluctuates sinusoidally between positive and
negative maximums as a function of time according to the
following formula,
V = Vosin 2ft
where Vo is the absolute value of the peak value,
f is the frequency of the voltage oscillation ,
t is the time
o Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cycles/s)
or in Hertz (Hz).
o Time is measured in seconds.
o 2ft is the angle of the sine function measured in
radians. Make sure your calculator is in radians mode
when using the formula.
o Peak voltage in most US home outlets is 170 volts.
o The frequency of oscillation in the US is 60 Hz.
Using Ohms Law, an equation for the current as a function
of time can be derived:
I = Iosin 2ft
where Io is the peak current given by Io = Vo/R.

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

Period, T is the time it takes to complete on cycle.
o The period is measured in seconds.
o The period is the reciprocal of the frequency, f

1
T

o The period, T, is not the same as the time, t, in the

general formula for V(t) and I(t)
Power as a function of time is given by the following
equation,
P = IoVo sin2 2ft
o The graph of this function
reveals that power is always
positive.
o The average power, P , is one half the peak power,
P 12 I oVo
I o Vo

2 2
I rmsVrms

where Irms and Vrms are the root mean square (rms) of
the current and voltage respectively.
o The rms corresponds to the average for sinusoidal
functions.
o Using Ohms Law, two other equations for the average
power can be derived,
2
P I rms
R

2
Vrms
R

 Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.6 Series Wiring
Devices that are in series with
one another are connected in
such a way that they have the
same current.
If the current to one device in
series is interrupted, the current to the other series device is
also stopped.
The voltage supplied by the battery must be used up entirely
as a charge completes the circuit loop. As a result, the
voltage is divided up among the series devices.
Since the current through each resistor is equal to the total
current, the current depends on the total resistance.
Equivalent resistance, RS, is the total resistance for a series
circuit. It is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
As more devices are connected in a series circuit, the total
resistance increases and the total current decreases.
Series Equations
Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 =
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 +
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 +

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.7 Parallel Wiring
Devices that are in parallel with
one another are connected in
such a way that they have the
same voltage.
If the current to one device in
parallel is interrupted, the current to the other series device is
unaffected.
The current splits up among the individual paths, with more
current flowing through the path with least resistance.
Equivalent resistance, RP, is the total resistance for a
parallel circuit. The reciprocal of RP is equal to the sum of
the reciprocal of the individual resistances.
As more devices are connected in a parallel circuit, the total
current increases and the total resistance decreases.
The total resistance in a parallel circuit is always smaller than
the weakest resistance in the circuit.
Parallel Equations
Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3 =
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +
1
1
1
1

R P R1 R2 R3

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.8 Circuits Wired Partially in Series and Partially in
Parallel
If you are trying to simplify a circuit it is usually best to start
with the portions that are farthest from the battery and work
your way in.
Identify which resistors are connected in series and which are
connected in parallel.
If the current that flows through one resistor has to go
through another resistor, then the resistors are connected in
series.
o Each one of those resistors must have the same
current.
o The voltages of those resistors are added together.
If there is more than one path between two junction points,
then those paths are all parallel to one another.
o Each one of those paths must have the same voltage.
o The current going through those paths are added
together.
The voltage used by resistors in a closed loop from the
positive to negative terminal must equal the voltage provided
by the battery.

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.9 Internal Resistance
Internal resistance, r the resistance of a battery or
generator due to its composition.
o The internal resistance is measured in ohms().
o The internal resistance is usually very small.
o The internal resistance is always connected in series
with any external resistance, R.
The emf represents the maximum voltage that the battery
provides.
Terminal voltage the actual voltage provided by the
battery between its terminals.
o Terminal voltage is always less than the emf.
o Emf = Vterminal + Ir = I(R + r)

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.10 Kirchhoffs Rules
A junction is point where a number of wires connect
together.
Junction rule The total current into a junction is equal to
the current going out of the junction.
Loop rule In a closed loop, the total potential rise must
equal the total potential drops.
o Going from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal of a device represents a potential rise.
o Going from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal of a device represents a potential drop.
To apply Kirchhoffs Rules, you must:
o Choose a direction for the current on every pathway
between junction points. Each path way must be
labeled (Ia, Ib, Ic, ).
o Label each resistor so that it indicates a potential drop
in the direction of the current flow. If labeled correctly
as you follow the current you should go from positive
to negative across the resistor.
o Write equations to illustrate the current relationships by
using the junction rule (i.e. Ia + Ib = Ic ).
o Write equations to illustrate the potential rises and
drops by using the loop rule
(i.e. V + IaR1 = IbR2 + IcR3 ).
o Algebraically manipulate the equations to find what
you are looking for.

Chapter 20 Notes (continued)

20.11 Measurement of Current and Voltage
Ammeters are devices that measure current.
Voltmeters are devices that measure voltage.
An ammeter must be connected in series to measure the
current in a circuit branch.
A voltmeter must be connected in parallel to a device to
measure the voltage across it.
20.12 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Capacitors are devices that can store charge.
The amount of charge stored by a capacitor is the product of
its capacitance and the voltage across it, q = CV.
Total energy stored by a capacitor is = CV2.
Capacitors can be connected in series, parallel, or a
combination of series and parallel just like resistors.
Capacitors in parallel have the same voltage but separate
charges stored on them (recall current splits up in parallel).
o
Equivalent capacitance, CP = C1 + C2 + C3 +
o
Total charge, q = q1 + q2 + q3 +
o
Total energy = CPV2
Capacitors in series have the same magnitude of charge
(since there is one path for current flow) but separate
voltages across them.
o
Equivalent capacitance, 1/CS = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 +
o
Total voltage, V = V1 + V2 + V3 +
o
Total energy = CSV2