Chapter Content Final

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
In the year 2012, 44.8 GW of new wind energy conversion systems were
installed worldwide. The trend has been toward increasingly larger turbine sizes,
culminating in the installation of off-shore wind parks that are located far from the
load centers . This can lead to rather large distances between generation and load in
the electricity sector. The transportation sector reveals an even larger disconnect
between the locations of fuel production and consumption. The energy system
proposed in this paper seeks to address both issues related to electricity and
transportation sectors. One potential solution is a microgrid that can be vertically
integrated with a high-rise building as frequently encountered in urban areas. The
harvesting of renewable wind and solar energy occurs at the top of the building.
There of top generation connects to the ground level via a microgrid where
electric vehicle (EV) charging stations are supplied, and a battery supports
maintaining the balance of supply and demand. The potential value of an urban
integration within buildings as considered here comes from the usage of rooftop
energy resources, the storage of the latter for offering EV fast charging at the ground
level, the contribution to emission-free EV transportation in urban areas, the colocation and integration of generation and load in urban areas, and the grid-friendly
integration of the microgrid with the rest of the power system main grid
SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
The combination of wind and solar energy resources on a rooftop was also
investigated in. It was veried that the combination of wind and solar energy leads to
reduced local storage requirements. The combination of diverse but complementary
storage technologies in turn can form a multilevel energy storage, where a
supercapacitor or ywheel provides cache control to compensate for fast power
uctuations and to smoothen the transients encountered by a battery with higher
energy capacity. Microgrids or hybrid energy systems have been shown to be an
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effective structure for local interconnection of distributed renewable generation, loads,

and storage
1.3
EXISTING SYSTEM
Large-scale use of wind power raises many questions in integration into the existing
electric power grid. Wind power is an intermittent energy source which must be used
when available. If a large fraction of a system's energy is to come from wind power,
provisions must be made to supply load during days with low wind. These provisions
might take the form of spinning reserve already allocated in the system, start-up of
stand-by power plants, or interconnections to other areas that can take up the load.
1.4
EXISTING SYSTEMS TECHNIQUE
Because grid operational strategies are designed for traditional dispatch able energy
sources like coal, integrating wind energy into the utility grid can be problematic.
Within the power grid, there must be balance between load and generation, economic
and policy incentives, cost-effective storage, and robust and distributed control.
1.5
LITERATURE SURVEY
Explains Photovoltaic Systems (PVS) can be easily integrated in residential
buildings hence they will be the main responsible of making low-voltage grid power
flow bidirectional. Control issues on both the PV side and on the grid side have
received much attention from manufacturers, competing for efficiency and low
distortion and academia proposing new ideas soon become state-of-the art. This
project aims at reviewing part of these topics (MPPT, current and voltage control)
leaving to a future paper to complete the scenario.Presents the development of
renewable energy sources is becoming more and more attractive. This paper first
reviews both the wind power and photovoltaic (PV) power generation techniques and
their maximum-power-point tracking (MPPT) methods. Then, a new stand-alone
windPV hybrid generation system is proposed for application to remote and isolated
areas. For the wind power generation branch, a new doubly excited permanentmagnet brushless machine is used to capture the maximum wind power by using
online flux control. For the PV power generation branch, a single-ended primary
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inductance converter is adopted to harness the maximum solar power by tuning the
duty cycle.
Presents Power electronic Grid-Connected Converters (GCCs) are widely
applied as grid interface in renewable energy sources this paper proposes an extended
Direct Power Control with Space Vector Modulation (DPC-SVM) scheme with
improved operation performance under grid distortions. The real-time operated DPCSVM scheme has to execute several important tasks as: space vector pulse width
modulation, active and reactive power feedback control, grid current harmonics and
voltage dips compensation.Presents Energy management means to optimize one of the
most complex and important technical creations that we know the energy system.
While there is plenty of experience in optimizing energy generation and distribution,
it is the demand side that receives increasing attention by research and industry.
Demand Side Management (DSM) is a portfolio of measures to improve the energy
system at the side of consumption. It ranges from improving energy efficiency by
using better materials, over smart energy tariffs with incentives for certain
consumption patterns, up to sophisticated real-time control of distributed energy
resources. This paper gives an overview and a taxonomy for DSM, analyzes the
various types of DSM, and gives an outlook on the latest demonstration projects in
this domain.
This project addresses critical issues on smart grid technologies primarily in
terms of information and communication technology (ICT) issues and opportunities.
The main objective of this paper is to provide a contemporary look at the current state
of the art in smart grid communications as well as to discuss the still-open research
issues in this field. It is expected that this paper will provide a better understanding of
the technologies, potential advantages and research challenges of the smart grid and
provoke interest among the research community to further explore this promising
research area.
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1.6
PROPOSED SYSTEM
Recent research has considered the optimization of the operation on one hand and the
usage of dc to link the resources on the other. The dc link voltage was shown to be
maintained by a droop control that relates the dc link voltage to the power output of
controllable resources. In this paper, it is proposed to set the droop as a function of the
expected state of charge (SOC) of the battery according to its operational optimization
set point versus the actual realtime SOC.
The proposed operational optimization is further distinguished in that it quanties the
uncertainty associated with renewable generation forecast, emission constraints, and
EV fast charging. Following this introduction, an outline of the principle of a dc
microgrid is given in Section II. In Section III, a method is developed for quantifying
the aggregated wind and solar power forecast uncertainty, the resulting required SOC
of the battery, and the operational optimization.
1.7 PROPOSED SYSTEM TECHNIQUES
A voltage source converter (VSC)-based DSTATCOM is connected to a three
phase ac mains feeding three phase linear/nonlinear loads with internal grid
impedance which is shown in Fig. The performance of DSTATCOM depends upon
the accuracy of harmonic current detection. For reducing ripple in compensating
currents, the tuned values of interfacing inductors (L) are connected at the ac output
of the VSC. A three phase series combination of capacitor (Cf ) and a resistor (Rff)
represents the shunt passive ripple lter which is connected at a point of common
coupling (PCC) for reducing the high frequency switching noise of the VSC. The
DSTATCOM currents (i Cabc) are injected as required compensating currents to
cancel the reactive power components and harmonics of the load currents so that
loading due to reactive power component/ harmonics is reduced on the distribution
system. For the considered three phase nonlinear load with approximately 24 Kw
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1.8 ADVANTAGES OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

The real-time operation of the microgrid in the interconnected and autonomous
modes is studied. In the interconnected mode of operation, an adaptive droop control
is devised for the BESS. The adaptive droop characteristic of the BESS power
electronic converter is selected on the basis of the deviation between the optimized
and real-time SOC of the BESS, as calculated in Section III. Details of the method are
provided in Section IV-A. In autonomous mode of operation, the BESS is responsible
for keeping the voltage of the dc bus in a dened acceptable range for providing UPS
service. The autonomous mode of operation of the microgrid.
The devised droop controls of the BESS are depicted in Figs. The change of
the battery power PBESS is modied as a function of the dc voltage. It can be noted
that two of the three devised droop characteristics are asymmetric. The rst droop
curve, as shown in Fig, is devised for a case where the real-time SOC of the BESS is
within close range of the optimized SOC of the BESS from the scheduling calculated
in Section III-C. The acceptable realtime SOC is determined through denition of
upper and lower boundaries around the optimized SOC. If the real-time SOC is within
these boundaries, the droop control of the BESS power electronic converter is
selected as shown in Fig. To support the dc voltage. In this case, the upper boundary
and the lower boundary lead to a symmetrical droop response. In the voltage range
between VBm1 and VBm1+, battery storage does not react to the voltage deviations
of the dc bus. In the voltage range from VBm1 to VBm2 and also from VBm1+ to
VBm2+, the droop control of the BESS reacts. Therefore, PBESS modies the power
output PBESS to mitigate the voltage deviation of the dc bus. Finally, in the voltage
range from VBm2 to VBC and also from VBm2+ to VBC+, the droop curve is in a
saturation area, and thus the BESS contribution is at its maximum and constant.
1.9 ADVANTAGES
Continuity.
Differentiability.
Non decreasing monotony are the main characteristics of this algorithm.
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CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 GENERAL
A wind turbine or wind power plant is a device that converts kinetic energy
from the wind into electrical power. A wind turbine used for charging batteries may be
referred to as a wind charger the result of over a millennium of windmill development
and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of
vertical and horizontal axis types.The smallest turbines are used for applications such
as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic
warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making small contributions to a
domestic power supply whilst selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the
electrical grid.
Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming an increasingly
important source of renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a
strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.Wind turbines, also called windmills,
harness the power of the wind to produce electricity. When used commercially, groups
of wind turbines are erected to form a wind farm capable of powering entire
neighborhoods. The amount of energy generated depends on the size of the wind
turbine and the wind speed in the area.
2.2 MODULES NAME
Wind Power
Stand Alone Generators
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
AC to DC Conversion
Boost Converter
Battery Storage
Super capacitor
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2.3
MODULE DESCRIPTION
Wind Power
The global adoption of wind energy as a reliable source for clean energy is
rising. It has become more important for component manufacturers and turbine
integrators to increase component production rate, improve system reliability, and
overcome grid integration challenges to implement faster adoption of wind energy
and ultimately global independence from oil- and coal-based energy sources. A shift
toward improved technology for automated component testing, online condition
monitoring, and grid integration control can help solve these challenges.
Stand Alone Generators
If you have a large house or a large family, and wish to power as much as you
can in a blackout, you will want a standalone unit. Even this will probably not power
your whole house, but certainly a lot more than most portable units. But they can be
expensive and require space to be installed. They can be quite large. If you live in an
area that gets a lot of wild weather, from rain and hail, to snow and ice, then you will
enjoy the luxury of a standalone generator.
Even if you choose a standalone unit, it always pays to have a portable on hand as
well. Just because you live an area that has mild weather, you never know when the
power will go down. Earthquakes as well as rolling blackouts and brownouts are a
possibility. Don't be caught in the dark.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the
excitation field is provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. Synchronous
generators are the majority source of commercial electrical energy. They are
commonly used to convert the mechanical power output of steam turbines, gas
turbines, reciprocating engines, hydro turbines and wind turbines into electrical power
for the grid.
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They are known as synchronous generators because f, the frequency of the induced
voltage in the rotor (armature conductors), is directly proportional to P, the number of
permanent magnet stator poles (almost always an even number). The constant of
proportionality is, where RPM is the revolutions per minute of the rotor (or angular
speed) in a permanent magnet generator, the magnetic field of the rotor is produced by
permanent magnets.Other types of generator use electromagnets to produce a
magnetic field in a rotor winding. The direct current in the rotor field winding is fed
through a slip-ring assembly or provided by a brushless exciter on the same shaft.
Permanent magnet generators do not require a DC supply for the excitation
circuit do they have slip rings and contact brushes. However, large permanent
magnets are costly which restricts the economic rating of the machine. The flux
density of high performance permanent magnets is limited. The air gap flux is not
controllable, so the voltage of the machine cannot be easily regulated. A persistent
magnetic field imposes safety issues during assembly, field service or repair. High
performance permanent magnets, themselves, have structural and thermal issues.
Torque current MMF vertically combines with the persistent flux of permanent
magnets, which leads to higher air-gap flux density and eventually, core saturation. In
these permanent magnet alternators the speed is directly proportional to the output
voltage of the alternator.
AC to DC Conversion
The
task
of
turning
alternating
current
into
direct
current
is
called rectification, and the electronic circuit that does the job is called a rectifier. The
most common way to convert alternating current into direct current is to use one or
more diodes, those handy electronic components that allow current to pass in one
direction but not the other.
Although a rectifier converts alternating current to direct current, the resulting
direct current isn't a steady voltage. It would be more accurate to refer to it as
pulsating DC. Although the pulsating DC current always moves in the same
direction, the voltage level has a distinct ripple to it, rising and falling a bit in sync
with the waveform of the AC voltage thats fed into the rectifier.
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For many DC circuits, a significant amount of ripple in the power supply can cause
the circuit to malfunction. Therefore, additional filtering is required to flatten the
pulsating DC that comes from a rectifier to eliminate the ripple.
Boost Converter
The step-up dc-dc converter is known as boost converter. Its main applications
are in regulated dc power supplies and the regenerative braking of dc motors. The
average output is always greater than the dc input voltage. The output voltage is
controlled by controlling the switch-duty cycle. When the switch is on, the diode is
reverse biased, and hence isolates the output stage. During the switch on mode the
inductor gets the energy from the supply and stores it. During switch off state, the
diode becomes forward biased and the output stage receives the energy from the
inductor as well as the input. Thus the net energy transferred to the output from input
is always greater in a given switching cycle. The ratio of output voltage to input
voltage is given by
Vo
1
Iin
=
=
Vin 1D Io
Where, Vo and Vin are the output and input voltages, respectively. The term Io and
Iin is the output and input currents, respectively. The term D is the duty ratio and
defined as the ratio of the on time of the switch to the total switching period.
Battery Storage
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical
battery. It comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy
accumulator. It is known as a secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are
electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and
sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an
electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are
commonly used, including: leadacid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride
(NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).
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Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where
they store electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy
uses, such as storing power generated from wind based PMSG during the normal
speed to be used at low speed condition. By charging batteries during periods of low
demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical demand,
load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps
amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation.
2.4 Proposed single phase stand alone wind turbine model
F
ig.2.4proposed single phase standalone wind genarator model
Fig .2.2 simulation design of wind based PMSG

The proposed stand-alone wind power system supplies single-phase
consumers at 230 V/50 Hz. It is designed for a residential location, and it is based on
a 2-kW wind turbine (Fig. 2.1), equipped with the following:
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1) A direct-driven PMSG;
2) An ac/dc converter (diode rectifier bridge + boost converter) for the tracking of the
maximum power from the available wind resource;
3) A LAB storage device;
4) An inverter;
5) A transformer;
6) Resistive loads.
The wind power is converted into the mechanical rotational energy of the wind
turbine rotor. A wind turbine cannot completely extract the power from the wind.
Theoretically, only 59% of the wind power could be utilized by a wind turbine, but for
the 2-kW wind turbine system analyzed in this paper, the real power coefficient is
39%.The wind turbine rotor is connected to the wind generator, thus converting the
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generators ac voltage is converted into
dc voltage through an ac/dc converter. The rectifier is matching the generators ac
voltage to the dc voltage, while the boost converter provides the required level of
constant dc voltage. The dc output voltage is fed to the battery bank and through an
inverter further to the load.
The voltage should stay constant for various wind speeds. When the wind
speed is too high, the power excess supplied by the wind turbine is stored in the
battery. When the wind speed is low, the generator, together with the battery bank, can
provide sufficient energy to the loads.The dc loads are supplied directly from the dc
circuit. At high speeds, the turbine control system stops the energy production. The
same protection is activated also in the case when the battery is fully charged and
energy production exceeds consumption.
At low wind speeds, load shedding is used to keep the frequency at the rated
value. The storage system is composed of a LAB and a full-bridge single-phase
inverter that converts the dc voltage of the battery to ac voltage. Furthermore, this
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voltage is applied to a single phase transformer, which boosts up the voltage to 230 V.
The inverter controls the power transfer.
SUPER CAPACITOR
Super capacitors merged with batteries (hybrid battery) will become the new
super battery. Just about everything that is now powered by batteries will be improved
by this much better energy supply. They can be made in most any size, from postage
stamp to hybrid car battery pack. Their light weight and low cost make them attractive
for most portable electronics and phones, as well as aircraft and automobiles.
The new ones are flexible and biodegradable and can be powered by body fluids.
(Since body fluids can act as an electrolyte, the battery can be used for medical
devices and could be installed into a patient fully charged but dry and feed off bodily
fluids to allow it to re-power and discharge energy. The future of the battery is here.
Virtually unlimited life cycle - cycles millions of time -10 to 12 year life
Low impedance
Charges in seconds
No danger of overcharge
Very high rates of charge and discharge
High cycle efficiency (95% or more)
Super capacitors and ultra capacitors are relatively expensive in terms of cost per watt
Supercapacitors or Ultra Capacitors were initially used by the US military to start the
engines of tanks and submarines. Most applications now are in small appliances,
handheld electronics and hybrid electric vehicles.
NASA has a research project to use supercapacitors in an electric bus called
the Hybrid Electric Transit Bus. The energy used to start the engine and accelerate the
bus is regenerated from braking. During test runs, a bus loaded with 30
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supercapacitors, each of them weighing 32 kg and releasing energy of 50 kJ at 200 V

managed to run for four miles.
In most hybrid vehicles, 42 V super capacitors are used. General Motors has
developed a pickup truck with a V8 engine that uses the supercapacitor / ultra
capacitor to replace the battery. The efficiency of the engine rose by 14%. The
supercapacitor supplies energy to the alternator. Toyota has developed a diesel engine
using the same technology and it is claimed to use just 2.7 liters of fuel per 100 km.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND ARRAY RESEARCH
Photovoltaic cells are devices that absorb sunlight and convert that solar
energy into electrical energy. Solar cells are commonly made of silicon, one of the
most abundant elements on Earth. Pure silicon, an actual poor conductor of electricity,
has four outer valence electrons that form tetrahedral crystal lattices.
The electron clouds of the crystalline sheets are stressed by adding trace amounts of
elements that have three or five outer shell electrons that will enable electrons to
move. The nuclei of these elements fit well in the crystal lattice, but with only three
outer shell electrons, there are too few electrons to balance out, and "positive holes"
float in the electron cloud. With five outer shell electrons, there are too many
electrons. The process of adding these impurities on purpose is called "doping." When
doped with an element with five electrons, the resulting silicon is called N-type ("n"
for negative) because of the prevalence of free electrons. Likewise, when doped with
an element of three electrons, the silicon is called P-type. The absence of electrons
(the "holes") define P-type.
The combination of N-type and P-type silicon cause an electrostatic field to
form at the junction. At the junction, electrons from the sides mix and form a barrier,
making it hard for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side. Eventually
equilibrium is reached, and an electric field separates the sides. When photons
(sunlight) hit a solar cell, its energy frees electron-holes pairs. The electric field will
send the free electron to the N side and hole to the P side. This causes further
disruption of electrical neutrality, and if an external current path is provided, electrons
will flow through the path to their original side (the P side) to unite with holes that the
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electric field sent there, doing work for us along the way. The electron flow provides
the current, and the cell's electric field causes a voltage. With both current and
voltage, we have power, which is the product of the two. Three solar cell types are
currently available: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin film, discerned by
material, efficiency, and composition. By wiring solar cells in series, the voltage can
be increased; or in parallel, the current. Solar cells are wired together to form a solar
panel. Solar panels can be joined to create a solar array.
MODULES NAME
PV Array
MPPT
PWM
DC to AC Conversion
Boost Converter
MODULE DESCRIPTION
PV Array
The Electrical Engineering Department is about 1200-m 2 building located on
the south side of Assiut University, Assiut. The department is used by the
undergraduate and graduate students all over the year. One of the department research
group's missions is to study the performance and feasibility of using the renewable
energy sources in the surrounding community. This research aims to design a
photovoltaic system that provides the required electrical power to the different labs.,
halls, seminar rooms, classes, offices and library. The department consists of two
buildings that serve over 1000 students, 100 faculty members, and 50 employees and
technicians each year. The electrical loads of the department consists of airconditions, lamps, fans, computers and other loads. The total load demand of
department is about 300 KW. However, these loads do not work all at one time on the
contrary, working for a short time.
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The amount of useful sunshine available for the panels on an average day
during the worst month of the year is called the insolation value". The worst month is
used for analysis to ensure the system will operate year-round. In Assiut, average solar
insolation is 6.0 hours per day in December. The insolation value also can be
interpreted as the kilowatt-hours per day of sunlight energy that fall on each square
meter of solar panels at latitude tilt.
Solar Array Characteristics
Solar cells are devices that convert photons into electrical potential in a PN
junction, of which equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.2.3. Due to the complex physical
phenomena inside the solar cell, manufacturers usually present a family of operating
curves (V-I) as shown in Fig.2.4. These characteristics are obtained by measuring the
array volt-ampere for a different illumination values. From these characteristics, the
optimum voltage or current, corresponding to the maximum power point, can be
determined. It is clearly seen in Fig that the current increases as the irradiance levels
increase. The maximum power point increases with a steep positive slope proportional
to the illumination.
The main parameters which influence the illumination levels on a surface at a fixed
tilt on earth are the daily and seasonal solar path, the presence of clouds, mist, smog
and dust between the surface and the sunlight, and the shade of the object positioned
such that the illumination level is reduced, etc.
The equation of the PV output current
voltage
where
I I sc - I o e
q (V IRs )
KTk
is expressed as a function of the array
- 1} - (V IRs )/Rsh
(1)
and
Rs
represent the PV output voltage and current, respectively;
are the series and
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Rsh
and

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I sc
shunt resistance of the cell (in Fig. 3);
is the electronic charge;
generated current; Io is the reverse Saturation current;

Tk
and
is the temperature in
is the light-
is the Boltzman constant,
Equation (1) can be written in another form as [7]

m
I I sc {1 K 1 [e K 2V 1]} - (V IRs )/Rsh
(2)
where the coefficient
K1 K 2
,
and m are defined as
K1 0.01175,
K 2 K 4 /(Voc ) m ,
K 4 ln(( K1 1) / K1 )
K 3 ln[( I sc (1 K1 ) I mpp ) / K1I sc ],

m ln( K 3 / K 4 ) / ln( Vmpp / Voc )
Vmpp
Impp is the current at maximum output power,
I sc
is the voltage at maximum power,
Voc
is the short circuit current and
is the open circuit voltage of the array.
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Fig. 2.3 Equivalent circuit of PV array.
Fig. 2.4 V-I and P-I characteristics at constant temperature.

Equation (2) is only applicable at one particular operating condition of illumination G
Tc
and cell temperature
.The parameter variations can be calculated by measuring the
variation of the short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage in these conditions
using the parameters at the normal illumination and cell temperature. Equation (2) is
used for the I-V and P-V characteristics for various illumination and fixed temperature
25 [ oC ]
) in Fig. 2.4.
Carrier Based PWM Techniques

There are many variations of carrier based PWM.
Analog vs. digital
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Sine-triangle vs. space vector (in reality very similar)
Triangular vs. saw tooth carrier
Symmetric vs. asymmetric (sampled once/twice per triangle)
Uniform sampling vs. natural sampling
Periodic vs. aperiodic carrier.
For the purposes of defining this broad category, carrier based PWM methods are
those where the switching decisions of the inverter are made for each switching cycle
either at the beginning or during that switch cycle. That is, the PWM waveform is
calculated on a cycle by cycle basis, either pulse by pulse, or edge by edge. This
distinguishes it from SHE and SHM PWM, where multiple switching edges are
mapped out for the entire fundamental period or some fraction therein; and hysteresis
PWM, where neither edges nor switch period are defined, calculated or even known
in advance. A comparison of waveforms and frequency spectra of three different
PWM strategies are shown in Fig below.
Fundamental fS
Carrier fC
Sine-sawtooth PWM
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Sine-triangle PWM
Harmonic elimination PWM
Hysteresis PWM
From the top, wave forms and frequency spectra of the original sinusoidal
modulating waveform, the unmodulated PWM square wave, sine-saw tooth (single
edge carrier) PWM, sine-triangle (double edge carrier) PWM, Selective Harmonic
Elimination (SHE) PWM and Hysteresis PWM.
The two basic approaches used to generate the PWM signals for multilevel inverters
are:Sub harmonic or Sub-Oscillation carrier based PWM-modulating waveform
comparison with offset triangular carriers.
Space Vector PWM-space vector modulation based on a rotating vector in multilevel
space.These are the extensions of traditional two level control strategies to several
levels. The two main advantages of PWM inverters in comparison to square-wave
inverters are
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(i) control over output voltage magnitude

(ii) Reduction in magnitudes of unwanted harmonic voltages.
Good quality output voltage in SPWM requires the modulation index (m) to be less
than or equal to 1.0. For m>1 (over-modulation), the fundamental voltage magnitude
increases but at the cost of decreased quality of output waveform. The maximum
fundamental voltage that the SPWM inverter can output (without resorting to overmodulation) is only 78.5% of the fundamental voltage output by square-wave inverter.
The merits and demerits of these two PWM techniques are compared under
comparable circuit conditions on the basis of factors like (i) quality of output voltage
(ii) obtainable magnitude of output voltage (iii) ease of control etc. The peak
obtainable output voltage from the given input dc voltage is one important figure of
merit for the inverter.Carriers considered different methods of disposing the many
carrier bands required in multilevel PWM.
Four alternative carrier PWM strategies with differing phase relationships for a
multilevel inverter are as follows:
1) In-phase disposition (IPD), where all the carriers are in phase- Technique A1;
2) Phase opposition disposition (POD), where the carriers above the zero reference
are in phase, but shifted by 1800 from those carriers below the zero referenceTechnique A2;
3) Alternative phase opposition disposition (APOD), where each carrier band is
shifted by 1800 from the adjacent bands- Technique A3; 4) Phase Disposition (PD),
all the carriers are phase shifted by 2N/(N-1) radians- Technique B.PD strategy is
used most frequently because it produces minimum harmonic distortion for the line
toline output voltage.
DC to ac conversion:
Inverter
Introduction
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Single phase uncontrolled rectifiers are extensively used in a number of power

electronic based converters. In most cases they are used to provide an intermediate
unregulated dc voltage source which is further processed to obtain a regulated dc or ac
output. They have, in general, been proved to be efficient and robust power stages.
However, they suffer from a few disadvantages. The main among them is their
inability to control the output dc voltage / current magnitude when the input ac
voltage and load parameters remain fixed. They are also unidirectional in the sense
that they allow electrical power to flow from the ac side to the dc side only. These two
disadvantages are the direct consequences of using power diodes in these converters
which can block voltage only in one direction. As will be shown in this module, these
two disadvantages are overcome if the diodes are replaced by thyristors, the resulting
converters are called fully controlled converters.
Thyristors are semi controlled devices which can be turned ON by applying a
current pulse at its gate terminal at a desired instance. However, they cannot be turned
off from the gate terminals. Therefore, the fully controlled converter continues to
exhibit load dependent output voltage / current waveforms as in the case of their
uncontrolled counterpart. However, since the thyristor can block forward voltage, the
output voltage / current magnitude can be controlled by controlling the turn on
instants of the thyristors. Working principle of thyristors based single phase fully
controlled converters will be explained first in the case of a single thyristor half wave
rectifier circuit supplying an R or R-L load. However, such converters are rarely used
in practice.
Full bridge is the most popular configuration used with single phase fully
controlled rectifiers. Analysis and performance of this rectifier supplying an R-L-E
load (which may represent a dc motor) will be studied in detail in this lesson.
Single phase fully controlled half wave rectifier

Resistive load
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Fig.2.6. shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled halfwave rectifier
supplying a purely resistive load.
At t = 0 when the input supply voltage becomes positive the thyristor T becomes
forward biased. However, unlike a diode, it does not turn ON till a gate pulse is
applied at t = . During the period 0 < t , the thyristor blocks the supply voltage
and the load voltage remains zero as shown in fig 10.1(b). Consequently, no load
current flows during this interval. As soon as a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor at
t = it turns ON. The voltage across the thyristor collapses to almost zero and the
full supply voltage appears across the load. From this point onwards the load voltage
follows the supply voltage. The load being purely resistive the load current io is
proportional to the load voltage. At t = as the supply voltage passes through the
negative going zero crossing the load voltage and hence the load current becomes
zero and tries to reverse direction. In the process the thyristor undergoes reverse
recovery and starts blocking the negative supply voltage. Therefore, the load voltage
and the load current remains clamped at zero till the thyristor is fired again at t = 2
+ . The same process repeats thereafter.From the discussion above and one can write
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Similar calculation can be done for i0. In particulars for pure resistive loads FFio =
FFvo.
Resistive-Inductive load
Fig 10.2 (a) and (b) shows the circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase
fully controlled half wave rectifier supplying a resistive inductive load. Although this
circuit is hardly used in practice its analysis does provide useful insight into the
operation of fully controlled rectifiers which will help to appreciate the operation of
single phase bridge converters to be discussed later.
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As in the case of a resistive load, the thyristor T becomes forward biased

when the supply voltage becomes positive at t = 0. However, it does not start
conduction until a gate pulse is applied at t = . As the thyristor turns ON at t =
the input voltage appears across the load and the load current starts building up.
However, unlike a resistive load, the load current does not become zero at t = ,
instead it continues to flow through the thyristor and the negative supply voltage
appears across the load forcing the load current to decrease. Finally, at t = ( > )
the load current becomes zero and the thyristor undergoes reverse recovery. From this
point onwards the thyristor starts blocking the supply voltage and the load voltage
remains zero until the thyristor is turned ON again in the next cycle. It is to be noted
that the value of depends on the load parameters.
Therefore, unlike the resistive load the average and RMS output voltage depends on
the load parameters. Since the thyristors does not conduct over the entire input supply
cycle this mode of operation is called the discontinuous conduction mode.
From above discussion one can write.
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Since the average voltage drop across the inductor is zero.

However, IORMS cannot be obtained from VORMS directly. For that a closed from
expression for i0 will be required. The value of in terms of the circuit parameters can
also be found from the expression of i0.
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The general solution of which is given by
Equation (10.13) can be used to find out IORMS. To find out it is noted that
Equation (10.14) can be solved to find out

Wind System
Wind is a highly stochastic energy source. There is also a strong
interdependence between the aerodynamic characteristics of the wind turbine, the
generators rotor speed, and the amount of power that can be extracted from the wind.
Hence, it becomes necessary to implement a control method that will enable the
extraction of the maximum power from the system under all possible operating
conditions. The following sections highlight the major components of a stand-alone
WECS
General modelling of wind turbine
Wind turbines are classified based on the number of blades and the axis about which
they are mounted. Typically, the three blade horizontal-axis wind turbine is preferred
due to better performance as well as the even distribution of variations in ind speed
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from the rotors to the drive shaft. It is also capable of achieving better power
coefficient
The output mechanical power of the wind turbine is given by the cube law equation
where is the density of air (in kg m3), Cp is the power coefficient, A is the area
swept by the wind turbine rotor (in
square meter), Uw is the wind speed (in meters per second). The power coefficient is a
function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch angle . It describes the efficiency
of the wind turbine in converting the energy present in wind into mechanical power.
The tip speed ratio may be defined as the ratio of the speed at which the outer tip of
the turbine blade is moving to the wind speed. It is given by the equation
The blade pitch angle is defined as the angle at which the wind contacts the blade
surface. The expression for power coefficient is given as
It is valid to assume pitch angle to be zero for low to medium wind velocities [9].
Hence, in this work, = 0. To achieve maximum extraction of power from the
system, the tip speed ratio and power coefficient have to be maintained close to the
optimal values and varied according to the variations in the wind speed conditions.
The mechanical torque of the system is given by the equation
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Tm = Pm/m (N m). (5)

Configurations of wind systems
There are many generator types which find application in a WECS, such as
squirrel-cage induction generator, doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), and the
PMSG . Of these, the last two are most popularly used in WECS. In this paper, a
PMSG is used as the wind turbine generator (WTG) because of its compact size,
higher power density, reduced losses, high reliability, and robustness . The most
significant advantage is the elimination of the gearbox, in comparison to the DFIG.
Thus, the wind turbine can be directly coupled to the generator. Such systems are
called direct drive systems and are most suitable for low-speed operating conditions.
Owing to the bell-shaped nature of wind turbine power curves, the WTG is operated
in the variable speed mode in order to achieve maximum power from the incident
wind. The parameters of the wind turbine and the direct driven PMSG employed are
provided in the Appendix.
Wind energy systems have been subject of research for decades. They consist of
wind turbines and electrical generators. The rst section covers the basics of VAWT .
Initially in this section, aerodynamics of wind turbines are presented. Subjects like
control, dynamic vibration and noise emission in VAWT are covered. Furthermore, a
separate section is dedicated to a comparison between Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
(HAWT) and VAWT .
The role of a wind energy system is to capture mechanical energy in the air ow and
convert it to electrical energy. Usually it consists of a wind turbine rotor, for the
former purpose, and an electrical machine working as generator for the latter. The
variation in the wind speed is one of the factors that aects the specications of wind
energy systems. In other words design of the wind systems components demands
special consideration. The amount of accessible mechanical energy depends on the
size of the wind turbine and the wind regime of the site.
2.1 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics
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The amount of the kinetic energy in the air ow can be determined based on
the size of wind turbine and the wind speed. The elementary momentum theory gives
an explaination of energy conversion in ideal circumstances. The amount of the
kinetic energy of a uid mass m with a mass density , moving at a velocity
through the area A is
and the mass ow is
The power available in the wind is equal to the amount of energy yield passing per
second.
It is obvious that a small variation in the wind speed inuences the available wind
power drastically. It was rst in 1922, the German engineer Betz showed that
Figure 2.5. Power coecient versus tip speed ratio].

the amount of extractable energy from an air stream is limited. It was shown that, in a
free air stream, the maximum energy is extracted if the wind speed is reduced by three
times far behind the turbine in comparison to in front of it. The maximum extractable
power becomes then, 16/27 of available wind power.
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For steady state analysis of aerodynamic conversion, a power coecient diagram is

used. As mentioned, it is not possible to capture all the power in the air ow as this
would result in air standstill immediately after the wind turbine. Aerodynamic
eciency represents a ratio of captured power and available wind power. In wind
power terminology, it is more known as the power coecient. Betz factor is the
maximum value for the power coecient.
The power coecient Cp is a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch
angle . Equation 2.3 above, is modied according to equation 2.4.
where
is the rotor tip angular speed and r is the rotor plane radius. Blade pitching means
that the rotor blades are rotated along their axis, in order to control the amount of the
absorbed power. In wind turbines which are not equipped with the control of the
blade pitch, power coecient is merely function of the tip speed ratio. Figure 2.5
shows a typical power coecient diagram. Power coecient is maximum at the
optimum tip speed ratio i.e. in order to capture the maximum energy, the wind turbine
rotor has to be run at this ratio. When the wind turbine rotor is run at other tip speed
ratios, eddies will develop at the blade tip. This phenomenon reduces the captured
energy and it is called stall. It explains the drop of the power coecient at other tip
speed ratios.
It can be observed from the power coecient diagram in Figure 2.5, that the wind
turbine is not self starting. For low values of the tip speed ratio, the value of the power
coecient is negative. Many lift based wind turbines require a minimum tip speed
ratio before they can start to absorb the power . Accordingly, in order to start up the
wind turbine rotor, energy has to be supplied. There are dierent ways to do so, one is
to utilise an auxiliary self starting turbine like for example Savonious wind turbine.
Another is certain modication in the design of the wind turbine. Furthermore,
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electrical starting of wind turbine is yet another possibility. The generator is, then, fed
by the grid for a short duration of time and works as a motor in order to start the wind
turbine. In this solution the wind power plant cannot operate as a stand alone unit.
2.2 Wind Turbines
Wind turbines are categorised based on two dierent criteria; First due to their
aerodynamic function; second based on their design. Considering the aerodynamic
performance, wind turbines are divided into drag based and lift based. The rotors
which utilise the drag force of the wind are recognised a slow speed turbines.
However ,in some turbines, the possibility of employing the lift force is also provided.
The lift based turbines are recognised as high speed rotors. These are capable of
capturing higher amount of the wind power compared to their drag based counterparts
and therefore they are the most common solution today. Due to the second criterion,
wind turbines are classied based on their axis of rotation. It is more common to
distinguish wind systems as HAWT or VAWT.
HAWTs have beneted from technological advancements in the aircraft engineering
because of the blades propeller like design. For instance, to achieve more lift forces,
blade shapes optimisation are proposed and applied. Power coecients up to 0.5 of
HAWT s have been reported. Todays VAWT s have reached power coecient up to
0.4 at maximum. Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 show a H rotor VAWT and an installed
HAWT respectively. Simplicity of the design of the VAWT s is benecial, especially
the possibility to accommodate some of the drive train components on the ground
together with absence of the yaw system 2. Some disadvantages of the system are the
lower optimum tip speed ratio, inability to self start and inability to implement blade
pitching for power control purposes. In some of the researchers opinion the VAWT
power coecient can exceed that of HAWT s .
2.2.1 Working Principle of VAWT
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Figure 2.6 shows a horizontal plan of a VAWT . The hub is assumed to be located at
the centre of the coordinate system. The area with a positive value on
Figure 2.6. An H rotor VAWT .

y-axis in Cartesian coordinate system is dened as up wind region and there maining
area is dened as the downwind region. The angle of attack is the relative angle
between the chord line of the blade cross section and the wind direction. This angle,
seen by the blades in the upwind region, is negative. Since the angle of attack is
negative, the lift force vectors produced on the blade section will point inwards the
rotor. The force can be decomposed into two dierent components, a tangential and a
normal. The former is along the tangent of the blade and the latter is perpendicular to
the blade. Moreover, the lift force will be created in downwind region. Here the angle
of attack is positive, the consequent lift force vectors will point outwards the rotor.
Tangential lift forces, originated from upwind and downwind regions, contribute to
the torque production in the rotor. The normal force slead to thrust along the wind
direction
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Figure 2.7. A 450 kw HAWT with 37 m rotor diameter (Bonus).
Figure 2.8. Horizontal plan of a VAWT

2.3 Mechanical Drive Train
The term "mechanical drive train"stands for all rotating parts of the wind
system from the rotor hub to the rotor of the generator. In conventional power plant
technology, two requirements by mechanical drive are met: First equity of input
power to the generator with the amount of needed power by the load; Second
matching the speed levels of the prime mover with the speed of the generator. In wind
systems, however, mechanical drive train does not meet neither of these requirements.
The power production depends on the available wind resource which is not
controllable. Furthermore, wind speed is far from rated speed of the conventional
generators. The drive trains are classied according to implementation of a wind
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system in order to compare their characteristics. Each drive type possesses specic
advantages and disadvantages, such as aerodynamic and dynamic performance,
controllability, reliability, maintenance , etc.
2.3.1 Fixed Speed or Variable Speed
In xed speed wind systems, the rotor speed is determined by the
grid frequency and its variation is limited to around 1% of the nominal speed.
Usually, the xed speed wind systems is designed in such a way that it has its
optimum wind speed equal to site mean wind speed. No means for power control is
applied and the advantage is simplicity of operation. Disadvantages are low eciency
of wind energy system in other wind conditions a side from the mean wind speed, and
severe dynamics performance. Since no control method is implemented, any
uctuations of power i.e. disturbances in the grid and/or turbulence in the wind, are
passed through the system without any damping. This reduces the quality of the
delivered powertothegridandalsocausesmechanicalstressonthewindturbinerotor. Weak
power systems are sensitive to low power quality delivered by such wind systems.
The eciency of electrical machines varies with varying electrical load condi
tions. Therefore most of the xed speed wind energy systems are designed in a way to
provide the generator with high load. This can be achieved by means of two
generators with dierent ratings. Another solution is to have two windings with
dierent pole numbers in the same generator. In Variable Speed wind systems, power
electronics converters keeps the rotor speed and the grid frequency apart. Therefore it
is possible to vary the rotor speed independent of the grid frequency. Hence, the
variation in the input power will result in the rotor speed variation. The output power
from wind system will be slightly lower than the input power which results in more
stable and smooth delivered power to the grid. The power quality of these wind
energy systems is much better compared to their xed speed counterparts.
Furthermore, they have lower noise in low wind conditions . In variable speed
systems, the wind turbine is operated in a wider speed range, keeping the tip speed
ratio at the optimum. The advantage is higher energy capture, however, the
disadvantage is more complicated control method.
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2.3.2 Geared or Direct Driven

Wind energy systems can be distinguished based on whether or not they include gearboxes. Wind turbine rotors are capable of rotating at tens of rotations per
minute. However, the conventional electrical machines runs at much higher speeds
e.g. hundreds of Rotation Per Minute (rpm) . The role of a gearbox is to transfer
mechanical energy from low speed to high speed; A step up gearbox is used then.
Implementation of a gearbox has its own disadvantages, e.g. maintenance, installation
complication, cost of equipment, audible noise and losses. The gearbox is one of the
reasons for audible noise in wind energy systems. The losses in the gearbox are
comparable to the losses in the electric machine. Newly designed wind systems are
usually adapted for gearless operation. This solution has become more reliable, more
ecient and less noisy. The main disadvantage is a need for a special designed
generator which tends to be bulky.
Due to the possibility of employing power electronics converters, gearless, or in other
words, direct driven systems can suite for variable speed applications. Converters
oer the possibility to operate the generator at low speeds. Although the converters
are source of losses, controllability is a huge advantage compared to the gearboxes.
Knowledge about construction and operation of gearboxes alleviates their aftermath.
Gearboxesaredividedintotwodierentcongurations;Parallelshaftorspur
gear
which has a simpler mechanical construction and a gear ratio of up to 1 : 5 in each

stage; Planetary or helical gearbox which has more complicated mechanical
construction and a gear ratio of up to 1 : 12 in each stage. HAWT s run typically at
20rpm and usually requires more than one stage. Tooth ank friction and oil ow are
the origins of power losses in the gearboxes. The average amount of losses depends
on the gear ratio and the type of the gear. It is estimated as approximately 2% of full
power per stage for parallel shaft gears and as 1% of full power per stage for planetary
gears. In practice precise dimensioning of gearbox is of importance. Otherwise
maintenance and operation will experience many problems and the lifetime will be
aected.
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2.4 Operation Sequence and Control

2.4.1 Operation Sequence
Operation sequence of the wind turbine is determined by means of three
thresh- old points.
Cut in velocity
CI which is the wind speed the wind turbine starts to deliver
output power. For instance, in VAWT s captured power for low wind speeds is
negative, and the cut in velocity has to be chosen at values greater than the wind
speed at which power coecient becomes positive.
The rated wind velocity R is the wind speed at which the captured power reaches
the generator rated power.
The cut out velocity CO is the highest wind speed at which the wind energy system
is able to operate mechanically safe. Typically this is less than 25 m/s .
As a result, operation sequence of a wind turbine is divided into, at least, four
regions.
Region1, at which the wind speed is less than the cut in speed. In this region,
captured power does not sucient to compensate the internal consumption and
losses. Hence the turbine is parked and is not run.
Region 2, at which the wind speed is between the cut in speed and the rated speed.
It is sometimes called sub-rated region and the wind turbine is controlled using
Maximum Power Point Tracking(MPPT) in order to achieve the optimum tip speed
ratio. MPPT is introduced thoroughly in subsection 2.4.2 .
Region 3, at which the wind speed is between rated speed and cut out speed. In this
region, there are various control options, namely constant rotor speed, constant rotor
torque and constant rotor power. The rst two ,comes with the risk of torque and
current overload and they need additional control measures for overload protection. In
the latter two, the speed does not reach to the rated speed, therefore constant rotor
power is proposed .
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Region 4, at which the wind speed exceeds the cut out speed and the wind turbine is
shut down.
2.4.2 Control
The purpose of the control is to limiting the torque and the power experienced
by the drive train in order to increase lifetime. Maximising the energy yield for
various conditions.
Drive train suers from fatigue caused by aerodynamic and structural loads. The
structural strength of the wind turbine can be maintained up to a certain wind speed.
In addition, another limiting factor is the rated power of the generator. The rated
power of the generator is reached at rated wind speed of the turbine. Energy yield
depends on the available wind power of the site as well as power capture by the wind
turbine.
The energy available in the wind is uncontrollable since it depends on the wind
regime of the site. However, the power capture by the wind turbine can be maximised
by the control method. There are four dierent ways to inuence the rotor captured
power and the turbine loads. They are
Angle of attack (blade pitching)
Flow velocity (variable speed rotor)
Blade size (variable blade length)
Blade section aerodynamics
The rst two methods are implemented in most of all modern HAWT s and the work
principle behind the control of the power coecient. They are introduced in the
following subsections.
The working principle behind the variable diameter blade is the control of the swept
area that is useful for minimising the load during high wind speeds. Control of blade
section aerodynamics is implemented by means of active ow control. This state of
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the art method is growing rapidly and has the potential to be implemented on large
scale HAWT s.
Generally, control can be implemented in either active or passive way, depending on
utilization of external energy. Yaw mechanism ,blade pitching and variable speed
rotors are examples of contemporary active control methods.
Blade Pitching
In a conventional control method of HAWTs the pitch angle of the rotor blade is
changed mechanically. Blade pitching means that the blades are turned along their
longitudinal axis with the help of an active mechanical device. In this way, the angle
of attack and thereby also the absorbed power varies. The angle of attack can be
changed in two dierent ways either by decreasing or increasing it. Both cases reduce
the captured power, provided that the angle of attack is in a condition where the
power coecient is at the maximum. The former requires higher blade pitching for
the same dierence in the power coecient. Hence, the output power is controlled
more precisely.
Fixed-speed-xed-blade VAWTs suer from high demands on the self stall
regulation property. Usually, small scale VAWT s are not equipped with the blade
pitching control for simplicity reasons. In xed blade VAWTs, at which the rotor
speed is kept constant, the more the wind speed increases, the larger the angle of
attack becomes. Thus the amount of stall will increase as well. In xed speed wind
systems, which are connected to the grid directly, the rotor speed is constant and
accordingly the self regulatory stall is always present.
From the wind system components point of view, there are several demand points
which are listed below
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CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OF PROPOSED DC MICROGRID
Fig. 3.1. Layout of the DC Microgrid.

A schematic of the dc microgrid with the conventions employed for power is
given in Fig.3.1. The dc bus connects wind energy conversion system (WECS), PV
panels, multilevel energy storage comprising battery energy storage system (BESS)
and supercapacitor, EV smart charging points, EV fast charging station, and grid
interface. The WECS is connected to the dc bus via an acdc converter. PV panels are
connected to the dc bus via a dcdc converter. The BESS can be realized through flow
battery technology connected to the dc bus via a dcdc converter. The supercapacitor
has much less energy capacity than the BESS. Rather, it is aimed at compensating for
fast fluctuations of power and so provides cache control as detailed in [19]. Thanks to
the multilevel energy storage, the intermittent and volatile renewable power outputs
can be managed, and a deterministic controlled power to the main grid is obtained by
optimization. Providing uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
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Fig. 3.2 Overview of optimized scheduling approach.

Service to loads when needed is a core duty of the urban microgrid. EV fast
charging introduces a stochastic load to the microgrid. The multilevel energy storage
mitigates potential impacts on the main grid. In building integration, a vertical axis
wind turbine may be installed on the rooftop as shown in Fig.3.2. PV panels can be
co-located on the rooftop and the facade of the building. Such or similar
configurations benefit from a local availability of abundant wind and solar energy.
The fast charging station is realized for public access at the ground level. It is
connected close to the LVMV transformer to reduce losses and voltage drop. EVs
parked in the building are offered smart charging within user-defined constraints
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3.1
OPERATIONAL OPTIMIZATION OF MICROGRID FOR
RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION

The algorithm for optimized scheduling of the microgrid is depicted in Fig.3.2.
In the first stage, wind and solar power generation are forecast. The uncertainty of the
wind and solar power is presented by a three-state model. An example of such a
forecast is shown in Fig. State 1 represents a power forecast lower than the average
powerforecast. This state is shown by the power forecast of _P1 with the forecast
probability of _pr1 assigned to it. The average power forecast and the probability of
forecast assigned to it give state 2. State 3 represents a power forecast higher than the
average power forecast. Then, wind and solar power forecasts are aggregated to
produce the total renewable power forecast model.
This aggregation method is formulated in Section III-A. The aggregated power
generation data are used to assign hourly positive and negative energy reserves to the
BESS for the microgrid operation. The positive energy reserve of the BESS gives the
energy stored that can be readily injected into the dc bus on demand. The negative
energy reserve gives the part of the BESS to remain uncharged to capture excess
power on demand. Energy reserve assessment is performed according to the
aggregated renewable power generation forecast. In order to compensate for the
uncertainty of the forecast, a method is devised to assess positive and negative energy
reserves in Section III-B. Finally, the emission constrained cost optimization is
formulated to schedule the microgrid resources for the day-ahead dispatch. The
optimized scheduling is formulated in Section III-C.
3.2.
AGGREGATED
MODEL OF WIND
AND
SOLAR
FORECAST
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POWER

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where _prA,m is the forecast probability of renewable power at the aggregated state
m, and _prl,m is the forecast probability of renewable power at the combined state l
within the aggregated state m. The average power of each aggregated state is
calculated by the average weighting of all power outputs in the aggregated state m
where _PA,m is the power forecast of renewables at the aggregated state m,

and _Pl,m is the power forecast at the combined state l within the aggregated state m.
In the example shown in Table II, the combined model is reduced to a three-state wind
and solar power forecast model. Employing (1) and (2), the calculation is shown for
aggregated state 1 in the following:
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In the example shown in Table II, the combined model is reduced to a three-state wind
and solar power forecast model. Employing (1) and (2), the calculation is shown for
aggregated state 1 in the following Wind and solar power generation forecast
uncertainty data are made available for the urban microgrid. Specifically, as shown in
Fig. 4, the output power state and the probability assigned to that state are available.
In the three-state model, the number of individual states is K = 3. A sample of forecast
data of the wind and solar power generation is provided for 1 h, as shown in Table I.
For example, at a probability of 50% the wind power will be 50 kW in state 2.
The aggregation of output power states of the wind and solar power is formed as
follows. As the microgrid has two generation resources with three individual states, K
= 3, the number of combined states is N = K2, which is equal to nine in this case. The
combined states in the forecast uncertainty model of wind and solar power are shown
in Fig. 5. In each combined state, the power of those individual states is summed up,
and the probability of a combined state is the product of the probabilities in individual
states assuming that the individual states are not correlated.
For the wind and PV power forecast shown in Table I, nine combined states are
defined. Those states are provided in Table II. The combined states, as shown by the
example in Table II, should be reduced to fewer representative states. To aggregate the
combined states, M aggregated states are defined. In this example M = 3. Those states
are shown in Table II and denoted by m. The borders between aggregated state m
states are determined based on the borders between individual states in Table I. The
average renewable power of individual states 1 and 2 is 62.5 kW and gives the border
between aggregated states 1 and 2. Likewise, the average renewable power of
individual states 2 and 3 gives the border between aggregated states 2 and 3. If an
aggregated state m covers a number of combined states L, the probability of having
one of those aggregated states is the sum of the probabilities of those combined states.
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3.3.ENERGY RESERVE ASSESSMENT FOR OPERATION OF MICROGRID

Taking into account the aggregated wind and solar power forecast model
developed above, an illustrative example is provided to show how the energy reserve
is assessed. In Table IV, an aggregated three-state power forecast model for three
continuous hours is assumed. The aggregated power forecast for hour 1 is taken from
the example solved in Section III-A. The aggregated power forecast of hours 2 and 3
is calculated by the same method. As shown in Table IV, the probability of having
real-time power output at state 1 in three continuous hours is equal to the product of
the probabilities in state 1 for those three hours. This probability is thus equal to
0.18753 = 0.00659. This is also the same probability for having state 3 in three
continuous hours. The probability is very small. Therefore, the BESS has enough
negative energy reserve to cover for uncertainty for three successive hours if the
following condition is met:
Power at aggregated state 3 represents the power forecast higher than average, state 2.
Therefore, the negative reserve that is used to capture excess energy is calculated by
summation of the energy pertaining to state 3 minus the energy pertaining to state 2 in
a 3-h window.
This means that the microgrid has, at the high probability of 10.18753, the
free capacity in the BESS to capture the excess of renewable energy for a 3-h window.
Similar to the negative energy reserve assessment, the positive energy reserve is
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assessed. In order to calculate the positive energy reserve for the example shown in
Table IV, energy of state 2 is subtracted from energy of state 1 for all three hours, and
the results are summed up. Positive energy reserve is the stored energy in the BESS
ready to be injected into the dc bus to mitigate less renewable power generation than
expected
Similar to the example solved for 1 h in Table III, the aggregated model should
be developed for the whole dispatch period. For instance, if the scheduling horizon is
24 h, a window sweeps the horizon in 24/3 blocks. Thus, eight blocks of reserve will
be determined. Both positive and negative energy reserves are considered in the BESS
energy constraint. Based on the operation strategy, BESS storage capacity allocation
is shown in Fig. 6. The depth of discharge (DOD), positive energy reserve (PR),
operational area, and negative energy reserve (NR) are allocated in the BESS. The
BESS can only be charged and discharged in the operation area in normal operation
mode, which is scheduled by optimization. The BESS may operate in positive and
negative energy reserve areas in order to compensate the uncertainties of power
generation and load demand in real time operation
3.4.
FORMULATION OF OPTIMIZED SCHEDULING OF MICROGRID

The objective of the optimization is to minimize operation cost of the
microgrid in interconnected mode and provide UPS service in the autonomous mode.
These objectives can be achieved by minimization of the following defined objective
function: where F is the objective function to be minimized, T is the scheduling
horizon of the optimization, h is the optimization time step which is 1 h, C1kWh is
the energy cost for 1 kWh energy.
PG is the incoming power from the grid, PEVS is the smart charging power
for EVs, EPBF is the emission penalty bonus factor for CO2, and EMS is the
average CO2 emission of 1 kWh electrical energy in the power system outside the
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microgrid. In this objective function, PG and PEVS are to be determined by

optimization. The first term in the objective function above expresses the energy cost,
the second term defines the cost of EV smart charging, and the third term describes
the emission cost.
As shown in Fig. 1, for positive values of PG, the microgrid draws power
from the main grid, and for negative values of PG the microgrid injects power into the
main grid. The emission term penalizes power flow from the main grid to the
microgrid. If the microgrid draws power from the main grid, the microgrid would
contribute to emissions of the power system. On the other hand, as the microgrid has
no unit that produces emission, when the microgrid returns power to the main grid, it
contributes to emission reduction. The optimization program determines a solution
that minimizes theoperation cost of the dc microgrid. Thus, a monetary value
isassigned to emission reduction by this approach. This objective function is subject
to the constraints as follows.
1) Power limitation of the grid interface introduces a boundary constraint to the
optimization
where PG is the lower boundary of the grid power, and PG+ is the upper boundary
of the grid power.
2) The BESS power has to be within the limits
where PBESS is the lower boundary of the outgoing power from the BESS to the dc
bus, PBESS is the BESS power to the dc bus, and PBESS+ is the upper boundary of
the BESS power
3) The availability of EV and charging power limits should be met
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where PEVS is the EV charging power, PEVS+ is the upper boundary of the EV
charging power, and TEVS gives the hours in which EVs are available for smart
charging.
4) The power balance equation has to be valid at all simulation time steps
where _PA,2 is the average power forecast of renewable energy sources wind and
solar at aggregated state 2, and _PEVF is the EV fast charging power forecast.
5) The objective function is also subject to a constraint of the SOC of the BESS. In
order to include UPS service, the formulation of the optimization is modified.
Application is to supplying loads by the microgrid for a dened time span in
the case of a contingency. It is devised so that the microgrid provides backup power
for a commercial load such as a bank branch or an ofce during working hours.
where EBESS is the lower boundary of energy capacity of the BESS,

EBESS-0 is the SOC of the BESS at the beginning of the optimization, _EBESS is the
discharged energy from the BESS to the dc bus at every minute, and EBESS+ is the
upper boundary of energy capacity of the BESS. The SOC of the battery at all time
steps should be in the operation zone of the BESS. Therefore, in this equation, the
SOC of the battery is calculated and checked to be within the upper and lower SOC
limits. Quantities EBESS, EBESS+, and _EBESS are calculated
as follows:
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where EBESS+ is the upper boundary of BESS SOC, ECBESS is the energy
capacity of the BESS, and ECNR-3h is the negative energy reserve of the BESS. The
discharged energy from the BESS to the dc bus is calculated by where _EBESS is the
discharged energy from the BESS
to the dc bus in every minute, dis is the discharging efficiency of the BESS, ch is
the charging efficiency of the BESS, and min is the time step size equal to 1 min.
6) The total required EV smart charging energy for the day-ahead scheduling is to be
met. This is defined by
Fig.3.
3. Droop control of BESS power electronic converter to mitigate powerdeviations of
dc microgrid in normal SOC of the BESS.
Fig.
3.4.
Droop control of BESS power electronic converter to mitigate power

deviations of dc microgrid in lower than the scheduled SOC of the BESS.
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where TEVS is the time that EVs are available for smart charging by the microgrid,
PEVS is the smart charging power of EVs, and _ECEVS-ch is the total EV smart
charging energy forecast for the day-ahead scheduling
3.5.
ADAPTIVE DROOP CONTROL OF BESS

In this section, the real-time operation of the microgrid in the interconnected
and autonomous modes is studied. In the interconnected mode of operation, an

adaptive droop control is devised for the BESS. The adaptive droop characteristic of
the BESS power electronic converter is selected on the basis of the deviation between
the optimized and real-time SOC of the BESS, as calculated in Section III. Details of
the method are provided in Section IV-A. In autonomous mode of operation, the
BESS is responsible for keeping the voltage of the dc bus
in a defined acceptable range for providing UPS service. The autonomous mode of
operation of the microgrid is described in Section IV-B
A. DC Voltage Droop Control in Interconnected Mode
The devised droop controls of the BESS are depicted in Figs. The change of the
battery power _PBESS is modified as a function of the dc voltage. It can be noted that
two of the three devised droop characteristics are asymmetric.
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The first droop curve, as shown in Fig, is devised for a case where the realtime SOC of the BESS is within close range of the optimized SOC of the BESS from
the scheduling calculated in Section III-C. The acceptable realtime SOC is determined
through definition of upper and lower boundaries around the optimized SOC. If the
real-time SOC is within these boundaries, the droop control of the BESS power
electronic converter is selected as shown in Fig.To support the dc voltage. In this case,
the upper boundary and the lower boundary lead to a symmetrical droop response. In
the voltage range between VBm1 and VBm1+, battery storage does not react to the
voltage deviations of the dc bus.
In the voltage range from VBm1 to VBm2 and also from VBm1+ to
VBm2+, the droop control of the BESS reacts. Therefore, _PBESS modifies the
power output PBESS to mitigate the voltage deviation of the dc bus. Finally, in the
voltage range from VBm2 to VBC and also from VBm2+ to VBC+, the droop curve
is in a saturation area, and thus the BESS contribution is at its maximum and
constant.The second droop curve as shown in Fig. 8 is devised for a situation where
the real-time SOC of the BESS is lower than the optimized and scheduled SOC of the
BESS. Therefore, the BESS contributes to stabilizing the dc bus voltage by charging
at the same power as shown in Fig.
However, the upper boundary of the BESS droop response is reduced by the
factor , and it is equal to _PBESS-D. This way, the SOC can come closer to the
optimized and scheduled SOC. The third droop curve as shown in Fig. 9 is devised for
a situation where the real-time SOC of the BESS is higher than the optimized and
scheduled SOC of the BESS. Therefore, the BESS contributes to stabilizing the dc
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bus voltage by discharging at the same power as shown in Fig. 7. However, the lower
boundary of the BESS droop response is modified by the factor , and it is equal to
_PBESS-D. The dcac converter connected to the main grid is also controlled by a
droop, as shown in Fig.The droop parameters are adjusted to support the droop
control of the storage.
The boundaries must respect the capacity of the converter. In real-time
operation and interconnected mode, the SOC of the BESS is measured and compared
against the optimized SOC of the BESS, and the proper droop will be selected as
described above. A summary of the droop selection for the BESS in interconnected
operation mode is shown in Table V.
B. DC Voltage Droop Control in Autonomous Mode
In the autonomous mode, the main grid is disconnected. Then, the fast charging
service has less priority compared with the supply of other loads. The control of the
BESS converter is also defined by the voltagepower droop as discussed. The BESS
so supports the voltage of the dc bus
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CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION THEORY
4.1
GENERAL
MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment and fourthgeneration programming language. Developed by MathWorks, MATLAB allows
matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms,
creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages,
including C, C++, Java, and Fortran. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for
numerical computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine,
allowing access to symbolic computing capabilities. An additional package, Simulink,
adds graphical multi-domain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and
embedded systems.
In 2004, MATLAB had around one million users across industry and academia.
MATLAB users come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and
economics. MATLAB is widely used in academic and research institutions as well as
industrial enterprises.
4.2
MATLAB HISTORY
Cleve Moler, the chairman of the computer-science department at the
University of New Mexico, started developing MATLAB in the late 1970s. He

designed it to give his students access to LINPACK and EISPACK without them
having to learn Fortran. It soon spread to other universities and found a strong
audience within the applied mathematics community. Jack Little, an engineer, was
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exposed to it during a visit Moler made to Stanford University in 1983. Recognizing

its commercial potential, he joined with Moler and Steve Bangert. They rewrote
MATLAB in C and founded MathWorks in 1984 to continue its development. These
rewritten libraries were known as JACKPAC. In 2000, MATLAB was rewritten to use
a newer set of libraries for matrix manipulation, LAPACK.
MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners in control engineering,
Little's specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also used in
education, in particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis, and is
popular amongst scientists involved in image processing.
4.3
SIMULINK
Simulink, developed by MathWorks, is a commercial tool for modeling,
simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. Its primary interface is a

graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries. It offers
tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and can either drive
MATLAB or be scripted from it. Simulink is widely used in control theory and digital
signal processing for multi-domain simulation and Model-Based Design
Simulink is a block diagram environment for multi-domain simulation and ModelBased Design. It supports system-level design, simulation, automatic code generation,
and continuous test and verification of embedded systems.Simulink provides a
graphical editor, customizable block libraries, and solvers for modeling and
simulating dynamic systems. It is integrated with MATLAB, enabling you to
incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models and export simulation results to
MATLAB for further analysis.
4.4
BUILDING THE MODEL

Simulinkprovides a set of predefined blocks that you can combine to create a
detailed block diagram of your system. Tools for hierarchical modeling, data
management, and subsystem customization enable you to represent even the most
complex system concisely and accurately.
4.4.1
Selecting Blocks
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The Simulink Library Browser contains a library of blocks commonly used to

model a system. As shown in Fig.4.2, these include:
Fig.4.1. Building a new model

Continuous and discrete dynamics blocks, such as Integration and Unit Delay
Algorithmic blocks, such as Sum, Product, and Lookup Table Structural blocks, such
as Mux, Switch, and Bus Selector.
We can build customized functions by using these blocks or by incorporating
hand-written MATLAB, C, Fortran, or Ada code into the model.The custom blocks
can be stored in their own libraries within the Simulink Library Browser.
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Fig.4.2. Commonly used blocks

Simulink add-on products let you incorporate specialized components for aerospace,
communications, PID control, control logic, signal processing, video and image
processing, and other applications. Add-on products are also available for modeling
physical systems with mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic components.
To build a model as shown in Fig.4.1 by dragging blocks from the Simulink Library
Browser into the Simulink Editor, we then connect these blocks with signal lines to
establish mathematical relationships between system components.
Graphical
formatting tools, such as smart guides and smart signal routing, help we control the
appearance of the model as webuild it. We can add hierarchy by encapsulating a
group of blocks and signals as a subsystem in a single block.
The Simulink Editor gives a complete control over what we see and use within the
model. For example, we can add commands and submenus to the editor and context
menus. We can also add a custom interface to a subsystem or model by using a mask
that hides the subsystem's contents and provides the subsystem with its own icon and
parameter dialog box.
4.4.2
Navigating Through the Model Hierarchy

The Explorer bar and Model Browser in Simulink helpsto navigate the model.
The Explorer bar indicates the level of hierarchy that we are currently viewing and
lets we can move up and down the hierarchy. The Model Browser provides a complete
hierarchical tree view of your model, and like the Explorer bar, can be used to move
through the levels of hierarchy.
4.4.3
Managing Signals and Parameters

Simulink models contain both signals and parameters. Signals are time-
varying data represented by the lines connecting blocks. Parameters are coefficients
that define system dynamics and behavior.Simulink helps to determine the following
signal and parameter attributes as shown in Fig.4.3:
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Data typesingle, double, signed, or unsigned 8-, 16- or 32-bit integers; Boolean;
enumeration; or fixed point
Dimensionsscalar, vector, matrix, N-D, or variable-sized arrays
Complexityreal or complex values
Minimum and maximum range, initial value, and engineering units
If we choose not to specify data attributes, Simulink determines them automatically
via propagation algorithms, and conducts consistency checking to ensure data
integrity.These signal and parameter attributes can be specified either within the
model or in a separate data dictionary. We can then use the Model Explorer to
organize, view, modify, and add data without navigating through the entire model as
shown in Fig.4.4.
Fig.4.3 Signal Attributes tab
Fig.4.4 Model Explorer Window
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4.4.4
Simulating the Model

We can simulate the dynamic behavior of the system and view the results as
the simulation runs. To ensure simulation speed and accuracy, Simulink provides
fixed-step and variable-step ODE solvers, a graphical debugger, and a model profiler.
4.4.5
Choosing a Solver
Solvers as shown in Fig.4.5 are numerical integration algorithms that compute
the system dynamics over time using information contained in the model. Simulink
provides solvers to support the simulation of a broad range of systems, including
continuous-time (analog), discrete-time (digital), hybrid (mixed-signal), and multirate
systems of any size.
Fig.4.4.5. Configuration Parameters dialog box showing the Solver pane.

These solvers can simulate stiff systems and systems with discontinuities. We can
specify simulation options, including the type and properties of the solver, simulation
start and stop times, and whether to load or save simulation data. We can also set
optimization and diagnostic information. Different combinations of options can be
saved with the model.
4.4.6
Running the Simulation
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We can run your simulation interactively from the Simulink Editor or

systematically from the MATLAB command line. The following simulation modes
are available:
Normal (the default), which interpretively simulates the model
Accelerator, which increases simulation performance by creating and executing
compiled target code but still provides the flexibility to change model parameters
during simulation
Rapid Accelerator, which can simulate models faster than Accelerator mode by
creating an executable that can run outside Simulink on a second processing core
To reduce the time required to run multiple simulations, we can run those simulations
in parallel on a multi-core computer or computer cluster.
4.4.7
Analyzing Simulation Results
After running a simulation, we can analyze the simulation results in MATLAB and
Simulink. Simulink includes debugging tools to help to understand the simulation
behavior.
4.4.8
Viewing Simulation Results

We can visualize the simulation behavior by viewing signals with the displays
and scopes provided in Simulink. We can also view simulation data within the
Simulation Data Inspector, where we can compare multiple signals from different
simulation runs. Scope is the block in Simulink by which we can measure and view
the voltage, current, and power in electrical domain. Fig.4.5 shows the output of a
multilevel converter through scope. Alternatively, we can build custom HMI displays
using MATLAB, or log signals to the MATLAB workspace to view and analyze the
data using MATLAB algorithms and visualization tools.
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Fig.4.5. Multi-step waveform
4.4.9
Debugging the Simulation

Simulink supports debugging with the Simulation Stepper, which lets we step
back and forth through your simulation viewing data on scopes or inspecting how and
when the system changes states. With the Simulink debugger we can step through a
simulation one method at a time and examine the results of executing that method. As
the model simulates, you can display information on block states, block inputs and
outputs, and block method execution within the Simulink Editor.
4.5
SIM POWER SYSTEMS

SimPowerSystems provides component libraries and analysis tools for
modeling and simulating electrical power systems. The libraries include models of
electrical power components, including three-phase machines, electric drives, and
components for applications such as flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) and
renewable energy systems. Harmonic analysis, calculation of total harmonic distortion
(THD), load flow, and other key electrical power system analyses are automated.
SimPowerSystems was developed by Hydro-Qubec of Montreal.
SimPowerSystems models as shown in Fig.3.7 can be used to develop
control systems and test system-level performance. We can parameterize the models
using MATLAB variables and expressions, and design control systems for the
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electrical power system in Simulink. We can add mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,

and other components to the model using Simscape and test them all in a single
simulation environment. To deploy models to other simulation environments,
including hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) systems, SimPowerSystems supports C-code
generation.
Starting with MathWorks Release 13, SimPowerSystems and SimMechanics of the
Physical Modeling product family work together with Simulink to model electrical,
mechanical, and control systems. Electrical power systems are combinations of
electrical circuits and electromechanical devices like motors and generators.
Engineers working in this discipline are constantly improving the performance of the
systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency have forced power system
designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control system concepts
that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the analysts
role is the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it
is through simulation.
Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the
only use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of power
electronics and control systems to achieve their performance objectives.
SimPowerSystems was designed to provide a modern design tool that allows
scientists and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power
systems.
SimPowerSystems uses the Simulink environment, allowing you to build a model
using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can you draw the circuit topology
rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with mechanical,
thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all the electrical parts
of the simulation interact with the extensive Simulink modeling library. Since
Simulink uses MATLAB as its computational engine, designers can also use
MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. SimPowerSystems and Sim Mechanics
share a special Physical Modeling block and connection line interface.
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Users can rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work. The libraries contain models of
typical power equipment such as transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics.
These models are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on
the experience of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of HydroQubec, a large North American utility located in Canada. The capabilities of
SimPowerSystems for modeling a typical electrical grid are illustrated in
demonstration files. And for users who want to refresh their knowledge of power
system theory, there are also self-learning case studies.
Fig.4.6. SimPowerSystems pane
4.6
MODELING
ELECTRICAL
POWER
SYSTEMS
With
SimPowerSystems,
We build a model of a system just as we would assemble a physical system.
The components in the model are connected by physical connections that represent
ideal conduction paths. This approach describes the physical structure of the system
rather than deriving and implementing the equations for the system. From the model,
which closely resembles a schematic, SimPowerSystems automatically constructs the
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differential algebraic equations (DAEs) that characterize the behavior of the system.
These equations are integrated with the rest of the Simulink model.
We can use the sensor blocks in SimPowerSystems to measure current and voltage in
your power network, and then pass these signals into standard Simulink blocks.
Source blocks enable Simulink signals to assign values to the electrical variables
current and voltage. Sensor and source blocks connect a control algorithm developed
in Simulink to a SimPowerSystems network.
4.7
MODELING CUSTOM COMPONENTS

SimPowerSystems enables to model custom components by using the
fundamental elements included in its libraries and by combining these elements with
Simulink blocks.
Fig.4.7. Simpower system Libraries

Components provided in SimPowerSystems as shown in Fig.4.7 include:
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Electrical elements: Linear and saturable transformers; arrestors and breakers; and
transmission line models.
Electric machinery: Models of synchronous, permanent magnet synchronous, and DC
machines; excitation systems; and models of hydraulic and steam turbine-governor
systems
Power electronics: Diodes, simplified and complex thyristors, GTOs, switches, IGBT
models, and universal bridges that allow selection of standard bridge topologies
Control and measurement: Voltage, current, and impedance measurements; RMS
measurements; active and reactive power calculations; timers, multimeters, and
Fourier analysis; HVDC control; total harmonic distortion; and abc-to-dq0 and dq0to-abc transformations
Electrical sources: To implement sinusoidal current source, sinusoidal voltage source,
generic battery model, Controlled AC Current and Voltage sources, DC Voltage
Source. To implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation
of amplitude, phase, frequency, and harmonics, and to implement three-phase source
with internal R-L impedance. The entire blocksets is shown in Fig.4.8.
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Fig.4.8.Blocksets of electrical sources used in SimPowerSystems

Three-phase components: RLC loads and branches; breakers and faults; pi-section
lines; voltage sources; transformers; synchronous and asynchronous generators; and
motors, analyzers, and measurements Electric Drives and Other Application Libraries
SimPowerSystems provides the following specialized application libraries:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS): Phasor models of flexible AC
transmission systems
Distributed Resources: Phasor models of wind turbines
Electric Drives: Editable models of electric drives that include detailed descriptions of
the motor, converter, and controller for each drive. The Electric Drives library
includes permanent magnet, synchronous, and asynchronous (induction) motors. The
converters and controllers implement the most common strategies for controlling the
speed and torque for these motors, such as direct-torque control and field-oriented
control.
SimPowerSystems supports the development of complex, self-contained power
systems, such as those in automobiles, aircraft, manufacturing plants, and power
utility applications. You can combine SimPowerSystems with other MathWorks
physical modeling products to model complex interactions in multi-domain physical
systems. The block libraries and simulation methods in SimPowerSystems were
developed by Hydro-Qubec of Montreal.
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Fig.4.9.
Circuit of a
transmission line
Fig.4.10. Same circuit designed in Simulink window
Thus users can rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work. The libraries that containing
models of typical power equipment such as transformers, lines, machines, and power
electronics are used to construct a electrical circuit shown in Fig.4.9 and the
completely designed circuit of the same in Simulink window as shown in Fig.4.10.
4.8
CONNECTING TO HARDWARE
We can connect the Simulink model to hardware for rapid prototyping,
hardware-in the-loop (HIL) simulation, and deployment on an embedded system.
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4.8.1
Running Simulations on Hardware

Simulink provides built-in support for prototyping, testing, and running
models on low-cost target hardware, including Arduino, LEGO MINDSTORMS

NXT, PandaBoard, and BeagleBoard. We can design algorithms in Simulink for
control systems, robotics, audio processing, and computer vision applications and see
them perform in real time.
Fig.4.11. Hardware Interface to simulink

Simulink provides built-in support for prototyping, testing, and running models on
low-cost target hardware, including Arduino , LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT, and
BeagleBoard as shown in Fig.4.12.
Fig.4.12. low-cost target hardware

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With Real-Time Windows Target, we can run Simulink models in real time on
Microsoft Windows PCs and connect to a range of I/O boards to create and control
a real-time system as shown in Fig. To run the model in real time on a target
computer, we can use xPC Target for HIL simulation, rapid control prototyping, and
other real-time testing applications. See xPC Target Turnkey for available target
computer hardware. Simulink models can be configured and made ready for code
generation. By using Simulink with add-on code generation products, you can
generate C and C++, HDL, or PLC code directly from your model.
4.9 APPLICATIONS
A number of MathWorks and third-party hardware and software products are
available for use with Simulink. For example, Stateflow extends Simulink with a
design environment for developing state machines and flow charts. Coupled with
Simulink Coder, another product from MathWorks, Simulink can automatically
generate C source code for real-time implementation of systems. As the efficiency and
flexibility of the code improves, this is becoming more widely adopted for production
systems, in addition to being a popular tool for embedded system design work
because of its flexibility and capacity for quick iteration. Embedded Coder creates
code efficient enough for use in embedded systems.
Target together with x86-based real-time systems provides an environment to simulate
and test Simulink and Stateflow models in real-time on the physical system.
Embedded Coder also supports specific embedded targets, including Infineon C166,
Motorola68HC12, Motorola MPC 555, TI C2000, TI C6000, RenesasV850 and
Renesas SuperH. With HDL Coder, also from MathWorks, Simulink and Stateflow
can automatically generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog.
Simulink Verification and Validation enables systematic verification and validation of
models through modeling style checking, requirements traceability and model
coverage analysis. Simulink Design Verifier uses formal methods to identify design
errors like integer overflow, division by zero and dead logic, and generates test case
scenarios for model checking within the Simulink environment. The systematic
testing tool TPT offers one way to perform formal test- verification and validation
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process to stimulate Simulink models but also during the development phase where
the developer generates inputs to test the system. By the substitution of the Constant
and Signal generator blocks of Simulink the stimulation becomes reproducible.
Sim Events adds a library of graphical building blocks for modeling queuing systems
to the Simulink environment. It also adds an event-based simulation engine to the
time-based simulation engine in Simulink.
CHAPTER 5
SIMULATION RESULTS
5.1 TECHNIQUES USED
The proposed operational method of the urban microgrid in day-ahead
scheduling and real-time operation is veried by simulation. For the day-ahead
scheduling, the method introduced in this paper is implemented in MATLAB and
simulated for a case study. The real-time operation of the urban microgrid is veried
by simulation in PSCAD.
Simulation of Optimized Scheduling The optimized scheduling of a vertically
integrated urban microgrid with renewable energy harvesting as shown in Fig and EV
charging on the ground is veried for the following assumptions. 1) A vertical axis
wind turbine with a generation capacity of 100 kW is installed on the rooftop. 2)
Photovoltaic panels with a generation capacity of 50 kW are mounted on the building.
3) A ow battery with the energy capacity of 1000 kWh, power rating of 400 kW, and
charging and discharging efficiencies of 0.95 and 0.90, respectively, is placed in the
basement of the building. The SOC of the BESS at the beginning of the optimization
is assumed to be 300 kWh. The DOD of the BESS is 80% of the maximum energy
capacity, which gives a minimum possible discharge to SOC of 200 kWh. 4) A
supercapacitor storage with a capacity of 100 kW is installed. 5) The BESS and
supercapacitor together form a multilevel energy storage, where the supercapacitor
provides fast dynamic response under an energy cache control scheme [19]. 6) The dc
bus capacitance is distributed among converters according to rating and in sum is 40
mF. 7) A grid interface with the capacity of300 kW is provided. 8) The energy cost
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diagram for 1 kWh energy is given in Fig. 9) The power generation forecast curves of
the wind and PV-based power generation are shown in Fig. 11(b). 10) A fast charging
station to serve one EV at a time is provided. The charging power is 100 kW. A
uniform distribution function is employed to simulate the demand of fast charging in
each quarter of an hour from 7 AM to 9 PM. The simulated fast charging prole is
provided in Fig. 11) The average amount of CO2 emission to generate 1 kWh
electricity in the power system (EMS) is 0.61235 kg/kWh. The emission penalty
bonus factor (EPBF) of 3 c$/kg CO 2 is chosen for the optimization. 12) The UPS
service is devised for 50 kW power and 4 h of continuous supply from 8 AM to 4 PM.
13) EVs are available for smart charging from 8 PM to the next day at 7 AM. The
maximum smart charging power of the aggregated EVs is 20 kW. The daily demand
of EVs is forecasted to be 50 kWh. Based on the method to aggregate uncertainty of
forecast of the renewable resources formulated in Section III-A, the wind and PV
power are aggregated. In order to generate the aggregated three-state model for the
renewable resources of the urban microgrid, forecast uncertainties are assumed as
shown in Table VI. In this table, wind and solar power forecast error data are provided
in percentage power deviations from the average value in state 2. These data apply to
the wind and solar power proles as shown in Fig. 11(b). From the aggregated threestate model shown in Fig. 12(a), based on the method introduced in Section III-A, the
3h window of positive and negative energy reserves in the BESS is determined as
depicted in Fig. 12(b) and explained in Section III-B. As shown, in each 3-h window
starting at hour 1, the positive and negative energy reserves are often the same. It can
happen that the positive and negative reserves are not equal. This has happened twice
for windows covering hours 7 to 9 and 16 to 18. At hours 9 and 17, wind power as
shown in Fig. 11(b) is at the maximum. Based on the power rating of the wind
turbine,at those hours the outputpower cannot exceed the nominal value. As a result,
the wind power of state 2 is equal to the maximum value of power as in state 3.
Consequently, less negative reserve is required since the wind power in state 3 is
equal to wind power in state 2. The optimization method is implemented in the
MATLAB Optimization Toolbox. The active-set algorithm is used to solve the
optimization problem with the linear objective function and the associated constraints.
Power limits of the components are translated into power boundary conditions in the
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implemented optimization code. The power balance constraint (7) is implemented as

equality constraint. The total required smart EV charging energy (12) is also
implemented as an equality constraint. The BESS energy constraint (8) is
implemented by an array of inequality constraints. Simulation results are provided in
Fig. 13(a) and (b). The battery power delivered to the dc bus of the urban microgrid,
SOC of the battery, and power coming from the main grid are given. As shown, the
BESS is charged when the energy price is relatively low. The urban microgrid injects
power to the grid at high energy prices. The urban microgrid is able to supply all the
fast charging demand. From 8 AM to 4 PM, the urban microgrid has adequate SOC to
provide 50 kW UPS for a duration of four continuous hours. Thanks to the optimized
operation strategy, all the objectives of the urban microgrid operation are met
Simulation of Adaptive DC Voltage Droop Control The layout of the urban microgrid
which is implemented in PSCAD is shown in Fig. The power electronic converters
are represented as average models . The voltagepower droop control that is described
in Section IV for real-time operation of the urban microgrid is implemented. In this
subsection, 20 s around the time 12:45 PM in the optimized scheduling of Section VA are considered. At this time, theBESS chargesat 70kW, powerdrawnfromthegrid is
32 kW, and the average renewable power is 38 kW. Renewable power generation is
simulated for 20 s as shown in Fig. The fast charging load is connected to the dc bus
at time equal to 10 s at 100 kW as shown in Fig. For droop control of the BESS
converter in normal SOC of the BESS in Fig, the following assumptions are made:
VBm1 = (380 1) V, VBm2 = (380 6) V, and PBESS-D =200kW. The BESS
converterdroopis set to react on voltage deviations higher than 1 V, and deviations
below that value are neglected. The BESS converter power reaches its maximum
change at dc bus voltage deviations of 6 V and higher. The main grid converter droop
settings are assumed as follows: VGm1 = (380 5) V, VGm2 = (380 10) V, and
maximum grid power is 300 kW. The voltage margins for the droop control of the grid
converter are coordinated with the voltage margins for the droop control of the BESS
converter in order to achieve the priority of BESS participation in controlling the
voltage of the dc bus. Alternative approaches for coordinated droop controls of the
converters may be found depending on the objective of the operation. In case A, it is
assumed that the SOC of the battery is within close range of the scheduled SOC
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resulting from the day-ahead optimization. Therefore, the droop control in normal
SOC of the battery as depicted in Fig is employed. The simulation results are shown
in Figs. The power PMES delivered by the multilevel energy storage combination of
BESS and supercapacitor compensates both fast changes of renewable uctuations
and load. The rapid decrease of PMES at 10 s shows that power is made readily
available for fast charging. Thanks to the supercapacitor as cache energy storage, the
power uctuations do not propagate to the main grid. The grid power to the dc bus is
unchanged. The droop control of the main grid converter is not active, and thus the
grid power remains the same as scheduled. The functionality of the BESS droop
control can be recognized from Fig. 16. The dc bus voltage dropped approximately by
2.6 V and stabilized around 376.4 V as seen in Fig. 17. In case B, it is assumed that
the BESS has lower than expected SOC compared with the SOC scheduled in the
optimization. As a result, the BESS droop control as depicted in Fig. 8 is selected. In
the new droop control, is 0.33. All other assumptions are the same as in case A
where the fast charging load is connected to the dc bus at time 10 s. The simulation
results are depicted in Figs. 1820. With the asymmetric droop curve of the BESS of
Fig. 8, the multilevel energy storage in case B does not provide full compensation of
renewable uctuations and the heavy fast chargingEV. So, the droop control of the
grid is also activated, and the main grid contributes to the fast charging power
demand. The BESS power is without uctuation thanks to the supercapacitor, which
absorbs the rapid power uctuations. The dc bus voltage drops to around 374.4 V as
shown in Fig. 20. The voltage drop is higher than in case A. This is due to the wider
range of droop control characteristics of the main grid converter and less contribution
of the BESS to voltage control. The functionality of the BESS and grid droop control
can be recognized from Fig. 19. The comparison of the results shows the importance
of coordinating the droop settings with the scheduling in microgrids with wind and
solar power. While in Fig. 15 the SOC of the battery is as desired according to the
scheduling, the SOC of the battery has become lower than expected due to forecast
uncertainty in Fig. 18. In the latter case, the asymmetric droop of Fig. 8 avoids further
signicant discharging, but has full droop contribution on the charging side. On the
reduced discharging side, the droop of the other power electronic converter
connecting to the main grid kicks in to keep up the dc voltage if necessary. From Fig.
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19, it can be seen that the droop response of the grid converter becomes active at
VDC-bus = 375 V. Above that level, the droop control of the converter connected to
the storage acts on its own. As it does so at a lower response compared with the case
where the SOC is not below the scheduled level, the steady-state ripple of VDC-bus
in the rst 10 s is higher in Fig. 20 than it is in Fig. 17.
Case A: Droop-control-based responses to wind fluctuation and

fast charging when SOC of battery is as scheduled.
1.Multilevel energy storage system (MES) charging power
from the dc bus.
2. Grid power to the dc bus.
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3. Battery charging power from the dc bus.
4. Supercapacitor discharging power to the dc bus.
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Case B: Droop-control-based responses to wind fluctuation and fast

charging when SOC of battery is lower than scheduled.
1.Supercapacitor discharging power to the dc bus.
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
2.Multilevel energy storage system (MES) charging power

from the dc bus.
3. Battery charging power from the dc bus.
4.Grid power to the dc bus.
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1.
CONCLUSION
A dc microgrid for renewable power integration has been proposed.The
operational optimization and power-electronicsbased voltagepower droop control

was developed, and the functioning was demonstrated through simulation. Interaction
with the main grid was controlled as a result of an operational optimization that seeks
to minimize cost and emissions. A method to quantify the uncertainty affiliated with
the forecast of aggregated wind and PV-based power generation was created and used
to quantify the energy reserve of the battery energy storage system. The battery is
parallel-connected with a supercapacitor to form a multilevel energy storage. The
latter plays a critical role in compensating renewable power uctuations and
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providing the power needed when EVs stop by for fast charging. In accordance with
the microgrid paradigm, operation is also supported in autonomous mode to support
UPS when the connection to the main grid is unavailable. During such periods, fast
charging is not supported, as the priority shifts to supplying critical local loads. Power
electronics is a key enabling technology in connecting all energy resources to the dc
bus.
The converters support the dc voltage through a droop control scheme. The
control proposed here is adaptive in that the voltagepower droop curves are modied
depending on the outcome of the operational optimization. As a novelty, asymmetric
droop curves were proposed for the converters connected to the storage so as to also
support the objective of bringing the actual battery SOC close to the desired one as
scheduled. This ensures, in particular for the multilevel energy storage, that the
contribution toward dc voltage control does not compromise its role in providing
adequate energy reserve. For the special case of an urban location, the vertical
integration within a tower building offers renewable wind and solar power harvesting
on the top and energy delivery at the bottom on the ground level, for example for EV
charging.
The structure contributes to closely co-locating renewable power generation and
delivery to local stationary and mobile EV energy resources. In sum, this paper
contributes to the microgrid paradigm by a novel droop control that takes into account
storage SOC when adaptively setting the slopes of the voltagepower droop curves;
the proposed forecast based on aggregation of renewable power generation
contributes to quantifying energy reserve. In an urban setting, a tower-integrated
installation to co-locate harvesting of wind energy and local delivery of clean energy
is an alternative.
The optimization for power exchanges and dc voltage control using adaptive
control are performed through power electronic converters that serve as interfaces to
all resources. The resulting energy system serves local stationary and EV-based
mobile consumers, and it is a good citizen within the main grid as it reduces emissions
by local usage of wind and solar energy.
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REFERENCES
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rooftop hybrid wind-photovoltaic power system with battery storage, IEEE Trans.
Energy Convers., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 17, Mar. 2001.
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[4] B. S. Borowy and Z. M. Salameh, Methodology for optimally sizing the

combination of a battery bank and PV array in a wind/PV hybrid system, IEEE
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[8] F. Katiraei and M. R. Iravani, Power management strategies for a microgrid with
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[11] R. Majumder, B. Chaudhuri, A. Ghosh, R. Majumder, G. Ledwich, and F. Zare,
Improvement of stability and load sharing in an autonomous microgrid using
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808, May 2010.
[12] D. Westermann, S. Nicolai, and P. Bretschneider, Energy management for
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PES General Meeting, Convers. Del. Electr. Energy 21st Century, Pittsburgh, PA,
USA, Jul. 2008.
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[14] R. Palma-Behnke, C. Benavides, F. Lanas, B. Severino, L. Reyes, J. Llanos, et
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INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

effective structure for local interconnection of distributed renewable generation, loads,

EXISTING SYSTEMS TECHNIQUE

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

1.8 ADVANTAGES OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Stand Alone Generators

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Fig .2.2 simulation design of wind based PMSG

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

supercapacitors, each of them weighing 32 kg and releasing energy of 50 kJ at 200 V

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

is expressed as a function of the array

represent the PV output voltage and current, respectively;

are the series and

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

shunt resistance of the cell (in Fig. 3);

is the electronic charge;

generated current; Io is the reverse Saturation current;

is the Boltzman constant,

Equation (1) can be written in another form as [7]

I I sc {1 K 1 [e K 2V 1]} - (V IRs )/Rsh

where the coefficient

K 3 ln[( I sc (1 K1 ) I mpp ) / K1I sc ],

is the voltage at maximum power,

is the open circuit voltage of the array.

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Fig. 2.3 Equivalent circuit of PV array.

Fig. 2.4 V-I and P-I characteristics at constant temperature.

.The parameter variations can be calculated by measuring the

Carrier Based PWM Techniques

Analog vs. digital

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Sine-triangle vs. space vector (in reality very similar)

Triangular vs. saw tooth carrier

Symmetric vs. asymmetric (sampled once/twice per triangle)

Uniform sampling vs. natural sampling

Periodic vs. aperiodic carrier.

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Harmonic elimination PWM

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

(i) control over output voltage magnitude

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Single phase uncontrolled rectifiers are extensively used in a number of power

Single phase fully controlled half wave rectifier

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

As in the case of a resistive load, the thyristor T becomes forward biased

From above discussion one can write.

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

Since the average voltage drop across the inductor is zero.

INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR DC MICROGRID APPLICATIONS

The general solution of which is given by