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A SET
OF
POSTULATES
OF
FOR THE
LOGIC.'
FOUNDATION
BY ALONZO CHURCH.2
a(b+c)
ab+ac
a b+ ac
where R (x) has the meaning, "x is a real number," and the symbol9)abc
has the meaning described in ?? 5 and 6 below. And in this expression
there are no free variables.
IReceived October 5, 1931.
This paper contains, in revised form,the work of the author while a National Research
Fellow in 1928-29.
346
2
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POSTULATES
347
23*
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348
A. CHURCH.
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POSTULATES
349
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350
A. CHURCH.
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POSTULATES
351
I{
()2
Al]
n,
XM2
&,
aJ
a,2 A.
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352
A. CHURCH.
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POSTULATES
353
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A. CHURCH.
354
cx
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POSTULATES
E i
Si
whr
H
V) . t(V,
V nip,
y
Sp.S (7r)
355
to
10
"M exists"
And in connection with these symbols just defined we introduce some
furtherabbreviations. For V(P, Q) we write [P] v [Q], and for U(P, Q)
we write [P19 [Q]. We abbreviate Q (Qx . M, i x . N) to [Ml x [N]. And
we abbreviate E(x) Ox [M] to 'x[M], which may be read, "For every x, M".
The notion of a class may be introducedby means of the definition:
K
A(Q).
The formulaK(F) is then to be read, "the class of x's such that (F} (x)
true."
We divide our postulates into two groups, of which
7. Postulates.
the firstconsists of what we shall call rules of procedureand the second of
what we shall call formalpostulates. The latter assert that a given formula
is true, and contain nothingfromthe language of intuitivelogic otherthan
the words is true (and even these words, as already explained, we leave
unexpressed when we write the postulates). And the former,the rules of
procedure,contain other words fromthe language of intuitivelogic.
The theoremswhich are proved as consequences of these postulates ale
of the same formas the postulates of the firstgroup, namely, that a certain
formulais true. And the proofof a theorem consists of a series of steps
which, froma set of one or more postulates of the firstgroup as a starting
point, leads us to the theorem, each step being justifiedby an appeal to
one of the rules of procedure.
The postulates of our first group, the rules of procedure, are five in
number:
I. If J is true, if L is wtell-formed,
if all the occurrencesof the variable x
in L are occurrencesas a bound variable, and if the 'cariable y does
not occur ill L, thenK, the result of utbstit'uting
Sx LI for a particular
occurrenceof L in J, is also trite.
II. If J is true,if M and N are ?uell-formed,
if the variableX occursin M,
and if the bound variables in M are distinctbothfrom the variable x
and from thefree variables in N, then K, the result of substituting
Sx MI for a particular occurrenceof {i x. M} (N) in J, is also true.
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356
A. CHURCH.
O
JJzp(sr)
(spo qso).
2. 'x3qD
. So(x) (. 1
36
-X(Qf)
3.
(e
4o
)) 3
(x).
* [Qfz W x (z]
so A, *
*
Ye
,
so Ox Y (X Oy )]
Qez
WZ Ox(
[Q
(Pf t)
*
(X))2 .)
* H
o()x
VZ)
(z)
'x *So(x)
6. p
.q 11(q,
D *
q(x))
),p
7. So(x,2f (x))
8. (e)
[e W
x).
)+fx
*1(So(x),4 (x))
Q*1ZY [e WZ Ox
o
DSp
9. 'X Sp
24. p
(xp
(X; 2 A
so (X,
A)
O(P
Ox
ff(so
Wz 2 0
30
OYU,(y).
qTq(s).pq
(fPxVW)ODq
XOX1
11.19.iso(X
2X) ['0(u,
OTXz
(so)
/)]
.0(u). OH (xy).~0y]9u~('u)
(so W)*ry
3 tpU(so
14. p Op . q Oq pq.
17. Zx Ze [T Wx . % 0(x.
I
MO,
@(Y)]0 TU
(SPW))
--I)
p -q Oq -. pq.
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V)
.V(u)] O)qou * [[[ap
WX *
(X).
e(XI
x)][a . g
[IH S (X). t(X)]
25.
As.w(it)
1p
26.
27.
tp)
-p
O
p.
28.
29.
2(SP)
ap .
357
POSTULATES
(X)] Ox e (X)] -
(x)JO
D xQ (X)] D
((U).
te) ara
)Obewe( 2 free
).
3(t) 00, l(w,
app
(X)O
n
oU(f,
o)]Ooe
(d))u.
of
) oz S (x te)] [Sp(X
33o [ (x cy)
c r
g(yi t
v)).
Y)
ip (A (Spit)) 00 y(A(Sp,
34. bty
(x, y) pooy ,each) tzSp(i
[Sp(x
- 0(?t
O Sp(yex)]Oun
ti
And)
(th v)numer
t becounted
(x, y) ity
So(ye,x)]mlpit
v)
(A(So, v)).
[it
By a steqp
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A. CHURCH.
358
THEOREM
I. Suppose that M containsx as a free variable, and that Xx. M
is provable, and that N is provable as a consequenceof M. Then, if N
containsx as a free variable, theformula [M]Ox N is provable. And if N
does not containx as a free variable, theformula N itself is provable.
We shall prove this theoremby induction with respect to the number
of steps in the proof of N as a consequence of M.
If this numberof steps is zero, then M is convertibleinto N, and, since M
contains x as a free variable, so does N. Hence in this case [M]Ox,.N
may be proved as follows.
Before each formulawe give a symbol which will subsequentlybe used
in referringto it. And after each formula we give the means by which
it is inferred,that is, the numberof the rule of procedureand a referenceto
the premise or premises, or, if the formulais one of our formalpostulates,
the numberof that postulate.
B1:
xx. M
-provable by hypothesis.
--IIl, B1.
-1.
,Sp)
-V, A2, A1.
As: {2 s (Sp, Sp)} (t x . M)
-IJA3.
A4: [M]OX.M
-by conversion,fromA4.
A5: [Ml]Ox N
A2:
2(Dp)qH(p
x. M
Al:
{I(or) 2(7
A3 :
-provable, by hypothesis.
(2 X. M)
-Illy
IT"(Z Sm
.17()
B1.
.
X/
*0S(X)
AtpRx
(axhM
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-V!3,~
359
-I, As.
A4: {l x [O(x)D)x (x)] Dq *H(Sp, iV)D ,. o(x)DOX (x)}(x . M)
A6: [{ x . M} (x) Ox s (xj]C, .Hs(Sp, i) Op *I{Rx * M} (x) Ox 1 (x) -I, A4.
-II, A5.13
A6: [[M]Ox S (x)] 9q . Il(S, 0p)D . {Ix * M} (x) Ox t (x)
D
-II,
(x)
. [MlOx
A6.
A7: [[M] OX S (x)] DO . n(9, 2V)
induction.
of
by
hypothesis
{
-provable,
F}
(x)
[M]
Ox
B2:
-Ill, B2.
A8: {iS.[M]OxSo(x)}(F)
-V, A7,Ax.
f) D ,.[M] OxVb(x)}(F)
A9:
Sp.17(Sp,
- II, Ag.
Alo: 17(F,2 V) Dip [MlOx V(x)
of induction.
H
by
hypothesis
G)
-provable,
(F,
B8:
-III, B8.
All: {123V (F, tj')}(G)
-V? Alo2All.
A12: 11 J[MIOx V(x)} (G)
-II, A12.
A13: [MlDxfG} (x)
.
N
[M
conversion,fromA18, since {G} (x) is convertiable
-by
Ox
Al4:
into N.
- x. M
provable by hypothesis.
M) -III B1.
A1: le2(e)}(lx.
A2: X(e) De . -NY le) Ox g (x, y )P *[e
-8.
[e(x)Dx e(x, y)]
DOtp(y)
Ox)
IV (SpW
A5:
W] 01 0
(le . 'XY[e(X) OXS(X, A) DI *VX~) 0- H(w(-)
X * M)
- V, AasA.
[QX 3WOxS(X, Oy)]8 (y}I
W
3
* [Q()
* M [(X)
y)]0. s(X,y)] Op
M) x- -I,I(XA8..IIs(X),
(x DOtxt'(y)}(].x.
[e(x)Dx
MI
-2yjl
A6:
-H, A4.
91 tp(y)
[{ x. M}(x)OxS(xy)]
f(0 0)](X),1
M}(x)Dx
y[[M]DOxT(xAy)]Oq.[{x.
A4:
D Mx
O(9(X)
M}(x)
x (x [{U
*
A6: -y[{[x.M}(x)
S y)]A
Dvt~(y)
[{.x. M}(x)Dxwp(x~y)]
A8:
Xy[[M][DX
y)] D
(x, A
RLMlOx V (X,)]A
[[M]DlO (x
Y q) (Y)
-II,
ip
t)]
Op
- II2 A6.
-II, A8.
(x),
i)]
D ,.
A7.
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A. CHURCH.
360
B2:
A9:
III, A9.
Alo: {fy . [M]Ox { x. F} (x, y)} (A)
All: zy . [M]OX{x.i F} (x, y)
-IV, Alo.
*
A12: {iwSpy *[MlOx Sp(x, y)} (AX F)
III,2 All.x
I I so. [[M]OX11(S (X), V)] 00 -V, A8, A12
2
[[M] Ox S (x, y)] Dy ip(y)} (A *x F)
)] D?. [[M]{ x x.F}
(x,y)]D
y)
A14: [[M]Dxl(Fx.F F}(x),.
Als:
(y)DFx, y]by)
A15: [[M]DOx (F, t)] Di * [[M D {x F}
) -II, A1.
-A1A1.
-II, Al5.
[[MlOx II(F, 2p)] 00 [[MlOxI{F} (Y)] Oyi (Y)
of
induction.
by
hypothesis
-provable,
II(F,
G)
[M]Ox
-III,
B8.
A17: {lIb [M]OxD (F, V))} (G)
A16:
B8:
-V, A16,A17.
A18: {2 t *[[M]Ox {F} (y)] ODVt(y)} (G)
-II, A18.
A19: [IMIOx{F} (y)] Ox {G} (y)
IIJ, B2.
A20: {fy * [M]Dx{F} (y)} (A)
.T,
A21: {2y{G} (y)} (A)
A19,A20.
-II, A21
-by conversion,fromA22.
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POSTULATES
361
methodof Case 3, to prove Ix. (F} (A). This last formulais convertible
intoIx. (F} ({(x. A} (x)). Hence, usingPostulate10, we can prove2(F)
N.
and fromit by conversion,
Case 5, the last step in the proof of N as a consequenceof M is an
applicationof Rule IV, and F containsx as a free variable, and A does
not. By the hypothesisof our induction,we can prove [M]Ox {F} (A).
Hence we can proveE(A), and hence, usingPostulate9, s (A)Op (iy).
thisresultwithPostulate5, we can obtainf(x, A) x ~(f(x)).
Andcombining
Now, by the methodofCase 3, we can proveZx. {F} (A) whichis convertibleinto Xx. {Ax. F} (x, A). Combiningthis with the preceding,we
can obtain {Ax. F} (x, A) Ox ((IxF} (x)). And this is convertibleinto
(F} (A)Ox 2 (F).
Thus we are able to proveH(F', G') where F' stands for Axx.{F} (A)
we
and G' standsforIx Z(F). And, by the hypothesisof our induction,
by the methodofCase 1, we
are able to prove[M]Ox{F'} (x). Therefore,
[M]Ox. N.
can prove[M]Ox{G'}(x), and fromit by conversion,
Case 6, the last step in the proofof N as a consequenceof M is an
applicationof Rule IV, and F containsx as a freevariable, and A is
Xx. M is provable,and, by thehypothesis
identicalwithx. By hypothesis,
by the methodof
of our induction,[M]Ox {F} (x) is provable. Therefore,
intoIx. (x
{ . F}(x, x).
Case 3, we can proveXx. { F}(x), and thisis convertible
Z
(F).
{F}
(x)
obtain
can
we
Ox
Hence, usingPostulate11,
Thus we are able to prove H(F', G') where F' stands for Ax. {F} (x)
and G' standsforAx Z (F). And, by the hypothesisof our induction,we
by the methodofCase 1, we
are able to prove [M]Ox {F'} (x). Therefore,
[M]-x. N.
can prove [MlOx{G'}(x), and fromit by conversion,
Case 7, the last step in the proofof N as a consequenceof M is an
applicationof Rule IV, and both F and A containx as a free variable.
By the hypothesisof our induction,
[Ml]Ox {F} (A) is provable,and this is
by the method
. A} (y))} (x). Therefore,
{y {F} ({2Ax
into [MlOxD,
convertible
of Case 6, we can prove [MlOxD y. {F} ({Qx. A} (y)).
into [M1OxfIYD2y!(tx. A} (y))}(F).
This last formulais convertible
by the methodof Case 4, we can prove-g' ly -g ({1 x.A} (y)).
Therefore,
thiswithPostulate10,we can obtainXy (jAx.A}(y))] Z(w).
And,combining
withPostulate5, we can obtain
And hence,combining
I y - Uf(x {A
*Ix A) (y{))]OfxI (f(x)).
By themethodofCase 3, using[MlOXIy. {F} ({Ax A} (y)), we can prove
intoXx.Yy.{Ax.F}(x,
xZy-{F}({ x.A} (y)) and thisis convertible
{Ax.A}(y)).
the
preceding
of
end
the
at
formula
the
with
formula
last
this
Combining
24
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A. CHURCH.
362
B1: xx . M
-provable,
A,:
As:
2(e) De *Zy[()
by hypothesis.
-III,
B1.
)]
do.[ e(x)WDX(
DxWOXSo(XIy
,
(M)Y
( D))
ip.
W OxV(X, BY) - 4,
[e z)Ox w(X,BY)]
Oy*e~z
A.,
IIse *-zy [e(x) Ox9w(x, y)] hoT. [e (z) OxII(so (x) +(x))] Do
rem
,,
[eGuOxSO
A O en alW Ox ,
I,]Y))(
BD
-V
A2
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Al.
POSTULATES
A4:
{ile.
DX O(X, Y)]
Y[e(T)
363
*[Q(X)
DX l(SP(X)
t(X))]
-I, A8.
x.
M} (x) DOxI(p(x), V(x))] 2Xp.
A5: Zy[{IIx. M} (x) OX p(x,y)] OD. [{I
M}
(x) ox (x), y) -]
A: IXy MI Op(xx,y)J
{)x.
A4.
y.
DI
OX ,(SP(x))D ,].
A6: 2y[[M]DlOS(X, y)] OD* [[MI * MI((
H
II, A6.
[{I x . M}I(X)x) 9(X y)A *{i x *M}
(X)MDxI (X Y)
[e(x)
A7:
Dx
(x,
y)A Dy * Q(x)
Dx V(x,
y)} (Ix
* M)
WAj) DIP
o)x VP(x7 y)
A6.
-11,
A)
HI7, B.,
t Ox ix y)}
(x.F)
All: fly .[M
VA) IAI,
Ajo.
,ix F} (xIIVA
y)
A12: Xy.[M]lOx
All*
A7: MI H(Fyp[M]Dx))
Dy)(.IxF)
) [I [A12A
{s
.
*
)
OX
Y
A14:
J1((F,{ x.G
[[Ml
}V(x))j -I [[MB]. So(X Y)j
)x t[(x, y) (Fx ()}(F)-V
[M]
AG AllA
I
y)]
F}
A20: [[IMl)Ox[([{A F}(y)
(x)J,V(x))] Dp *[[M]
yOx
{} x *(x)
-Ay
-II A{
[M]o{x (XyY)
)
A16: [[M]Ox {(F,} (x))]
11{2Bx . F} (x y)] Oy
[[MlOx
(II, A15A
[MA OxMD(x {Y)
Ajo: [MlOx {ix
F}
(X,
A17:
[[MlOx
{H(F (x))]
Bs:
[Ml O)x17(F G)
HI
Bf .
A
G) ad
altr
II A16
ca
G)
- II A20.
All : [[MlOx{F} (y)] Oy . [Ml Ox11x G} (x, y)
A22: [[MlO)xIF) (y)] O)y [MlO)x(GI (y)
-III A2.
A2s: fly *[MlO)xIF) (y)) (A)
-III7 B2.
A,24: (Iy *[MlO)x{G} (y/))
_V, A22, A2g
(A)
II, A24 *
A.,: [MlOx (G) (A)
-by conversion,fromA,^
A26:
[MlO)x .N
_-V, A17
A2 ,
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364
A. CHURCH.
(x, A).
And hence, by the method of Case 1, since [Ml Ox{F} (A) is provable,
we can prove [M]O .Hl(F, b (x)) 2h V(x, A).
Thus we are able to prove[M]:), I(F', G') where F'stands forA4H(F, V(x))
and G' stands for AtV. p(x, A). And, by the hypothesis of our induction,
we are able to prove [M] )D {F'} (A'), where A' stands for Ix. G. Therefore, by the method of Case 10, we can prove [M]2X {G'} (A') and from
it by conversion,[M]OX.N.
Case 12, the last step in the proof of N as a consequence of M is an
application of Rule V, and F and A both contain x as a free variable,
and G does not contain x as a free variable. As before, A may, in
particular, be identical with x. By the hypothesis of our induction,
[M]Ox {F} (A) is provable, and this is convertibleinto [MIOx{ So. So(A)) (F).
Therefore, by the method of Case 7, we can prove [M]OXho . rp(A), and
this is convertible into [M]OX{Ix E(x)} (A). Hence, using Postulate 2,
and the methodof Case 8, we can prove [MlOx.* (A) Do,. H(9, if) Dp V (A).
And hence, by the method of Case 11, since [MlD, {F} (A) is provable,
we can prove [M]9 .l1U(F,DOi
)
V (A).
Thus we are able to prove [MI OXII(F', G') where F' stands for tfH(F, V)
and G' stands for 2 i. iV(A). And, by the hypothesis of our induction,
we are able to prove [M]OX{F') (A') where A' stands for G. Therefore,
by the method of Case 10, we can prove [M]Ox {G'} (A'), and fromit by
conversion,[MlOX. N.
Case 13, the last step in the proof of N as a consequence of M is an
application of Rule V, and A is identical with x, G contains x as a free
variable and F does not. By the hypothesisof our induction,[MI:x (F) (x)
is provable, and this is convertibleinto [MIOx {Ap . 9 (x)} (F). Therefore,
by the method of Case 5, we can prove [M]Ox 2 S.o S (x) and this is con-
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POSTULATES
365
F)(f (x)) Of
(f (x))
(G),
whichis convertible
into [MlOx. {F} (f(x)) Ofx{G}(f(x)).
Moreover,by conversionfrom[M]Ox {F} (A) we can prove
[MlOx {Ax. {F} ({Ax. A) (x))} (x),
and therefore,
by themethodofCase 3, we can proveXx. {F} ({1 x . A) (x)).
Hence, by the methodof Case 9, using the formulaat the end of the
precedingparagraph,we can prove
[MlDx. {F} ({Ax. A) (x)) Ox {G} ({ix . A) (x)).
Hence,using[M]Ox {l x . {F) ({l x . A) (x))) (x) and the methodof Case 13,
we can prove
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A. CHURCH.
366
PRINCETON, N. J.
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