PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION

CLB 21103

GROUP MEMBERS:
INTAN RAFIDAH BT SAAT (55204212008)
FATIHAH SAKINAH BT MOHD HANAFFI (55204212045)
MOHAMAD SUFFIAN BIN ABD AZIZ (55204212306)
CLASS : 4 BCF-EX (L03)
LECTURERS NAME: MADAM NAZERAH BT AHMAD
DATE OF SUBMITTED: 02 APRIL 2014

Introduction

Before mechanical refrigeration systems were introduced, people cooled their food
with ice and snow, either found locally or brought down from the mountains. The first cellars
were holes dug into the ground and lined with wood or straw and packed with snow and ice
and this was the only means of refrigeration for most of history.
Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, or from a
substance, to lower its temperature. A refrigerator uses the evaporation of a liquid to absorb
heat. The liquid, or refrigerant, used in a refrigerator evaporates at an extremely low
temperature, creating freezing temperatures inside the refrigerator. A liquid is rapidly
vaporized through compression the quickly expanding vapour requires kinetic energy and
draws the energy needed from the immediate area which loses energy and becomes cooler.
Cooling caused by the rapid expansion of gases is the primary means of refrigeration today.
The first known artificial refrigeration was demonstrated by William Cullen at the
University of Glasgow in 1748. However, he did not use his discovery for any practical
purpose. In 1805, an American inventor, Oliver Evans, designed the first refrigeration
machine. The first practical refrigerating machine was built by Jacob Perkins in 1834 where it
used ether in a vapour compression cycle. An American physician, John Gorrie, built a
refrigerator based on Oliver Evans' design in 1844 to make ice to cool the air for his yellow
fever patients. German engineer Carl von Linden, patented not a refrigerator but the process
of liquefying gas in 1876 that is part of basic refrigeration technology.
Refrigerators from the late 1800s until 1929 used the toxic gases ammonia (NH3),
methyl chloride (CH3Cl), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) as refrigerants. Several fatal accidents
occurred in the 1920s when methyl chloride leaked out of refrigerators. Three American
corporations launched collaborative research to develop a less dangerous method of
refrigeration; their efforts lead to the discovery of Freon. In just a few years, compressor
refrigerators using Freon would become the standard for almost all home kitchens. Only
decades later, would people realize that these chlorofluorocarbons endangered the ozone layer
of the entire planet.

Figure 1: The one-millionth Frigidaire refrigerator.

Main Component of the Refrigeration Cycle

Diagram 1: Main Component of Refrigeration Cycle

There are four main components in a refrigeration system:

The Compressor
The Condensing Coil
The Metering Device
The Evaporator

Two different pressures exist in the refrigeration cycle. The evaporator or low pressure
side and the condenser or high pressure side. These pressure areas are divided by the other
two components. On one end, is the metering device which controls the refrigerant flow, and
on the other end is the compressor.

i.

Compressor
The compressor is the heart of the system. It compresses the low pressure refrigerant

vapour from the evaporator and compresses it into a high pressure vapour. The inlet to the
compressor is called the suction line. It brings the low pressure vapour into the compressor.
After the compressor compresses the refrigerant into a high pressure vapour, it removes it to
the outlet called the discharge line.

ii) Condenser
The discharge line leaves the compressor and runs to the inlet of the condenser. As the
refrigerant was compressed, it is a hot high pressure vapour (as pressure increase the
temperature also increase. The hot vapour enters the condenser and starts to flow through the
tubes. Cool air is blown across the outside of the finned tubes of the condenser usually by a
fan or water with a pump. Since the air is cooler than the refrigerant, heat jumps from the
tubing to the cooler air. The energy which moves from hot to cold is called latent heat.
As the heat is removed from the refrigerant, it reaches the saturated temperature and
starts to change states into a high pressure liquid. The high pressure liquid leaves the
condenser through the liquid line and travels to the metering device through a filter dryer first
to remove any dirt or foreign particles.

iii) Metering Device

Metering devices regulate how much liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator. Common
used metering devices are small thin copper tubes referred to as cap tubes, thermally
controller diaphragm valves called TXVs (thermal expansion valves) and single opening
orifices. The metering device tries to maintain a preset temperature difference or super heat,
between the inlet and outlet openings of the evaporator. As the metering devices regulate the
amount of refrigerant going into the evaporator, the device lets small amounts of refrigerant
out into the line and looses the high pressure it has behind it.

iv) Evaporator
The cooler refrigerant in the evaporator tubes, absorb the warm room air. The change
of temperature causes the refrigerant to flash or boil, and changes from a low pressure liquid
to a low pressure cold vapour. The low pressure vapour is pulled into the compressor and the
cycle starts over. The amount of heat added to the liquid to make it saturated and change states
is called superheated.

Working Principle of Refrigerator

The low pressure vapour refrigerant was compressed and discharged out of the
compressor. The refrigerant at this point is a high temperature, high pressure, superheated
vapour. The high pressure refrigerant flows to the condenser by way of the discharge line. The
condenser changes the high pressure refrigerant from a high temperature vapour to a low
temperature, high pressure liquid and leaves through the liquid line. The high pressure
refrigerant then flows through a filter dryer to the Thermal Expansion valve or TXV. The
TXV meters the correct amount of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator. As the TXV meters
the refrigerant, the high pressure liquid changes to a low pressure, low temperature, and
saturated liquid or vapour. This saturated liquid or vapour enters the evaporator and is
changed to a low pressure, dry vapour. The low pressure, dry vapour is then returned to the
compressor in the suction line. The cycle then starts over.

Refrigerator Operation
Refrigerator has a main purpose which is removing the heat, called the cooling load from
a low temperature medium. The heat flows in direction of decreasing temperature from high
temperature to low temperature regions. A refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or a heat
pump which pumps heat from a cold body and delivers it to a hot body. The substance which
works in a pump to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver it to a hot body is known as
refrigerant. Ironically, refrigerators keep things cold because of the nature of heat. A
refrigerator does not cool items by lowering their original temperatures; instead, an
evaporating gas called a refrigerant. A refrigerator consists of two storage compartments, the
one for frozen items and the other for items requiring refrigeration but not freezing. These
compartments are surrounded by a series of heat-exchanging pipes.
There are four main factors of refrigerator operator which are refrigeration, temperature
control, air flow, defrost.

Figure 2: The Four Main Factors of Refrigerator Operation

1)

Refrigeration

The refrigerator helps to preserve food and keep temperature cold by removing the
heat from the inside of the appliances. Refrigerator uses sealed system to accomplish this. The
component of refrigerator is compressor which a pump compresses the gas into the condenser
coils which a gas is condense into hard liquid. A condenser coils collect dust or hair which
prevent from trap the heat. Once a refrigerant has pass through the condenser coil and travel
into the evaporator coils which located in the freezer. As a refrigerant enters in this coil, it is
expand into a gas which makes a coil cold. A gas flows through a coil to a suction line attach
to the compressor. The compressor convert the gas into a liquid and cooling cycle was
continued.
2)

Temperature control
The temperature within the refrigerator should be 2 - 4 C and the temperature in the

freezer should be -18 C or lower. Temperature is regulated by refrigerator control depending

on the motor. The control maybe is thermostat switch and sensing bulb or electronic control
board that works with one or more sensor. The method to cool both refrigerator and freezer,
the control allows voltage to travel to start the relay and compressor to condenser fan motor
and evaporator fan motor. Once proper temp are reached, the control shut off the voltage to
cooling system.

3)

Air Flow

Air flow is important to refrigerator for work properly. The condenser coil was cold and the
evaporator fan was remove heat from the air. The air then circulates back into the refrigerator
continuing the cycle. Air flow was control from the freezer to the refrigerator.

4)

Defrost

The evaporator coil collect frost and all the metal need to be defrost manually. Today,
automatic defrost system was used. There are defrost heater, defrost thermostat and defrost
control which is depending of the metal. The control maybe a defrost timer or defrost control
board. Defrost timer turn heat around 25 min 2 to 3 times a day to prevent evaporator coil
from frosting over. Defrost control board were also turn heat around periodically and it was
more efficiently. The defrost heater keeps the cooling coils from frosting over. Besides that, a
defrost thermostat is the temperature-controlling device within the automatic defrost system
of a refrigerator. The function of the thermostat is to prompt the heater to turn off when the
coils return to the correct temperature.

Figure 3: Defrost Control

Figure 4 : Defrost Heater

Figure 5: Defrost Thermostat

The Cooling Process of Refrigerator

The refrigeration process begins with the compressor. The compressor constricts the
refrigerant vapor, raising its pressure and pushes it into the coils on the outside of the
refrigerator. The heated gas flows through the coils behind the refrigerator, which allow
excess heat to be released into the surrounding air. This is why users sometimes feel warm air
circulating around the fridge. When the hot gas in the coils meets the cooler air temperature of
the kitchen, it become a liquid and then, it was forced through a device called an expansion
valve. Essentially, the expansion valve has such a small opening that the liquid ammonia is
turned into a very cold, fast-moving mist, evaporating as it travels through the coils in the
freezer. The liquid form is at high pressure, the refrigerant cools down as it flows into the coil
inside the freezer and the fridge. The coils surrounding the lower refrigerator compartment are
not as compact. The refrigerant is then absorbs the heat inside the fridge, cooling down the air.
The cool refrigerant still draws heat from the warmer objects in the fridge, but not as much as
the freezer section. Lastly, the refrigerant evaporates to a gas, then flows back to the
compressor, where the cycle starts all over.

Figure 6 : The diagram of Cooling Process in Refrigerator

Safety and Maintenance of Instrument Device Related to Process

1)

Refrigerant
Refrigerant may leak from pipe joints, seals, or component parts during installation,

operation, or accident. Therefore, refrigerants must be acceptably safe for humans and
manufacturing processes, with little or no toxicity or flammability. In ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 34-1997, the toxicity of refrigerants is classified as class A or B. Class A refrigerants
are of lower toxicity. A class A refrigerant is one whose toxicity has not been identified when
its concentration is less than or equal to 400 ppm, based on threshold limit valuetimeweighted average (TLV-TWA) or equivalent indices.
In industry, the TLV-TWA concentration is a concentration to which workers can be
exposed over an 8-h workday and a 40-h workweek without suffering adverse effect.
Concentration ppm means parts per million by mass. Class B refrigerants are of high toxicity.
A class B refrigerant produces evidence of toxicity when workers are exposed to a
concentration below 400 ppm based on a TLV-TWA concentration. Flammable refrigerants
explode when ignited. If a flammable refrigerant is leaked in the area of a fire, the result is an
immediate explosion. Soldering and welding for installation or repair cannot be performed
near such gases.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1997 classifies the flammability of refrigerants into classes
1, 2, and 3. Class 1 refrigerants show no flame propagation when tested in air at a pressure of
14.7 psia 101 kPa) at 65F (18.3C). Class 2 refrigerants have a lower flammability limit
(LFL) of more than 0.00625 lb/ ft3 (0.1 kg/m3) at 70F (21.1C) and 14.7 psia (101 kPa abs.),
and a heat of combustion less than 8174 Btu/lb (19,000 kJ/kg). Class 3 refrigerants are highly
flammable, with an LFL less than or equal to 0.00625 lb/ ft3 (0.1 kg/m3) at 70F (21.1C) and
14.7 psia (101 kPa abs.) or a heat of combustion greater than or equal to 8174 Btu /lb (19,000
kJ/ kg). A refrigerants safety classification is its combination of toxicity and flammability.

According to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1997, safety groups are classified as follows:

A1 lower toxicity and no flame propagation

A2 lower toxicity and lower flammability

A3 lower toxicity and higher flammability
B1 higher toxicity and no flame propagation
B2 higher toxicity and lower flammability
B3 higher toxicity and higher flammability

For zeotropic blends whose flammability and toxicity may change as their
composition changes, a dual safety classification should be determined. The first classification
denotes the classification of the formulated composition of the blend. The second
classification lists the classification of the blend composition at the worst case of
fractionation.
2)

Maintenance

Provide safe and suitable equipment

When installing new equipment, ensure that it is suitable for its intended purpose and
that it is installed correctly. This requirement can normally be met by using the
appropriate design, construction and installation standards and/or codes of practice.

The pressure system should be designed and manufactured from suitable materials.
Make sure that the vessel, pipes and valves have been made of suitable materials for
the liquids or gases they will contain.

Ensure the system can be operated safely for example without having to climb or
struggle through gaps in pipe work or structures.

Be real careful when repairing or modifying a pressure system. Following a major

repair and/or modification, the whole system must be re-examined before allowing the
system to come back into use.

Know the operating conditions

Know what liquid or gas is being contained, stored or processed like is it toxic or
flammable?

Know the process conditions, such as the pressures and temperatures.

Know the safe operating limits of the system and any equipment directly linked to it or
affected by it.

Ensure there is a set of operating instructions for all the equipment and for the control
of the whole system including emergencies.

Ensure that appropriate employees have access to these instructions, and are properly
trained in the operation and use of the equipment or system.

Fit suitable protective devices and ensure they function properly

Ensure suitable protective devices are fitted to the vessels, or pipe work for example
safety valves and any electronic devices which cause shutdown when the pressure,
temperature or liquid or gas level exceed permissible limits.

Ensure the protective devices have been adjusted to the correct settings

If warning devices are fitted, ensure they are noticeable, either by sight or sound.

Ensure protective devices are kept in good working order at all times.

Ensure that, where fitted, protective devices such as safety valves and bursting discs
discharge to a safe place.

Ensure that, once set, protective devices cannot be altered except by an authorised
person.

Carry out suitable maintenance

All pressure equipment and systems should be properly maintained. There should be a
maintenance programme for the system as a whole. It should take into account the
system and equipment age, its function and the environment.

Look for tell-tale signs of problems with the system, for example if a safety valve
repeatedly discharges this could be an indication that either the system is overpressurising or the safety valve is not working correctly.

Beware for signs of wear and corrosion.

The whole systems should be depressurised before maintenance work is carried out.

Ensure there is a safe system of work, so that maintenance work is carried out
safely,properly and under suitable supervision.

Make provision for appropriate training

Everybody operating, installing, maintaining, repairing, inspecting and testing

pressure equipment should have the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out their
job safely and for this purpose, the suitable training should be prepared. This includes
all new employees, who should have initial training and be supervised closely.

Additional training or retraining may be required if:

The job changes

The equipment or operation changes

The skills have not been used for a while

Have the equipment examined

Under the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000, a written scheme of examination is
required for most pressure systems. Exempted systems are listed in the Regulations. Generally
speaking, only very small systems are exempted.

The written scheme should be drawn up (or certified as suitable) by a competent

person. It is the duty of the user of an installed system and the owner of a mobile

system to ensure that the scheme has been drawn up. The pressure system must not be
allowed to be operated (or hired out) until a written scheme of examination has been
provided and ensured that the system has been checked.

The written scheme of examination must cover all protective devices. It must also
include every pressure vessel and those parts of pipelines and pipe work which, if they

not succeed, may give rise to danger.

The written scheme must specify the nature and frequency of examinations, and
include any special measures that may be needed to prepare a system for a safe

examination.
The pressure system must be examined in accordance with the written scheme by a

competent person.
For fired (heated) pressure systems, such as steam boilers, the written scheme should
include an examination of the system when it is cold and stripped down and when it is
running under normal conditions.

Choose a competent person

Ensure that the competent person has the necessary knowledge, experience and

independence to undertake the functions required of them.

The competent person carrying out examinations under a written scheme does not
necessarily need to be the same one who prepares or certifies the scheme as suitable.

A competent person may be:

A companys own in-house inspection department
An individual person or a self-employed person
An organisation providing independent inspection services.

Operational
Before opening a hermetic refrigerant cycle it is essential to have first visible, sensitive and
audible impressions which can directly lead to fault identification.

The first system cycle evaluation consists of:

(1) Heat transfer at the condenser
(2) Temperature of the filter-drier
(3) Noise level of the compressor
(4) Heat emission of the compressor
(5) Situation of hoar frost at the evaporator
(6) Capacity of the compressor
It is very important that the fridge/ freezer are placed with sufficient surrounding for heat
transfer (air circulation). Pay attention that the condenser is free of dust or dirt and that no
items obstruct the ventilation area. Placing of a fridge/freezer close to other heat sources must
be avoided. It is necessary to clean the condenser regularly. If a hermetic refrigerating system
is to function correctly and to have a reasonable long life, it is essential that the amount of
impurities present in the system, i.e. moisture, foreign gases, dirt etc., are being kept at a
minimum. This fact must be taken into consideration when repairs are to be made and the
necessary precautions must be taken. Before commencing repairs, especially those which
require the opening of a hermetic refrigerant cycle, make sure that all other possible faults
have been eliminated and that an exact diagnosis of the problem has been made. If the first
system cycle evaluation and measurements indicate that it is necessary to open the hermetic
system, we have to proceed as follows:
1.

For gauge connection and pressure/temperature reading, place piercing plier connected

with refrigerant hose to the process tube (charging tube) at the compressor. Continue system
cycle analysis with operating compressor.

Figure 7: Placement of piercing plier at process pipe

2.

For refrigerant gas recovery, place one additional piercing plier directly on the filter-

driers surface (high pressure side). This enables refrigerant gas recovery from both, high and
low pressure sides of the system. Additional, if the capillary tube is mechanically blocked,
refrigerant will remain at the high pressure side of the system. For further explanation of the
refrigerant gas recovery process see also chapter refrigerant recovery, recycling and
containment in the field.

Figure 7: Placement of an additional piercing plier at the filter-drier.

1.

After entire emptying of the refrigerant cycle, cut the capillary tube at the filter-drier

outlet (distance from filter-drier approx. 3 cm). Avoid burrs and deformation of the capillary
tube.

Figure 8: Cutting of the capillary tube

1.

Cut the filter-drier with a tube cutter if sufficient condenser tube length (steel) is

available. This action enables you to remove bounded humidity and residues together with the
filter-drier.

Figure 9: Cutting of the filter-drier

1.

If a sufficient tube length is not available, proceed as follows: For safety reason,

destroy the filter-drier with a side cable cutter plier close to the filterdrier outlet. Unbraze the
filterdrier and clean the steel tube of the condensers outlet thoroughly with a wire-brush.

Figure 10: Destruction of a filter-drier

1.

If a reduced hermetic compressor capacity is assumed, complete a capacity test.

Figure 11: Capacity test

1. The pressure regulator of the Nitrogen supply cylinder is adjusted to a maximum of 10

bar. The Nitrogen flow will enter the system passing the process tube, the compressor,
the evaporator with the connected capillary tube

Figure 12: Nitrogen connection to the process pipe

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Process

Advantages:
1. Can store and extend the shelf life of any material especially food products.
2. Can chilled drinks and food where and how it is more likely consumed.
3. Can preserve nutritional value and minerals contents of the food than can easily
denaturized and destroyed at room temperature or higher.
4. Refrigeration systems drop down the temperature, which can prevent the microbial
growth and the bacterial spoilage.
Disadvantages:
1. Some of the sensitive foods will be affected and results in chilling injury.
2. If not serviced and rapidly maintenance of the refrigeration system can malfunction
resulting in inefficiency and energy wasting.
3. Frequently open the door of the refrigerator can increase the energy usage thus
increase the expenses.
4. Improper installation can cause technical problems including electrical shock.

References

Anynomous, (2010). The History of the Refrigerator and Freezers. Available at:
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blrefrigerator.htm. [Accessed on 30 April 2014].

Brain, M., & Sara, E., (2006). How Refrigerators Work. Available at HowStuffWorks.com.
http://home.howstuffworks.com/refrigerator.htm. [Accessed on 30 April 2014].

Chapman, L., (2010). The History of the Refrigerator: Staying Cool Throughout the Ages.
Available

at:

http://www.findingdulcinea.com/features/science/innovations/great-

inventions/the-refrigerator.html. [Accessed on 27 April 2014].