Indian Highways Vol.41 3 Mar 13

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Volume 41
Number 3
March 2013
Contents
ISSN 0376-7256
Page
2-5
Editorial
6-9
Meet the New President & Vice-Presidents of the Indian Roads Congress
10
Advertisement Tariff
11
New Developments
Technical Papers
12

Imperative of Risk Management in Highway Projects

Indrasen Sing, Pralhad Kabra and Anand Kulkarni
27

Design of High Embankment Using Red Mud

Sarat Kumar Das, Subrat Kumar Rout and Tapaswini Sahoo
35

Effect of Shape of Aggregate on Pavement Quality Concrete

Kundan Meshram and H.S. Goliya
43

Nanotechnology in Highway Engineering

Y.C. Tewari and R.S. Bharadwaj
49
Comparison Between Coarse Aggregate Shape Factors and Resulting mix Properties Using Conventional and New Universal
Gauge Instruments

Mohamed Ilyas Anjum
55-76 Circulars Issued by Ministry
77
Tender Notice of NHs Kanpur
78
Tender Notice of NHs Lucknow
79
Tender Notice of NHs Madurai
80
Tender Notice of NHs Chennai
81
Obituary
The Indian Roads Congress

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Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
From the Editors Desk
WAY FORWARD FOR INVESTING IN HUMAN RESOURCE

IN ROAD SECTOR
Dear Readers,
The massive road development programme being witnessed since last few years and may continue for many
more years also demands for adequate attention towards not only quantitative but qualitative availability
of requisite man power to meet the demand of all spectrum of activities of this sector. Therefore, a focused
attention is required to be given to this crucial issue .
Today, the task in front of road engineers & professionals is not as simple as is commonly perceived. They
have to function in a highly restrictive and competitive environment while catering to all issues related to
financial, administrative and legal aspects in addition to the technical matters. The roads are considered to
be one of the basic facility & amenity and thereby every citizen considers his right and demands for the
same. Similarly, the other sectors of the economy take the availability of the roads as granted. This intricate
paradoxical scenarios of Cater-all & please-all builds additional pressure on the road sector professionals.
Therefore, the road sector, thereby per-se demands that the sectoral professionals should be exposed and
equipped with the techno-management skills so as to allow him to make potential decisions & sustainable
propositions within the limit of the resources, man, materials and machinery.
Just remember, the quote from Holy Bhagwad Gita:
While doing your duties let me tell you, never bring in any of the attitudes of the outer self. Anger, hate,
jealousy, attachment, all pertains to the outer self. Be in oneness with your inner self and do all of your duties;
nothing will touch you or pollute you. This living identity with your inner self will give you the attitude of
equanimity. The equanimous view of everthing that you come across whether it is man or material, is the
ultimate goal of life.
Keeping the above in view, the road sector professionals can become the enablers of economic growth besides
becoming in true sense the force behind empowering the people socially. However, the transformational
potential results of human potential in the road sector are not very easy to comprehend. The human potential
is a complex, composite of instinct, intelligence, personality, knowledge, skills, motivation, attitude and
behaviours besides he is continuously shaped by his genetic inheritance, family, friends, education,
surroundings as well as his personal life experiences. Therefore, to what extent the real human potential can
be utilized gainfully by any sector depends upon the enabling environment prevailing therein. This is equally
applicable for road sector also.
Everyone knows that Indians constitute about 1/6th of the total worlds population. The unique Indian
characteristics like commitment to inclusive growth, a long term perspective on business objectives and the
much wanted proclivity for the Jugaad the improvisional ability to find workable solutions around seeming
intractable problems are internationally recognized and respected. However, these strengths are yet to be
adequately be harnessed and channelized in the road sector.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, March 2013
EDITORIAL
Essentially, we will be able to analyze and deliver seamless economic benefits to the people of this great
country, if different technologies are effectively harnessed in the road sector i.e. Leveraging technology for
real growth through improvement in efficiency of deliverance and effectiveness of infrastructure created;
Deployment of right people with right skills at the right place for optimization of human resource output,
etc.
It is always good to remember that when technologies, services and human intelligence convergence in
radical creative ways, then a new powerful application emerge which transforms the industry and redefine
the sector.
As mentioned earlier, the road sector in India is witnessing unprecedented demand and pressure besides
opening of the opportunities for this sector to be one of the most crucial enabler for sustainable economic
growth. The employees, like in any other sector, in the road sector also require continuous up-gradation in
their competencies and for this there is a need to have a proper system in place. The due investment in the
road sector with an aim to bridge the competence gap towards building skill and productive work force to
meet challenges of competition & sustainability in this sector requires a serious approach from all concerned.
What we require today is an out of box skill enhancement approach not limited to just thinking but with
demonstrative practices.
Employees, as individuals, reflect the collective caliber of an organization. When an organization hopes
to achieve its set out goals & objectives, the competence of the employees plays a major role. Therefore,
competency provides the basis for investing in them when said in an organizational context. The scientific
approach of competency modeling, measurement and deployment pave the way for continually enhancing
collective capability. This is nothing but a concept of partnering for progress in a mutually beneficial way.
Whenever any sector faces difficult time, then it is necessary to go for an in-depth introspection. The common
result of sectoral introspections generally points towards the skill gap falling into three main areas :- Critical
thinking, Communication capabilities and Ability to function as an efficient team. Even in the normal
circumstances the organization/sector loses its pace of growth if the sector does not have critical thinkers.
The critical thinking is an important requirement for effective problem solving system. It is generally defined
as a type of higher order thinking that questions prevailing assumptions. Adept a logical reasoning, critical
thinkers believe that there is more than one route to a desire outcome and they can leverage this flexible
approach for optimal results. Organizations value critical thinkers for what they bring to the table, normally
the ability to change the status-quo, driving change and innovation in the process. The critical thinking as a
collective skill can be organizational building attribute but how many organizations as well as educational
institute provide or consider for the same!
The developed countries have their own system of skill development and harness the human potential for the
benefits of their respective countrys goals, growth and development. The Japanese organizations have a system
of Genba as their strength. It is a bottom up approach and is the site where all important processes takes
place, where people have full power and responsibility for what happens. This approach helps in involving
& associating the workforce right from the grass root level and helps in building dedication and loyalty
towards the organization. But in todays scenario where the rapid technological changes are transforming
the management approaches the world over, the road sector may become more strong and sustainable if a
combination of Bottom-up and Top-down approach complementing each other is adopted. This Human
Resource building approach may help in bringing required stability in the profession.
EDITORIAL
The road sector professionals is not only to manage but also to find solutions to the various issues right from
the stages of conceptualization & planning stage in regard to land acquisition, rehabilitation, environmental
clearance, environmental mitigation plans, financial tie-ups, material linkages, technological tie-ups, revenue
collection (toll collection and management), road safety management, etc. Therefore, comprehensive
employee training programme with an emphasis on application and problem solving to serve as a drive to
build the road sector organization on sustainable basis are needed to be given a serious consideration.
In addition the new Techno-Management Technique of Collaborative Leadership is very much applicable
for the road sector under the current scenario. It is a Techno-Managerial way wherein leaders avail the
synergetic relationship between team members to create a bigger and better organizational structure. It is
a articulated skill of working together, sharing knowledge, ideas and thoughts to achieve a common goal.
It facilitates in creating an inhibition-free atmosphere beside resulting in significantly improved efficiency,
productivity, accountability and competence. Moreover, using simulated scenario and other training modules,
road sector employees can be exposed to the quick thinking techniques to think quick & logically in order
to come up with reasonable/ practical solutions within a given time.
It is necessary that each road organization identify the training needs of their employees by carrying out
specific Training Needs Assessment (TNA) exercise on regular basis to identify the skill-deficit areas to
bridge the same. The training modules should be such that they should create avenues to produce the breed
of innovators and problem-solvers who are not afraid to push the boundaries at work. While working out the
skill development training programme in the road sector, the outcome should also be evaluated on regular
basis to ascertain whether the training imparted have imbibed the skills required to excel in the identified
areas, analytical thinking and logical approach, zeal, persistence and confidence in the participants.
The human resource development may not be accomplished without allowing and creating an enabling
framework for research & development. R&D coupled with innovations requires an enabling environment
to spread the benefits of development within the reachable reach of all stake-holders. However, research
has much more to do with independent, unorthodox and creative thinking then with strategic thinking. This
system practiced in some of the developed countries allows a large number of researchers to realize the fruits
of their intellectual labour (which would have been harder to achieve in the country of their birth) and at the
same time benefitting the country in which they carried out the research. Today, the need of the hour to make
the Indian road sector vibrant and to allow holistic development of human resource of this sector demands
for an urgent need to create enabling framework for research & development and enabling environment for
innovators and their innovations so that applied research can be promoted and practiced. This may help in
making this sunrise sector Techno Economically sustainable.
As mentioned earlier, we are witnessing the Worlds biggest road sector initiatives. In order to ensure the
resounding success and sustainability of results of this mega initiative, it is necessary that not only due
investment is earmarked for Skill-enhancement , Skill- development, Skill- demonstration and Skillimparting programme but requisite enabling & supporting infrastructure is also required to be put in place.
The data of the employees imparted skill-enhancement/ development trainings should be web-based, so
that it may become accessible to all concerned for utilization of their attained expertise. It also needs to be
evaluated whether all the employees working in the organization are deputed for the trainings on regular
basis without any discrimination & prejudice. Till this is practiced in true spirit, the skill enhancement &
development in road sector or any sector may remain loop-sided. For example, the Contract Management is
EDITORIAL
an intricate TechnicalArt. The road sector professional should be exposed to the same so that he may be
able to differentiate between Administering the Contract from Management of Contract and Managing
the Management of Contract. Proper skill development trainings may help in better project formulations and
handling especially PPP projects, thereby reducing the scope of contractual disputes and additional claims.
Generally the Capacity building & training activity is considered a low priority as well as an incidental activity
rather than a focused activity. However, little thought is given to the fact that Trained & skilled employees can
make difference to the pattern of growth, development, dynamism & prospects of an organization. The crucial
aspect that employees significantly contribute to the reputation of an organization as well as to the country is
generally given a miss. This aspect plays in vital role in making a organization globally competitive as well. If
road sector organizations desire to spread their reach globally in an effective way then they may require making
a sincere effort towards the capacity/skill building exercise. The government, PSU, educational institutes and
private sector organizations should join their efforts and inter-link their competencies & capabilities in the
field of capacity building with an aim to cover all the professionals & work force every 5 years period. PublicPrivate-Partnership concept in capacity building in road sector is very much essential in today scenario, which
may be not only an economical proposition to all but will create a win-win situation in this activity. The sector
should also consider instituting the awards for efficiency & innovations.
The skill-building exercise should be separated from the routine working & functioning of the road sector
organization to allow them a space to function in a holistic manner. They may also cater to inter-linkages
with the educational & research institutions so that young talents may be tapped at the initial stages
itself. This may help in creating internationally competitive road sector professionals. This grooming of
young professionals to become mature contributors to the growth of road sector is very much needed.
Towards the same it may not be out of the place to mention that for the first time , IRC has allowed the
M.Tech and Research students to become regular members of IRC to tap their potential to contribute
to growth/development in the road sector as well as to enhance their employability. In the recently held
73rd IRC Annual Session at Coimbatore, a novel initiative was taken by providing opportunity to PG Students/
Researchers to show-case their innovations/research work on IRC platform.
The organizations normally get much higher return on the investment made by them in human resource
development. Leaving aside the other benefits like large percentage of employee retention, increased
productivity, image building, etc. the financial return to the organizations are manifold and the same is also
applicable for the government sector as well , keeping in view that with higher productivity & efficiency the
deliverance of the government projects & new initiatives also get improves, benefitting the public at large
as well as nation as a whole. Therefore. Earmarked investment in the capacity building/skill enhancement/
skill development should be made an essential & regular feature covering all stake-holders and entire-work
force.
The end product of education should be a free, creative mind, who can battle against historical circumstances and
adversaries of nature.
(Quote of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan)
Place: New Delhi

Dated: 21st Feb 2013
Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Secretary General
5
MEET THE NEW PRESIDENT OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
SHRI C. KANDASAMY
Director General (Road Development) &
Special Secretary to the Govt. of India
Shri C. Kandasamy joined Central Engineering Service (Roads) of Government of India in 1976 and have
held various positions in the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways as well as in the National Highways
Authority of India.
He was on deputation with National Highways Authority of India as General Manager and was associated
with Phase-I of NHDP (Golden Quadrilateral). As Chief General Manager Shri Kandasamy was involved in
Phase II of NHDP (North South & East West Corridors). He took most of the projects under his jurisdiction
in North-South corridor through the BOT model. As Member (Technical), NHAI, he was incharge of Phase III
(BOT) of NHDP projects. In his long and illustrious career spanning over 35 years, Shri Kandasamy has been
involved in all aspects of development of National Highways including implementation of NHDP.
Shri C. Kandasamy held various positions in the Ministry and elevated to the post of Director General
(Road Development) and Special Secretary in December 2011.
Shri C. Kandasamy is a Life Member of the Indian Roads Congress. He is an eminent engineer of repute
and is closely associated with Indian Roads Congress. He is Convenor of Apex Committees, Highways
Specifications & Standards, Bridges Specifications & Standards and General Specifications & Standards of
IRC. Besides, he is also instrumental in preparation of IRC Codes, Specifications, Manuals etc.
Shri C. Kandasamy has been elected as President of the Indian Roads Congress during its 73rd Annual Session
held at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) in January 2013.
MEET THE Immediate Past PRESIDENT OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
SHRI P.N. JAIN

Born on 22nd July 1957, Shri P.N. Jain graduated in
Civil Engineering from L.D. College of Engineering,
Ahmedabad in the year 1979 with distinction. He
qualified the Direct Recruit Examination conducted
by the Gujarat Public Service Commission and
joined the Roads & Buildings Department, Govt.
of Gujarat as Executive Engineer in 1980. Shri Jain
was promoted as Superintending Engineer and Chief
Engineer in the years 1990 and 1997 respectively.
He has been involved in execution of various works,
such as, Construction and Maintenance works
of State Highways, Major District Roads, Other
District Roads including Major and Minor Bridges
of Gandhinagar, Mehsana, Banaskantha and Kutch
Districts including Capital City Gandhinagar. He
also worked as Secretary, Gujarat Slum Clearance
Board, Ahmedabad especially in various schemes
related to slum dwellers of low, medium and high
income group of housing projects in different cities/
towns of Gujarat State.
As Chief Engineer (Quality Control) and
Addl. Secretary, he inspected many on-going
projects related to Roads, Bridges & Buildings.
Shri Jain worked as Technical Advisor to Vigilance
Commissioner in the capacity of Chief Engineer
& Addl. Secretary for more than 4 years. He also
worked as Chief Engineer (Capital Projects) and
Additional Secretary in charge of various works
of Construction & Maintenance of Roads, Bridges
& Buildings etc. of Ahmedabad & Gandhinagar.
Shri Jain has also worked as Arbitrator for disputed
cases of Government & Contractors.
As Chief Engineer & Director, Staff Traning College,

Roads & Buildings Department, Gandhinagar, he was
responsible for providing Departmental and Special
Training to Inservice Engineers of Roads & Buildings
Department, Irrigation Department of Government of
Gujarat of various cadres in collaboration with Experts
of National and International Highways Institutes,
Project Management Institutes, such as, UTiMMalaysia, NITHE-New Delhi, CRRI-New Delhi,
NICMAR-Pune, GIDB-Gandhinagar, IEI (GSC)
Ahmedabad, Nirma University, GICEA-Ahmedabad
and LD Engineeing College-Ahmedabad.
Shri Jain is presently working as Chief Engineer
(NH) & Additional Secretary, R&B Department,
Gandhinagar looking after the construction and
maintenance of National Highways of Gujarat
and other important projects, such as, Railway
Over Bridges, Railway Under Bridges on
Annuity-BOT & CRF works. Shri P.N. Jain is Life
Member of various other Professional Bodies like,
Indian Buildings Congress, Institution of Engineers
(India), Indian Concrete Institute, Institution of
Indian Public Administration, Gujarat Institute
of Civil Engineers & Architecture and Computer
Society of India-Gujarat Chapter.
Shri P.N. Jain was elected as President of the Indian
Roads Congress during its 72nd Annual Session held
at Lucknow (U.P.) in November, 2011 and he is
Immediate Past President and member of Executive
Committee for the year 2013.
MEET THE NEW VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
SHRI SANDEEP B. VASAVA

Shri Sandeep B. Vasava did B.E. (Civil) with distinction
from M.S. University, Baroda in 1989. In 1990
Shri Vasava passed the Gujarat Public Service Commission
Examination topping the list. In 1991, he joined the Road &
Building Department, Government of Gujarat as Assistant
Executive Engineer. He was promoted as Executive
Engineer in the year 1995 and posted in the National
Highways Division, Baroda. In 1999, Shri Vasava was
promoted as Superintending Engineer, National Highway
Circle, Baroda. In this capacity, he has handled major
BOT Project of bridges across river Mahi and Narmada
on National Highway No. 8.
In 2002, he was promoted as Chief Engineer and posted
as Managing Director, Gujarat State Road Development
Corporation. In 2006, Shri S.B. Vasava was elevated to the
post of Chief Engineer & Additional Secretary (National
Highways).
At present, he is working as Chief Engineer (P) and
Additional Secretary and Chief Executive Officer of
GSRRDA. Shri Vasava is involved in Construction and
Maintenance of Rural Roads and Implementation of
PMGSY scheme of Government of India. He has also
served on various Committees of Government of Gujarat.
He was also the Member Secretary for the Sub Group of
State Roads for Formulation of 11th and 12th Five Year
Plan for Planning Commission, Government of India. He
is also Council Member of the Institution of Engineers.
Shri Sandeep B. Vasava has been elected as Vice-President
of the Indian Roads Congress during its 73rd Annual Session
held at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) in January 2013.
SHRI KIRAN KUMAR YALLAPPA MAHINDRAKAR, VSM

Shri Kiran Kumar Yallappa Mahindrakar graduated in Civil
Engineering from BVB College of Engineering & Technology,
Hubli in 1976. After graduation, he was involved as Site
Engineer/Resident Engineer in construction of one mile long
Malaprabha Right Bank Canal Aqueduct over Bennihalla River
and completed 72 Nos of well foundations in black cotton soil
and erected substructures from 1976 to 1979. Shri Mahindrakar
joined as Assistant Executive Engineer as first batch of Border
Roads Engineering Services in BRDB/MoRTH in 1979 through
Combined Engineering Services Examination of UPSC. He was
involved in road construction in far flung areas of North East
devoid of basic amenities and having poor road communication.
He showed his technical competence in planning & construction
of bridges on NH-44. Due to his excellent result oriented attitude
he was selected for Masters in Highways (Transport Engineering)
from University of Roorkee and passed out with Gold Medal
in 1986.
Shri Mahindrakar was promoted as Executive Engineer in
1992 and in this capacity he was responsible for construction,
maintenance of roads, bridges and causeways, widening of roads
in insurgency infested region in the States of Nagaland and
then in Manipur. He was promoted as Superintending Engineer
in 1997.As Superintending Engineer he was responsible for
construction of roads of strategic importance along the border in
the States of Arunachal Pradesh and J&K.
Shri Mahindrakar was promoted as Chief Engineer in 2003. In
this capacity, he was responsible of road construction including
widening of strategically important roads and National Highways
in the States of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
For his exemplary services, he was awarded Chief of Army Staff
Commendation Card in 1986 and for his meritorious services
he was awarded by His Excellency the President of India with
VISHISHT SEVA MEDAL during Republic Day 2006.
Presently, he is working as Dy. Director General (Pers) looking
after Human Resources Department called Pers Dte in HQ
DGBR, New Delhi.
Shri Kiran Kumar Yallappa Mahindrakar has been elected as
Vice-President of the Indian Roads Congress during its 73rd Annual
Session held at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) in January 2013.
MEET THE NEW VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
SHRI A. SAMUEL EBENEZER JEBARAJAN

Shri A. Samuel Ebenezer Jebarajan completed his B.E. (Civil
Engg) from Govt. College of Engineering, Salem, Tamil Nadu
in 1978.
Shri Jebarajan started his Engineering carrier in Bharat Heavy
Electricals Ltd., Trichy and was involved in execution of
Multi-storied Buildings during 1978-79. He joined as Assistant
Engineer in Corporation of Chennai and designed various
storm water drains for Chennai during 1979-80. Then in 1980,
he joined the Highways & Rural Works Department of Tamil
Nadu and executed Bridge works, Rural Roads and National
Highway Projects in Trichy and Salem Circle areas. He has put
in exemplary service in Rural Development Wing and executed
infrastructure projects, Road & Bridge works and various
housing projects.
He has executed Bridges in Chennai, across Coovam River and
Major Bridge works across Kaveri River near Madurai. He held
various positions in the divisions of Quality Control, execution
of Major Ring Roads, Bridge works including maintenance of
roads. He has put in four years of service under the aegis of
Highways Research Station, Chennai in Concrete lab and as
Deputy Director (Soils) and implemented new technologies,
such as, usage of copper slag for GSB and pavement designs
for distressed highways and other traffic studies for RITES and
other researches in Traffic & Soils. He completed his M.Sc (I.T)
from the Alagappa University by distance education.
As Superintending Engineer (H) Shri Jebarajan has monitored
execution of major Bridge and Road works in South Tamil Nadu.
When he was promoted as Chief Engineer (H) he took charge
as the Chief Engineer (H), Planning, Design & Investigation,
Chennai during 2011-12 and monitored design of major bridges
and grade separators.
Shri Jebarajan is presently working as Chief Engineer (H),
Metro monitoring the execution of major Grade Separators, Link
Roads and other prestigious projects in Chennai Metropolitan
area under State Fund and World Bank Projects. His earnest
participations in various training programs under NITHE,
New Delhi, international organizations such as IRF at New Delhi
and IABSE at Chennai and at Venice, Italy has strengthened
his technical ability besides the knowledge of Primavera for
planning.
Shri A. Samuel Ebenezer Jebarajan has been elected as VicePresident of the Indian Roads Congress during its 73rd Annual
Session held at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) in January 2013.
SHRI SWATANTRA KUMAR

Shri Swatantra Kumar graduated in Civil Engineering from
Malviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan
in 1996. He has also done Post Graduation (MBAMarketing)
from All India Management Association, New Delhi in the
year 2000.
Shri Swatantra Kumar has started his career with Renaissance
Aqua Sports Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi in the year 1996 as a Site
Engineer and was involved in design and construction of
Swimming pools and health club of different capacities.
In the year 1997, he joined Aimil Ltd. as Engineer, Business
Development for North India. Aimil is a market leader addressing
instrumentation needs of the nation for the last 8 decades.
Aggressively involved in providing total instrumentation
solution to the wide range of industries like Roads, Buildings,
Education, Thermal power, Hydro Power, Cement etc. He was
also actively involved in getting accreditation of NABL and ISO
for his Company.
Shri Swatantra Kumar was promoted as Business Manager
in 2005 and in this capacity he was responsible for business
development of imported products of leading manufacturers
from U.S.A. and Europe in frontier areas of Instrumentation.
During this period, he was also responsible for promoting NDT
(Non- Destructive Testing instrument ) to different sectors like
DMRC, IITs, NITs, CPWD, PWD , Irrigation Department etc.
Shri Swatantra Kumar currently working as Asstt. General
Manager at M/s. Aimil Ltd. New Delhi, heads the Delhi
Regional Team and he is instrumental in promoting state-of-art
instrumentation across the country and also involved in bringing
about various system improvements within the company. He is
also responsible for providing technical support to Aimil users
in India and neighboring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Srilanka,
Bangladesh etc.
He has been serving IRC in the capacity of Council Member for
the last 5 years. He has been an active member of Instrumentation
Committee (G-5) of the Indian Roads Congress.
Shri Swatantra Kumar has been elected as Vice-President of the
Indian Roads Congress during its 73rd Annual Session held at
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) in January 2013.
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favour of the Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
Indian Highways is printed one month in advance as such all materials received by the 18th of the preceding month would be
included in the issue to which it pertains.
Release orders may be sent to:

D. Sam Singh
Under Secretary,
Indian Roads Congress,
Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi 110 022
Tel: +91 11 2618 5315,19/Extn. 203, 2618 5273
E-mail: indianhighways@irc.org.in
10
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Highways Research Station, Chennai has been accredited with the ISO-9001-2008 Certification. The Salient Features
and facilities available with them as informed by HRS are as under:
SOILS LABORATORY
Key Features
Pavement Design
Road Rehabilitation studies
Ground Improvement Techniques
Pavement Materials Testing
Sub Soil Exploration
Pile Load Tests
Design mixes
Structural Evaluation
Facilities
x Digital CBR
x Digital Consolidation Apparatus
x Digital LVDT for pile load testing
x Geogauge
x Electrical Density Gauge
BITUMEN LABORATORY
Key Features
Tests on Bitumen & Aggregate
Mix Design for Pavements
Evaluation of value added products
Modified Bitumen, Modified Bitumen
Emulsion
Failure Studies
Bituminous Mix Characterisation
Facilities
x Rotational Viscometer
x Dynamic Shear Rheometer
x Universal Testing Machine HYD25II
x Beam Fatigue Apparatus
x Gyratory Compactor
x Laboratory Model Circular Test Track.
CONCRETE LABORATORY
Key Features
Testing of Concrete Materials
Mix Design
Testing of Steel
Destructive & Non Destructive
Testing
Condition Assessment of Bridges.
Facilities
x Universal Testing Machine
x Compression Testing Machine
x PUNDIT/Ultrasonic test
x Rebound Hammer
x Half Cell Potentiometer
x Load Testing facility for Bridges
x Heavy Duty Test Floor
TRAFFIC LABORATORY
Key Features
Functional Evaluation
Axle Load Survey
Travel Time Study
Junction Improvement Study
Surface Conditioning Assessment
Various studies to reduce Accidents
Traffic Improvement Techniques
Facilities
x Portable Axle Weigh Pad
x Hand held Roughometer
x Speed Meter
x ROMDAS
x Advanced Data Collection Equipment
Exclusive Training Facility available for Highway Engineers

Well Equipped Library with Rare Publications, Technical Journals
Research Activities on Highway Engineering using latest Techniques, Sophisticated Equipments
Eight Regional Laboratories with Sophisticated Equipments
For more details please Contact Shri E.L. Satyamoorthi, Chief Engineer (H), QA&R, Highways Research Station,
Chennai 25, Ph No: 044- 22354851, Fax No: 044- 22354852, Email: hrstn@dataone.in; patechhrs@gmail.com
The Institution of Engineers (India), Roorkee Local Centre will be organizing a Workshop on Ground Improvement
Techniques for Difficult Ground Conditions on 16th April 2013 at IIT Roorkee. Noted speakers from IIT Roorkee
and Ground Improvement Industry are going to deliver expert lectures. For registration please contact Dr. Satyendra
Mittal, (Convenor, Workshop), Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Uttarakhand,
Tele. + 91 11 01332-285837, Mobile + 91 9760014237, 9412074237; E-mail: satyendramittal@gmail.com.
11
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Imperative of Risk Management in Highway Projects

Dr. Indrasen Singh* Pralhad Kabra** and Anand Kulkarni**
Abstract
Project risk is the cumulative effect of the chances of uncertain
occurrences adversely affecting project objectives. Project risk
management is the art and science of identifying, assessing and
responding to project risk throughout the life of a project and in
the best interests of its objectives.
The constant goal of project risk management should be to move
uncertainty away from risk and towards opportunity. The goals
of risk management, therefore, are to identify project risks and to
develop strategies, which either reduce them or attempt to avoid
them.
An infrastructure development is more prone to risks than
ordinary industrial projects. Risks consequently, have the ability
to adversely affect the implementation of a highway project.
A successful highway project development and project finance
transaction is therefore, the suitable identification, allocation and
management of risks.
The successful implementation of a project, it is essential that
person involved in its Implementation whether engineers, lawyers,
legislators, executives bankers or civil servants be sensitive to the
risk-involved in the project and formulate most suitable structure
for the management of such risks. If the persons involved in the
implementation of a project are able to identify the risks regarding
a proposed project and the means of its adequate allocation and
reddressal or better more sensitive to the necessity of their adequate
mitigation, it would go a long way in enabling the implementation
of highway projects.
Introduction
Risks are nothing more than the variables or

circumstances associated with the implementation of
a specific project that has the potential to adversely
affect the development of a project, Risks include
circumstances or situation, the existence or occurrence
of which, will in all reasonable foresight, result in an
adverse impact on any aspect of the implementation
of the project.
In projects management terms the most serious effects

of risk can be summarised as follows:
a)
Failure to keep within the cost estimate
b)
Failure to achieve the required completion date
c)
Failure to achieve the required quality and

operation requirements
In highway construction projects risks are related to

various aspects such as the contractors ability, design,
technology, political and socio-economic environment
etc. Moreover the impact of the risk varies from project
to project depending upon the size of the project (its
physical size, financial value, resources involved),
the level of the novelty involved in the projects, the
level of involvement of the number of agencies and
the complexity of the projects.
Risk management is the process of recognising risk,
assessing it and managing it.
The first and the most important step in attempting to
deal with exposure to risk is to identify them which
is called Risk identification. Many decision makers
believe that the principal benefits of risk management
come from the identification rather than the analysis
stage
The tools and techniques for risk identification
include documentation reviews, information gathering
methods, checklists, assumption and SWOT ( Strength,
Weakness, Opportunities and Threat) analysis, and
any appropriate diagramming techniques.
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab,

E-mail: Indrasen.16698@lpu.co.in
**
Former PGP: ACM Students, NICMAR Goa.
12
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Structural reviews and methods of team participation,
through brainstorming etc, and the use of checklists,
flowcharts, cause and effect diagrams, etc. to help
identify risks are the core of this transformation step.
3.1
The outputs include the identification of all risks,

what are likely to be the conditions under which they
will occur, and if the risk identification process has
identified further investigation of risk related matters
in other knowledge areas ( scope, time, cost, etc).
a)
Where it is true that most projects contain a number of

reasonably standard and recognisable risk situations,
each new project requires careful and individual
consideration.
c)
It establishes the conditions that make the

project workable with environment
d)
It must also identify and assess the other

hidden factors that are elements, situations or
circumstances that influence the project but that
can be unknown in the beginning or imply a
risk to the project.
e)
Project review is a continuous process defining

the critical parameters, which need to be
controlled and monitored throughout the project
life cycle analysis.
3.2
Determination of Scope of the Project
Project review is carried for all construction projects

before implementation. With respect to the case study
of project review involves:
a)
Experience with similar projects
b)
Depth of knowledge and
c)
Unique project environment
The study of risk of the project in terms of the total

cost of the project has been divided under four cost
centers that are:
Estimation of risks as well as their absolute

parameters
b) It calls for technical and financial scrutiny of

proposal and assessing the degree of each risk
at each project phase.
RISK IDENTIFICATION PHASE
In the construction of any project, risk identification is

done on the basis of:
Project Review
Collection of data regarding various risks influencing

the project is now assessed in terms of degree of impact
thus defining the scope of the project. Experience on
past projects is a major source of risk impact.
a)
Technical
b)
Financial
Three major sources of experience can be summarized

as follows:
c)
Socio-political
a)
Corporate
d)
Statutory
RISK IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
The process of risk identification for any construction

project involves two steps:
This is a knowledge gained in the previous

projects, which is dispersed throughout the
organisation. The information may be stored
as personnel memories, diverse reports or as
database that compares plans and outcomes.
b)
Project Team
a)
Project Review
b)
Determination of Scope
This is sample of the corporate experience

possessed by the individuals within the
particular project team. Often such knowledge
13
TECHNICAL PAPERS
is very relevant although it might be limited
and possibly biased.
What warranties will be provided relating

to the construction?
c)
External
May be other projects from outside world from

which relevant lessons could be learnt.
What completion and testing procedures

will be used?
What is the timetable for construction?
Are their restrictions on subcontracting

with third parties for financing or
construction?
Who will be responsible for site surveys,

ground and geotechnical investigations.
Utility surveys, land issues and
environmental surveys?
Who will be the project manager?
What are the development risk?
Who will finance construction cost

overruns, and what assurances will
lenders have that the funds will be
available when required?
Are their joint and several completion

liabilities amongst the construction
contractors, equipment suppliers and
subcontractors?
Who will monitor the construction,

approve the contractor invoices, and
provide commissioning and completion
certificates?
Will planning approvals be required?

Who is responsible for obtaining planning
approvals and permits?
Will the construction contract include

contractor incentives?
What percentage of the total project

value will be required to secure with a
performance bond?
What
are
the
obligations
and
responsibilities relating to capital
expenditure for major water and sewerage
facilities?
RISKS IN PROJECTS
Risks in projects are many and varied. The

identification, assessment and valuation of risks are
difficult and indispensable tasks in the analysis of
bids and contracts. Depending upon their nature, risks
can be categorised as technology risk, design and
latent defect risk, completion risk, cost overrun risk,
traffic revenue risk, operation risk, demand risk, debt
servicing risk, legal risk, political risk, partnering risk,
regulatory risk, financial risk, environmental risk and
physical risk. These risks can be dealt by a number
of ways. They may be priced in the bid, insured, or
assumed by the contractor, the owner or both.
4.1
Check List for Projects
Long term contractual relationships inevitably involve

risk. Careful design of contracts and regulatory
arrangements can help both reduce the level of risks
and ensure that any remaining risks fall on the party
that is capable enough to manage them. These issues
are taken up in more detail and all the key risks are
incorporated in the form of checklist.
i)
Who is responsible for construction risk?
14
Who is responsible for delays in

construction and higher than expected
construction costs?
What is the scope of the construction
work and of the specifications for project
infrastructure? Is there an annex for this
information?
What is the mechanism for changing the
specifications?
TECHNICAL PAPERS
ii)
What are the political risks?
How stable is the country?
Will export credit agencies

guarantees against political risk?
Is insurance available?
iii)
What are the revenue risks?
How secure is the cash flow?
Willingness by users to pay for facility?
If the government provides support for

the project. What form will that support
take?
Minimum revenue
undertakings.
guarantees
determined? What are the payment terms?

Is there a grace period for payment?
Under what conditions may the regulator
waive or allow a delay in payment?
give
or
Will the developer maintain segregated

debt service accounts for principal and
interest payments?
What type of sponsor guarantee will

the arrangement require a construction
completion guarantee, performance
guarantee, debt service guarantee for
senior bonds or loans, shareholder loan
guarantee?
iv)
What are the regulatory risks?
Is there an independent regulator?
Standby equity or subordinated debt to

meet revenue shortfalls.
What limits are placed on the regulators

discretion?
Tax privileges
Duty exemptions for imports of capital

equipment.
What are the procedures for appealing

regulatory decisions?
Assurances on the liability of foreign

exchange and the exchange rate with
foreign currencies relevant to the project,
free transfer of funds or interest rate
guarantees.
What compensation or cost pass through

arrangements are there to safeguard
the developer from shifts in regulatory
ground rules?
4.2
Risk Analysis & the Simulation Approach
Capital grants and loans. Lines of credit,

or letters of credit.
What are the legal and administrative

mechanisms required, for the government
to provide this additional support?
Will the government provide a guarantee

for a minimum amount of new works
per year, including any additional
government revenue sources required to
complete these works?
Who will be responsible for paying

penalties for noncompliance with
environmental regulations in the event
of deterioration? How are penalties to be
Risk analysis is essentially method of dealing with the

problem of uncertainty. Uncertainty usually affects
most of the variables that one combines to obtain
analysis of cost estimates, an economic rate of return
or net present value, analysis of financial return, or any
of the other indicators that may be used to evaluate
feasibility report. Sometimes one deal with this
uncertainty by combining values for all input variables,
chosen in such a way that they yield a conservative
estimate for the result of the analysis. In other cases
one may select the best estimate value, that is, the
value that one thinks most likely to be achieved. Both
these solutions imply a decision: firstly, to look at the
project with a conservative eye, secondly, to disregard
the consequences of any variations around the best
estimate value. Both can lead to biased decisions.
15
TECHNICAL PAPERS
For example, if one combines only conservative
estimates of variables, final result is likely to be over
conservative. On the other hand by using only best
estimate values one fails to take into account the other
values of the variables that might result in substantial
variations in the estimates. Thus biasing ones decision
on a single value of the decision variable one may by
taking more risk than one intend to. The purpose of
risk analysis is to eliminate the need for restricting
ones judgement to a single optimistic, pessimistic or
best evaluation by carrying throughout the analysis
a complete judgement on the possible range of each
variable and on the likelihood of each value within this
range. At each step of the analysis these judgements are
combined at the same time as the variables themselves
are combined. As a result the product of the analysis
is not just a single value of the decision variable but a
judgement on the possible range the decision variable
around this value, and a judgement on the likelihood
of each value in range.
These judgements take the form of probability
distribution. That is to say each possible value of each
variable is associated with a number between 0 and 1,
such that for each variable the sum of all these numbers
or probabilities is equal to 1. These probabilities,
which are called subjective probabilities because
they present some degree of subjective judgement,
follow all rules or traditional probability theory. From
a mathematical point of view risk analysis therefore
consists of aggregating probabilities.
The idea underlying the Monte Carlo technique is
simple. When we say that a project has a 30 percent
chance of earning a 10 percent return, we mean that if
we had a large number of similar projects we would
accept about 30 percent of them to earn a 10 percent
return. Conversely, if we had a great number of projects
and if 30 percent of them earn a 10 percent return, we
could say that the probability of a 10 percent return is
30 percent. Hence the simplest application of the Monte
Carlo technique is to build a great number of projects
with the characteristics of one we are interested in and
see how many of them earn a 10 percent, 15 percent,
16
20 percent, etc. In practice, the value of each of the

uncertain variables is chosen by random selection,
and the rate of return or some other decision variable
is computed for the project defined by these values.
The process is repeated many times and the results
are statistically analyzed. The only difficulty is in
making sure that the distribution of the values of each
of the input variables as it emerges from the random
selection is consistent with the distribution for that
variable chosen for the analysis.
5
EVALUATION OF RISK
Cooke and Slack (1984) investigated the process

of evaluation of risks. According to them, the risk
inherent in any of the decision option can be a result
of the decision makers inability to predict or estimate
the outcomes or the internal effects of the decision
options within the organisation or the environmental
conditions, prevailing after the decision. The range of
possible outcomes conveniently describes whatever
the source of risk is.
There are many methods of evaluation of risk from
the most simple probability concepts to the most
complex utility functions and expert system. Probably
the earliest industrial use of risk methods was with
PERT/RISK, which originally referred to the variation
of estimates of the activity duration, and assuming
their independence, was used to calculate the probable
variations of duration. For instance, Corporate at
use the various probability of interdependence as
exemplified by network analysis can be overcome by
simulation.
5.1
Probability Concepts
The likelihood of something happening is usually

quantified either as a probability figure or as asset of
odds. The various methods based on this concept are:
a)
The Classical Method
b)
The Relative Frequency Method
c)
The Subjective Method

TECHNICAL PAPERS
d)
The Bayesian Decision Method
5.1.1 The Classical Method

It is the oldest and the simplest approach. In this
theory, the probability is based on equal chances of
events happening.
5.1.2 The Relative Frequency Method
If the event is something which is easily repeatable or
occurs frequently of its own across. The likelihood of
the event occurring may be deducted by examining its
previous history. This method of deriving probabilities
is called the relative frequency method.
Both of the above methods can only be used to forecast
events that are repeatable or repealing. But many
management decisions involve assessing the chance of
something happening which has not happened before
and possible will not happen again i.e. risk event.
5.1.3 The Subjective Method
This method of probability is based on subjective
judgements of experts in the field no matter how
soundly it is based on their experiences. Especially for
risk analysis, most of the information will be qualified
in the form of subjective data only and such methods
become essential to quantify the risks.
5.2
The Bayesian Theory
This theory was evolved by the British mathematician

Thomas Bayes (1763) involving the estimation of
unknown probabilities and making decisions on the
basis of new (sample) information. The Bayesian
approach employs both personal judgement and
empirical evidence and it has been used in the
modeling of the probable activity duration overruns in
the Fuzzy set model.
as to make explicit the options open to the decision

maker, the state of the nature pertinent to the decision
and the decision rule used to choose between the
options.
In fact a number of decision rules have been commonly
put forward as being helpful in understanding the
nature of the decision. The four decision rules are:
a)
The Optimistic Decision Rule
b) The Pessimistic Decision Rule

c)
The Regret Decision Rule
d)
The Expected Value Decision Rule
5.3.1 The Optimistic Decision Rule

This approach to select the preferred option is to
consider all possible circumstances and choose option
that yields the best possible outcome. If dealing with
costs, this rule sometimes called as the minimum cost
rule and if dealing with revenues it is called as the
maximum revenue rule.
5.3.2 The Pessimistic Decision Rule
A decision maker who took the very optimistic
view to the once described above would follow the
reverse procedure in this case. Each option would be
examined and the worst possible outcome for that
option identified. That option would be selected which
provides the best of the worst outcomes.
5.3.3 The Regret Decision Rule
This is based on a deceptively simple but extremely
useful question i.e. If one decides on one particular
option then with lined sight how much would he regret
not having chosen what turns out to be the best option
for a particular set of circumstances?
Disadvantages of Regret Decision Rule
5.3
Decision Matrix
A decision matrix is a method of modeling straight

forward decisions under uncertainty in such a way
If the alternative chosen is the one that gives the

least cause for regret when compared with another
alternative, then the degree of regret will depend on
17
TECHNICAL PAPERS
ii)
For each variable, estimate the probability

distribution, which most clearly reflects the
decision makers degree of belief as to the
likelihood of the variable taking any value.
All the above three-decision rule do not consider the

potentially most useful factors within any management
decisions. This is the experts estimate of the likelihood
of a particular decision occurring. The principle of
expectation weights each outcome by the likelihood
of its occurring. The expected values are merely an
indication of the worth of each option.
iii)
Choose the endogenous variable, the measure

of outcome, which will be used to evaluate
the options, for example, the probable mean
distribution.
iv)
Determine the functions, which relate the

uncontrollable exogenous variables to the
endogenous variables.
5.4
v)
Randomly the function, which relates the

uncontrollable exogenous variables to the
endogenous variables.
vi)
Repeat step (v) many times until a distribution

of the values for the endogenous variables is
formed.
the other options considered. This can cause logical

inconsistency.
5.3.4 The Expected Value Decision Rule
Decision Trees
One limitation of the decision model is the simplistic

ways in which it treats the option open to the manager.
Many management decision in reality are a series of
reality sequential decisions, where choices made at
one point in time can change the probability of their
decision happening or alter their consequences. The
decision tree format enable sequential decisions to be
represented and the consequences of future decision
to be treated back of assess their influences on the
present decisions. In fact, a decision matrix can be
represented as a decision tree.
5.5
Risk Simulation
Risk simulation is a technique that allows a more

sophisticated approach to modeling the uncontrollable
factors that influence the outcome of the decision. By
making continuous probability estimates for each
controllable factor the technique produces decision
outcomes that are also continuous probability
functions. This gives a much clearer picture of the
spread of outcomes possible than the decision tree
model that produces single-figure expected values.
This technique that was originally described by Hertz
can be briefly summarized as follows:
i)
18
Choose the uncontrollable exogenous variables

(risk factors), which are considered to have a
significant bearing on the decision.
Simulation technique especially the Monte Carlo is

widely used in risk analysis and evaluation. But it has
the disadvantage that, it requires mainframe computers
such as OPSS etc. It is expensive to use.
Simulation methods to date have suffered from
excessive detail. Their lack of concern for external
effects and their general limitation of one dimension
being extrapolated to others, e.g. time to cost.
5.6
The Utility Theory
An attempt was made by David Bernoulli in 1738

to quantify individuals emotions about money or
individuals value system. However, it was not until
1944 that a formal mathematical theory was set
forth by Yon Neuman and Morgenstern to describe,
in a quantitative sense, a decision makers attitude
and feelings about money. Their theory becomes the
modem utility theory.
The concept of utility is psychologically oriented
and refers to subjective satisfaction derived by an
TECHNICAL PAPERS
individual from the possession of a given number of
units of a particular commodity. The utility theory
referred to herein is often thought of as a concept for
measuring the attitudes of an individuals (decision
maker) towards risk and uncertainty. The theory
first enunciates certain axioms obeyed by a rational
man and the show that these lead to the existence of
a preference ordering or utility function IT which
satisfies the following properties:
1.
U is defined as the set of all possible

outcomes
2.
Outcome X is preferred to outcomes Y if

and if U (X) > U (V)
3.
A decision giving chances T of achieving

outcomes X (I < 1 < n) is preferred to
one giving chances q of achieving outcomes
Y (I < j < n)
Where probability = q = I if and only if

PU(X) > q U (Y)
Property (2) shows that a utility function ranks the

outcome in the preference order while property (3)
shows that one set of probabilistic outcomes i.e.
preferred to another if and only if it has a higher
expected utility. It follows from this property that
a rational man ill always act so as to maximise his
expected utility.
5.7
Expert System
A lot of research is being done on artificial intelligence

and expert systems. Specifically one of the most
sophisticated models that can be developed for risk
management is making use of knowledge-based
systems or human-computer cooperative systems.
a knowledge-base. It is designed to warn project

managers of risks that may follow etc. While doing
this, the logical thinking and the intuitive thinking of
the managers is accounted for in the system.
5.8
The analytical hierarchical process was originally

developed by Saaty (1980). It provides a flexible
and easily understandable process to analyze project
risks. It provides a promising alternative in complex
situations involving a multi-criteria decision making
methodology. It has structured approach to decisionmaking that eliminates much of the guesswork and
confusion or ordinary methods of synthesizing an
overall explanation for a system. It organises the
basic rationality by breaking down the problem
into its smaller constituent parts and then guide
the decision maker through a series of pair-wise
comparison judgements (which are documented and
can be re-examines) to express the relative strength
or intensity of impact of the elements in the hierarchy.
These judgements are then translated into numbers.
The AHP includes procedures and principles used to
derive priorities among criteria and subsequently for
alternative solution.
6
RISK ANALYSES
The model used for the analysis of the risks that

have been identified with the case under study is
the analytical Hierarchical Process. The model
and its process have been described in this paper.
Implementation of integrated Road development
programme in the city of Kolhapur on BOT basis has
been taken as a case study of risk analysis.
6.1
This system is designed to assist the project managers

in achieving more effective control over risks by
providing them with appropriate knowledge, gathered
from many project managers and compiled into
Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP)
Analytical
(AHP)
Hierarchical
Process
Model
The analytical hierarchical process was originally

developed by Saaty (1980) is a multi-criteria decision
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
making methodology. It allows the decision maker to
set priorities and make choices on the basis of their
objectives, knowledge and experience consistent
with their intuitive thought process. It fulfils the
requirements for an executive decision system
where decision makers can structure a system and its
environment into mutually interacting parts and then
synthesize them by measuring and ranking the impact
of these parts of the entire system.
A conventional approach to risk analysis suffers two
major limitations:
a)
It requires detailed qualitative information that

is not normally available at the project planning
stage.
b)
The problems are ill defined due to subjective

nature, which leads to imprecise decision during
their applicability.
The deductive as well as systems approach of AHP

within an integrated, logical framework removes these
limitations and makes the understanding of complex
situations simpler. The structured approach to decision
making eliminates much of the guesswork.
Once the problem has been structured, expert judgments

are solicited from the decision maker relating to each
fact of the problem. The methodology foes not require
any numerical guess. The degree of importance of the
elements at a particular level with respect to those in
the immediate upper level is judged by the decision
maker and measured by a procedure of pair wise
comparisons repeated for all elements at each level.
The ultimate goal of doing this is assign numerical
values to the subjective judgements on the relative
importance of each element with values varying from
one to nine. The pair wise comparison scale used for
the risk analysis of the project under study is given
in Table 1. This is also the fundamental scale of AHP
and consists of numbers (one to nine) associated
with intensities of importance or preference. This
methodology has been shown to provide remarkably
accurate results. The consistency of judgement in any
decision making process is vital because of its impact
on the quality of decision.
Unfortunately, lack of inconsistency is expected to
exist in almost any set of the pair wise comparison.
The consistency of pair wise judgements is measured
in AHP from the Consistency Ratio (CR):

AHP has been applied successfully to a wide variety

of problems over then past several years that include
Architecture (Satty and Erdcnncr, 1979), Conflict
Resolution (Gholam Nezhad 1983 and 1984)
Predictions (Saatyy and Gholam Nezhad 1982
Ciholam - Nczhad 1985)
CR = CI/RI
Where,

CI = Consistency Index
RI = Random Index
Consistency Index, CI = ( max n) (n I)

The AHP uses a hierarchical approach where the
problem is decomposed into a number of interrelated
factors and then arranged in a hierarchical order.
The number of levels in the hierarchy depends on
the complexity of the problem as well as the degree
of detail needed to solve the problem. Each factor is
evaluated with respected to the other related factors.
20
Where,

max = large eigen value
n = ran of the matrix
The Random Index is given in Table 2.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Pair wise Comparison Scale
Intensity of
Definition
Importance
1
Equal Importance
2
Moderate importance of one
over another
5
Essential or strong importance
7
Very strong importance
Extreme importance
2,4,6,8
Intermediate Value
Explanation
Two elements contribute equally to the Property
Experience and Judgment slightly favour one element over
another
Experience and judgement slightly favour one element over
another
An element is strongly favoured and its dominance is
demonstrated practice
The evidence favouring one element over another is of the
highest possible order of affirmation
When compromise is needed
Table 2 Random Index Table
Random Index
0.00
0.00
0.58
0.90
1.12
1.24
1.32
1.41
1.45
10
1.49
6.1.1 Steps of Analytical Hierarchical Process

The following are the steps to be taken in formulating
the risk-analysis model Analytical Hierarchical
Process:
Step 1: The scope of the total project is classified
through the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). The
whole project is classified into manageable work
packages in accordance with the similarities of
activities. Risk analysis is considered separately for
the various packages. In the project under study as

risks pertaining to cost overruns are being studied; the
entire project cost is divided into four cost centers.
Step 2: In this step, identification of risk factors and
sub-factors is done for specific work packages and the
establishment of a hierarchical risk structure from the
package concerned. Various techniques, ranging form
simple interviews and the application of the analysts
own experience to the Delphi technique, can be used
for the identification of risk factors and sub-factors.
Thus, the risk factors relating to each cost center are
determined and an AHP model is developed. This
model has been shown subsequently.
Step 3: The relative weights of the various risk factors
are determined by pair v comparison according to the
severity of risk on the basis of questionnaire filled
experienced project managers and planning engineers.
The scale of giving weightages has already been
shown in Table 1. This creates a detailed analysis of
the ranking the risk factors for the cost centers under
consideration with respect to the severity of risk.
Step 4: the level of likelihood of each factor is
determined with respect to high medium and low
21
TECHNICAL PAPERS
risk. The risks having probability more than six are
considered to be high risks, those with probability
from one to six are considered to be medium risks and
those with less than one are considered as low risks.
Step 5: The likelihood of the levels of risk are
synthesized and determined in this step. The
likelihoods of high, medium and low total are
determined by aggregating the relative weights
through the hierarchy.
Step 6: A sensitivity analysis is carried out. The
outcome of the analysis above is dependent on the
hierarchy established by the management, and the
relative judgements made about the elements of
the problems. Changes in the hierarchy may lead to
change in the outcome. The effect of the change can

be examined through the sensitivity analysis.
Step 7: The overall risk of the cost centers is
determined. The likelihood levels of risk and the
weights of different levels of risk are combined to
determine the overall risk of all cost centers.
Step 8: The cost centers are ranked in accordance
with the risk probability and severity. The result from
the determination of the overall risks of cost centers
are used to ranks the cost centers with respect to their
risks.
The results of the Analytical Hierarchical Process for
the risks affecting the cost overruns of the project
under study are given in Table 3.
Table 3 Risk Identified in Various Stages by Using AHP

Sl. Stages of Project
No
Preconstruction
Risk Identified in various stages
Likeli- Seve- Chance Weigh- Risk Percent

hood rity
of
tages Number Risk
(L)
(S)
detec(W)
= L*S* Share
tion (D)
D*W
Reliability of TOR
10
0.68
20.40
Risk of getting the clearance approved
10
0.68
20.40
Reliability of the DPR
0.68
5.44
Type of client
0.68
30.60
Change in requirement
0.68
85.00
Delay in decision & approach
0.68
85.00
Change in Government policy
0.68
30.60
Interpretation of the requirements
0.68
48.96
46.24
4
Client team
280.16
Experience of the team
10
1.58
142.20
10
Design team
Faulty design
10
1.58
47.40
11
Continuity of the team
1.58
9.48
12
Level of design information
1.58
118.50
13
Practicality of the design
10
1.58
15.80
333.38
14 Construction
Scope of the Project
10
2.26
2.90
3.45
67.80
15
Deviation in site parameters
10
2.26
203.40
16
Location
10
2.26
203.40
22
0.48
TECHNICAL PAPERS
No

hood rity
of
tages Number Risk
(L)
(S)
detec(W)
= L*S* Share
tion (D)
D*W
17
Access Problem
2.26
56.50
18
Legal restrictions
10
2.26
113.00
19
Contaminated
2.26
11.30
20
Occupies
2.26
56.50
21
Noise abatement
2.26
56.50
22
Time overruns
2.26
282.50
23
Fixed price
2.26
108.48
24
Performance & financial
2.26
101.70
25
Dispute
2.26
723.20
26
Ability to carry out construction
10
2.26
203.40
27
Testing
2.26
271.20
2628.3
28 Geological
Presence of faults
10
29
Weak foundation
1.58
379.20
1.58
63.20
30
Water table
1.58
316.00
31
Earthquake
10
1.58
395.00
1153.4
32 Environment
Loss of flora
10
1.58
379.20
33
Loss of fertile
10
1.58
379.20
34
Rehabilitation
10
10
1.58
690.00
35
Radiation damage
1.58
00.00
36
Damage due to
1.58
11.93
00.00
1584.4
37 Fuel
Non availability
10
1.13
169.50
38
Floods
10
1.1.
282.50
452.00
39 Contractual
Form of contract
0.68
3.40
40
Type of tender
0.68
10.20
41
Claims
0.68
130.56
42
Arbitration
0.68
136.00
280.16
43 Financial
Delay in
1.13
141.25
44
Delay in
1.13
141.25
45
Restrictions on cash Flows
1.13
20.34
46
Inflation rate
1.13
141.25
47
Exchange rate risk
1.13
141.25
27.19
16.02
4.68
2.90
23
TECHNICAL PAPERS
No

hood rity
of
tages Number Risk
(L)
(S)
detec(W)
= L*S* Share
tion (D)
D*W
48
Inability of the contractor to pay
10
1.13
271.20
49
Tax Implications
1.13
45.20
50
Repatriation of profits
1.13
45.20
946.94
51
Political & regulatory Risk
0.68
81.60
52
Conflict between government bodies
0.68
136.00
53
Inadequacy of legal frame work
0.68
16.32
54
Risk of change in legal & regulatory

environment
10
0.68
34.00
55
Price setting policy
0.68
30.60
56
Enforceability of contracts
0.68
48.96
347.48
57 Operation Risk
Number &
contractors
58
performance
of
sub
2.27
102.15
Defective works
10
2.27
204.30
59
Hidden problems
10
2.27
340.50
60
Force majeure
10
10
2.27
227.00
61
Materials & Plant availability
10
2.27
68.10
62
Risk of maintaining the load factor
2.27
163.44
63
Bankruptcy of sub contractor
2.27
34.05
64
Variations in change orders
2.27
170.25
65
Risk of failure of structure
10
2.27
340.50
Total
9.80
3.59
1650.29
17.06
9666.83
100
6.1.2 Risks Identified by the Analytical Hierarchical

Process Model
Total estimated cost is divided into four components

as given below:
Where,

T1 = Design or Specification Risk

T2 = Material Risk
24
T3 = Equipment Risk
T4 = Cash Flow Risk
F2 = Price Escalation Risk
TECHNICAL PAPERS

F3 = Inflation Risk
F4 = Payment to Contractor Risk
P1 = Legal Risk
P2 = Accidents Risk
P3 = Non Performance by the Contractor Risk
S1 = Clearance Risk
S2 = Change in Local Laws Risk
S3 = Disapproval of Pans Risk
Table 4 Ranking of Risk Causing Cost Overruns, as

Obtained from the Analytical Hierarchical Process
Cost centers
Financial
Statutory
Technical
Socio-Political
7
6.1.3 Advantages of Analytical Hierarchical Process

The observed advantages of AHP are as following:
i)
It divides the complete project into controllable

work packages through the work breakdown
structure.
ii)
It classifies the various sources of risk associated

with the work packages
Rank
1
2
3
4
CONCLUSION
In todays rapidly growing Highway projects, the

quantum of risk has also increased considerably.
Highway projects involve various types of risks
such as Construction risk, Operation & Maintenance
risk, Political risk, Revenue risk and Regulatory
risk. Various stages of project like Gestation stage,
Development stage, Construction and Start up stage
and Operational stage involves different types of
risks.
For analyzing these risks there are various methods
available which are as follows:
iii) It identifies risk factors and sub-factors and

their hierarchical order.
Evaluation of Risk
Probability Concepts
iv)
It determines the contributions of specific

risk to time and cost overruns and too Nonconformance to quality standards
Decision Trees
Decision Matrix
Risk Simulation
It enables the management to control high-risk

work packages by the use of a highly competent
team.
The Utility Theory
Expert system
Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP)
v)
vi)
It helps in formulating contract strategy.
vii) It creates a
achievement.
confidence
about
project
viii) It extends valuable support for the projects

participating agencies in the decision making
process.
In project management terms the most serious effect

of risk can be summarized:
a)
Failure to keep within the cost estimate
b)
Failure to achieve the required completion date
c)
Failure to achieve the required quality and

operational requirements.
6.1.4 Result of AHP on Project under Study

Table 4 shows of cost centers on the basis of impact
due to the risks leading to cost overruns.
As far as rating agencies role is concerned. A

scientifically graded project would lend itself to a
more accurate and reliable estimate of risks associated
with the infrastructure project.
25
TECHNICAL PAPERS
8
RECOMMENDATIONS
Before signing the contract agreement, all the

parties should study all the areas where there is
possibility of involvement of risk.
The contractor should be well versed with the
site conditions before signing the contract.
Proper finance should be arranged before the
start of the project.
The uses of new technologies and construction
methods would reduce the time of construction.
This will reduce the project completion risk.
By forming joint ventures with strong parties,
the risk involved will be distributed evenly.
3.
Prasanna Chandra (2002), Financial Managers, Tata

McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi,
Sensitivity analysis, RA.
4.
CODE (October 2003), Risk Management in Construction

Projects, Publication Bureau, NICMAR Pune.
5.
Construction World, Vol. 7 No. 11, August 2005.
6.
Prasanna Chandra (2002) Projects, Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi.
7.
Prasanna Chandra (2001), Financial Management, Tata

McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi.
8.
Chris Chapman and Stephen Ward (1997), Project Risk

Management, John Willey & sons, New York.
9.
Singh, Indrasen, Risk Management in Contracts

Seminar on Urban Infrastructure Renewal Challenges,
Impediments & Solutions, CIDC, India Habitat Centre,
New Delhi, January 31, 2008.
10.
Singh, Indrasen, Risk Management on Public Private

Participation in Highway Project, a National Seminar
on Public Private Partnership in Highway Sector, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi, August 28-29, 2009.
REFERENCES
1.
Ramakrishnan R (January 2004), Construction Journal of

India, 8-11
2.
Laxton (1996) Guide to Risk Analysis & Management,

Oxford Butterworth-Heinemann, Jorden Hill.
26
DESIGN OF HIGH EMBANKMENT USING RED MUD

Sarat Kumar Das*, Subrat Kumar Rout** and Tapaswini Sahoo***
Abstract
National Highways, port connectivity, expressways and remote
area connectivity through Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY) are major part of infrastructure development. This
has resulted in construction of high embankments, underpass
and flyovers using vast amount of natural resources. This
paper discusses use of red mud as an embankment material
based on laboratory investigation and finite element analysis.
The geotechnical properties such as specific gravity, plasticity
index, compaction characteristics, consolidation and triaxial
shear strength of red mud are presented. Stability analysis of
embankments using above geotechnical properties are discussed.
Introduction
Construction of embankments has become an integral

part of major road works in construction of National
highways, expressways and other connectivity.
Presence of expansive soils, shortage of borrow area
soil creates lots of hindrance to such projects. From
environmental consideration, vast use of top soil in
available area is also matter of concern as its takes
thousands of years to form the natural top soil. Now
there is a great concern regarding use of alternate/
waste material in place of natural top soil.
Aluminum industries are producing huge quantity of
industrial waste known as red mud. Globally there
are approximately 70 million tones of red mud being
produced every year with less than half of this is used.
Storage of this unutilized red mud takes vast tracts
of usable land. Highly alkaline red mud (pH ranges
from 10.5 to 13) is typically deposited as slurries
with 15 to 40% of solids. The red mud ponds are
situated above the normal ground level. This also
pollutes the environment in terms of water and land

contamination.
So in order to avoid these difficulties there is a need
to characterize the red mud to be used as an alternate
embankment and sub grade material. This paper
presents part of the study related to geotechnical
characterization of red mud as embankment material.
Examples are presented for the embankment design
using Finite Element Method (FEM) based on above
geotechnical parameters. This study will help the
engineers, planners to use red mud as an alternate
material particularly for difficult soil in borrows area
or at least to avoid the environmental degradation.
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Parekh and Goldberger (1976) and Li (1998) defined

red mud as highly alkaline (PH=11-13) waste
material, whose mineral components can include
hematite, goethite, gibbsite, calcite, sodanite and
complex silicates with cation exchange capacities are
comparable with kaolin or illite minerals. The red mud
has more than 50% as clay size particles. Very limited
efforts have been made in various parts of world
regarding utilization of red mud as an embankment
material. Some of the initial efforts in geotechnical
characterization of red mud are presented as follows.
Vogt (1974), observed that the in-situ undrained
shear strengths are typically vary high compared to
uncemented clayey soils and it has very high friction
angles () varying from = 38-42.
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

E-mail: saratdas@rediffmail.com
**
Asst. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ITER, SOA University, Bhubaneswar
*** Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Somogyi and Gray (1977), Fahey and Newson
(1998) observed that red mud has compression index
Cc = 0.27-0.39 similar to silty-clay soils, coefficient
of permeability k = 2-20 x10-7 cm/s and coefficient of
consolidation Cv = 3 50 x10-3 cm2/s. Red mud tends
to have low plasticity [e.g., WL = 45%, IP = 10%] and
relatively high specific gravity (GS = 2.8-3.3). There
is lack of clay mineralogy and these wastes show
many geotechnical properties similar to clayey tailings
found in other mineral processing (Vick 1981).
It was observed that limited study has been done to
find out geotechnical properties of red mud and also
little geotechnical information available about Indian
red mud. For the high embankment stability analysis
is most important factor which is generally found by
slope stability analysis. The limit equilibrium method
with circular slip surface or wedge/planer slip surface
is assumed for this analysis. But in limit equilibrium
method, it is not possible to find out the stress and
strain inside the soil mass. It is also important to study
the case of hydraulic fracturing particularly with water
table in one side of embankment. Hence, in this study
an attempt has been made to characterize red mud
as an alternate embankment material. Accordingly
necessary geotechnical laboratory investigations
were made. Finite Element Method (FEM) is used
to study the stability of embankment based on
above geotechnical properties. The flow through the
embankment is also studied along with the stress
variations inside the embankment mass to study the
case of hydraulic fracturing.
3
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
3.1
Materials and Test Programme
The red mud used in the experimental work was

collected from National Aluminum Company Ltd.
NALCO, Damanjodi Koraput, Odisha and a typical
discharge point is shown in Fig. 1.
28
Fig. 1 Discharge of Red Mud as Slurry into the Pond
The geotechnical properties of red mud like specific

gravity, plasticity index, swelling index, linear
shrinkage, grain size classification, compaction
characteristics, and triaxial shear tests were
investigated as per relevant IS codes.
The basic physical properties of red mud are shown in
Table 1. It can be seen that the red mud is highly alkaline
with pH value of 11.4 and the specific gravity (3.34) is
also very high compared to soil due to the presence of
hematite. It has low plasticity and low volumetric and
linear shrinkage. As per IS soil classification it can
be classified as silty soils of low plasticity as well as
clayey soils of low plasticity. (ML-CL).
Fig. 2 shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of red mud
and it was observed hematite as majorminerals with
other minerals like goethite, gibbsite, rutile, boehmite,
sodanite and absence of common clay minerals. The
high specific gravity of red mud is due to presence of
hematite.
4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of other laboratory tests are presented in

the following section.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.1
Grain size Classification
The grain size distribution curve of red mud is

presented in Fig. 3. It can be observed that more
than 90% of particle sizes of red mud are fine
grained (< 0.075mm). The grain size distribution of
a local soil and fly ash are also presented in Fig. 3
for comparison. The fly ash used in the present study
was collected from hopper of the thermal power plant
of Jindal Power Limited, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh. It
was observed that grain size distribution of red mud
and fly ash is comparable and these are finer than
local soil. The plasticity of red mud is found to low
(PI = 7.2) due to absence of clay minerals as shown in
Fig. 2. This low plasticity may help to use red mud as
a subgrade material.
Fig. 2 X-ray Diffraction Pattern of Red Mud.
Table 1 Geotechnical Properties of Red Mud
Sl. No
Properties
Red mud
pH value
11.4
Specific Gravity
3.34
Plasticity characteristics
Liquid limit (%)
24.8
Plastic limit (%)
17.5
Plasticity index (%)
7.2
Volumetric shrinkage (%)
1.6
Linear shrinkage (%)
5.3
IS classification
4.2
Fig. 3 Grain Size Distribution Curves of Red Mud with other Soils
ML,CL
Compaction
The compaction curve for red mud using light

compaction and heavy compaction is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 also describes the compaction characterisation
of fly ash and a local sandy soil for comparison. It
can be seen that red mud has higher Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) in comparison to other materials. This
high MDD value may be attributed to high specific
gravity of red mud.
Fig. 4 Compaction Characterisation of Red Mud with

Fly Ash and Other Soil
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.3
Triaxial Shear Strength
The stress- strain curve for the red mud compacted

(Light compaction) at OMC and MDD is shown in
Fig. 5 at different confining stress (3). The tests were
conducted under consolidated undrained condition.
The cohesion (c) of red mud is found to 28.8kN/m2
and the angle of internal friction () as 34.830. The
shear strength value of the red mud is found to more
as compared to fly ash (c = 18kN/m2 and = 28.40).
It was also observed that red mud has higher value
compared to ordinary soil.
4.4
CBR
The unsoaked and soaked CBR value of red mud is

found to 6.4 and 1.2, respectively. Based on CBR value
it can be observed that red mud can be effectively used
as a sub grade material in dry state.
5
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
In the present study the finite element analysis of

the embankment is done using FEM based softwarePLAXIS (Brinkgreve et al. 2008).
program for geotechnical applications in which

different soil models are used to simulate the soil
behavior. Its implementation consists of three stages,
known as input stage, calculation stage and post
processing (curves) stage. Input stage contains model
design, assigning the material parameters, boundary
conditions, loading and meshing. In the present
analysis 15-node triangular element is considered for
meshing which contains 12 stress points. In PLAXIS,
stresses and strains are calculated at individual
Gaussian integration points rather than at nodes. In
the calculation stage, analysis type is chosen such as
Plastic, dynamic, consolidation and phi-c reduction.
The assigned loads are activated in this stage and
analyzed. In the post processing stage, curves are
plotted between various calculated parameters such as
load Vs displacement.
To compare with the limit equilibrium method in
addition to stress-strain calculation, the Factor of
Safety (FOS) of slope is calculated using Phi-c (-C)
reduction method.
5.1.1 -C Reduction Method
Phi-c reduction is an option available in PLAXIS to
compute FOS for the stability problems. This option
can be selected as a separate calculation type in the
general tab sheet. In the Phi-c reduction approach
the strength parameters tan and c of the soil are
successively reduced in the same decrement. The total
multiplier Msf (MSF) is used to define the value of
the soil strength parameters at a given stage in the
analysis:

Fig. 5 Stress-Strain Curve of Red Mud under Consolidated

Undrained Triaxial Shear Test
5.1
Finite Element Analysis Using PLAXIS
PLAXIS (Brinkgreve et al. 2008) is a finite element

30
Msf =
tan input
tan reduced
cinput
creduced
... (1)
Where the strength parameters with the subscript

input refer to the properties entered in the material
sets and parameters with the subscript reduced refer
to the reduced values used in the analysis. Msf is
set to 1.0 at the start of calculation to set all material
strengths to their unreduced values. The variation of
TECHNICAL PAPERS
MSF with displacement is presented to find out the
FOS.
2.56 which is comparable to that obtained using limit

equilibrium method.
It was also observed that red mud is a dispersive

(erodible) material. Hence following IRC:SP:58-2001
an attempt has been made to provide soil cover with
local soil similar to that of fly ash embankment. The
properties of local soil and red mud for the present
analysis are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 Soil Properties for Mohr-Coulomb Model
Mohr-Coulomb parameters
3
Unit weight(kN/m )
Local soil
16
Red mud
19.8
-3
5.832 x 10-4
Permeability(m/day)
5 x 10
Cohesion(kN/m2)
30
28.8
Internal friction(degree)
15
34
Youngs modulus(kN/m2)
3500
1771
Poisson ratio
0.3
0.34
5.2
Fig. 6 The PLAXIS Model for the Slope Using only Red Mud.
Stability Analysis of Embankment Slope
For the embankment slope analysis the top width of a

typical 2-lane road is taken as 14m (7m carriage way +
1.5x2 paved shoulder + 2x2 earth shoulder). Similarly
for 4-lane road it is taken as 26m. The embankment
slope considered are with slope 1:2 (1 vertical: 2
horizontal). The embankment height considered for
10m and 15m. The stability analysis of embankment
with red mud only and red mud with soil cover is
analysed.
Fig. 7 The Shear Failure Surface of Slope as Per PLAXIS Model

for the Slope Using only Red Mud.
5.2.1 Example 1
In the 1st attempt, it was tried to analyze the
embankment using only red mud as the base material.
The slope height is kept 15m and the slope inclination
of 1:2. Model diagram with its deformation mesh is
shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 shows the shear failure results
of PLAXIS analysis. This failure surface refers to
failure surface as per limit equilibrium method and
the result has been verified earlier (Subramaniam,
2011). The variation of the MSF with displacement is
shown in Fig. 8 and the FOS of the slope is found to
Fig. 8 The Factor of Safety of Slope as per PLAXIS Model for

the Slope Using only Red Mud.
31
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5.2.2 Example 2
In this example an attempt has been made to analyze
embankment by covering the red mud with the local
c- soil. The slope geometry as described in Example
1 is analyzed with cover material of horizontal 3.0m
on sides 1.0m on top as shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 10 shows
the shear failure results of PLAXIS analysis. The
variation of the MSF with displacement is shown in
Fig. 11 and the FOS of the slope is found to 2.58.
Fig. 11 The Factor of Safety of Slope as per PLAXIS Model for

the Slope Using Red Mud and 1.0m Vertical Soil Cover.
Drainage
Fig. 9 The PLAXIS Model with its Deformation Mesh for the
Slope Using Red Mud and 1.0m Vertical Soil Cover.
Fig. 10 The Shear Failure Surface of Slope as per PLAXIS

Model for the Slope Using Red Mud and 1.0m
Vertical Soil Cover.
32
Another important aspect of high embankment is

the effect of ponding of water on one side or both
sides during monsoon. This flood water may lead
to hydraulic fracturing (Sherard 1986) and may
ultimately lead to failure. Hydraulic fracturing by
rservoir water acting on the upstream face of the
dam core causes concentrated leaks of water to enter
the core. If the core material is dispersive then it may
lead to cause piping. Hydraulic fracturing due to high
water pressures might have caused leakage or failure
of many embankment/dams (Sherard, 1986). In the
present case as the core material red mud is dispersive
(Sahoo, 2012) in nature, it is necessary to study the
hydraulic fracture. The Hydraulic fracturing occurs
particularly if the phreatic line is above the tension
zone of the emabnkment. Identification of tension
zone and phreatic line also help in provision of filtre
bed. Such a study also made here to find the effect
of ponding. Hence, an attempt has been taken at
same soil cover with consideration of phreatic line.
The PLAXIS model with its deformation mesh and
its position of phreatic line, shear failure surface and
effective stress diagram in Z-Z direction is shown in
Figs. 12, 13 and 14 respectively. From the effective
stress diagram it was observed that little tensile stress
occurred at the surface of the embankment which is
TECHNICAL PAPERS
much above the phreatic line. Hence, there is less
chance of hydraulic fracture.
Similar study was also made for different height and
width of embankment with only red mud and with red
mud core and soil cover. The comprehensive results
have been presented in Table 3. It was observed that in
all cases the FOS is more than 2.5. As per IRC:75 and
IRC:SP:58, FOS should be more than 1.5, hence, high
embankment can be constructed using red mud with
soil cover. Though, there is a need to study other aspects
like economy and convenience in construction.
Fig. 14 Effective Stress Diagrams for the Slope Using Red Mud
and Soil Cover of 1.0m Vertically in ZZ Direction
Table 3 Factor of safety of embankment of different

width and height with only red mud and red mud with
soil cover
(Width, height) mt, red mud, cover
Fig. 12 The PLAXIS Model with its Deformation Mesh for

the Slope Using Red Mud and 1.0m Vertical Soil Cover
with its Phreatic Line.
FOS
14, 10 (RM)
2.966
14, 10 (RM, soil)
3.00
14, 15 (RM)
2.558
14, 15 (RM, soil)
2.576
26, 10 (RM)
2.967
26,10 (RM, soil)
2.99
26, 15 (RM)
2.533
26, 15 (RM, soil)
2.541
Conclusion
This paper described the analysis of high embankment
using red mud based on the laboratory geotechnical
investigation and the stability analysis using FEM.
Based on the observations and discussions thereof
following conclusions can be made:
1.
Fig. 13 The Shear Failure Surface of Slope as per PLAXIS

Model for the Slope Using Red Mud and 1.0m Vertical
Soil Cover with its Phreatic Line.
Red mud is highly alkaline with PH value of

11.9 and the specific gravity is also very high
compared to soil. It has low plasticity and low
volumetric and linear shrinkage with 90% of
particle finer than 0.075mm.
33
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.
Red mud has higher Maximum Dry Density

(MDD) in comparison to other materials due to
high specific gravity.
3.
The angle of internal friction value of the red

mud is found to more as compare to fine grained
soil and fly ash.
4.
The FOS of the embankment with only red mud

and red mud with local soil cover found to be
more than required as per IRC specification.
5.
Using seepage analysis through embankment

to check against hydraulic fracturing, it was
observed that there is less chance of hydraulic
fracture.
6.
This limited study shows that red mud has the

potential to be used as an embankment material.
More study is being conducted regarding
economy and convenience in construction and
safety during construction.
REFERENCES
1.
Brinkgreve. R.B.J, Broere.W, Waterman.D (2008).

PLAXIS -2D (Version 9.0), Delft University of
Technology and PLAXIS b.v., The Netherlands.
2.
Fahey, M., Newson, T. A., and Fujiyasu, Y. (2002).

Engineering with Tailing. Invited Lecture, Proc., 4th
Int. Conf. On Environmental Geotechnics. Rio de janeiro,
Brazil, 2, 947-973, Balkema, Lisse.
3.
IRC:SP:58-2001. Guidelines for Use of Flyash in Road

Embankments, The Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar
House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi-110011.
4.
IRC:SP:75-1979. Guidelines for the Design of High

Embankments, The Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar
House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi-110011.
5.
Parekh, B., and Goldberger, W. (1976). An Assessment

of Technology for Possible Utilization of Bayer Process
Muds.US EPA, EPA-600/2-76301.
6.
Sherard, J.L (1986) Hydraulic Fracturing in Embankment

Dams, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 112,
No. 10, pp 905-927.
7.
Somogyi, F., and Gray, D. (1977) Engineering

Properties Affecting Disposal of Red Mud. Proc., Conf.
on Geotechnical Practice for Disposal of Solid Waste
Materials, ACSE, 1-22.
34
8.
Subramaniam, P. (2011). Reliability Based Analysis

of Slope, Foundation and Retaining wall Using Finite
Element Method. M.Tech Thesis Submitted to National
Institute of Technology Rourkela.
9.
Sahoo, T. (2012). Experimental and Numerical Analysis

of Foundation on Red Mud. M.Tech (R) Thesis Submitted
to National Institute of Technology Rourkela.
10.
Vick, S. G. (1981). Planning, Design and Analysis of

Tailing Dams, Wiley, New York, 369.
11.
Vogt, M. F. (1974). Development Studies on Dewatering

of Red Mud. 103rd Annual Meeting of AIME, Dallas,
Tex., 73-91.
Effect of Shape of Aggregate on Pavement

Quality Concrete
Kundan Meshram* & H.S. Goliya**
Abstract
Flaky and elongated particles have larger specific surface area
which results in higher demand of cement paste in cement
concrete mix. These particles impede compaction or break during
rolling and decrease the strength of pavement layer. The effect of
different percentages 0 to 50% of Combined Flaky and Elongation
Aggregates (CFEA) for Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) on
the compressive and flexural strength of cement concrete and on
the properties of aggregate, such as, bulk density, impact value,
crushing value, water absorption have been studied in this paper.
Cost analysis has been carried out with optimum value of 30%
CFEA in 1:3 proportions of flaky and elongated particles.
is mainly depends on the rock formation and type of

crusher being used for crushing the aggregates.
The most commonly used crushers in India are primary
and secondary jaw crusher, using which, it is difficult
to control flaky and elongated particles within the
specified limits.
1.1
Shape Test
(i)
Flakiness Index: - The flakiness index of

aggregate is percentage by the weight of particles
whose least dimension (thickness) is less than
three-fifths (0.6) of their mean dimension. The
taste is not applicable to sizes smaller than
6.3 mm.
(ii)
Elongation Index: - Elongation index of an

aggregate is the percentage by the weight of
particle whose greatest dimension (length) is
greater than one and four fifth times (1.8 times)
their mean dimension. The elongation test is
not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
Objectives of the Study
Introduction
India has a total road network of about 3.3 million km.

Road as one of the surface transportation infrastructures
is very important in supporting the economic for both
regional and national development.
About 80 percent of the total volume of concrete
consists of aggregate. Aggregate characteristics
significantly affect the performance of fresh and
hardened concrete and have an impact on the cost
effectiveness of concrete. Aggregate characteristics
of shape, texture, and grading influence workability,
finishability, bleeding, pumpability and segregation of
fresh concrete and affect strength, shrinkage, creep,
density, permeability, and durability of hardened
concrete. Construction and durability problems have
been reported due to poor mixture proportioning and
variation on grading. Flaky and elongated particles
lead to higher voids than, cubical, rounded and well
graded particles.
The shape factor of aggregate plays a vital role in
the design and performance of concrete mix and it
Research Scholar, MANIT, Bhopal
**
Associate Professor, SGSITS, Indore
This study has been done for following objectives:

(i)
To find out properties of aggregate such as,

bulk density, impact value, crushing value and
water absorption, with different proportions of
CFEA (1:3, 1:1 & 3:1) and percentage of CFEA
(0 to 50 %).
(ii)
To study the properties of concrete mixes for

PQC in the laboratory at varying combined
flakiness & elongation aggregate.
35
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(iii) To find out optimum proportion of combined
flakiness and elongation aggregate.
(iv) To study the cost analysis for optimum value of
CFEA.
Table 4.1 Observed Cement Properties

Normal
Consistency
of Cement
28%
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The aggregates were collected from Jaw Crusher at

Devguradiya Distt. Indore. Then flaky and elongated
particles are separate in laboratory. The properties of
cement, such as compressive strength and setting time,
were tested (Table 4.1). All in grading for coarse and
fine aggregates is shown in Table 4.2. The aggregates
were characterized for their properties such as, bulk
density, impact value, crushing value and water
absorption (Table 4.3 to Table 4.6), with different
proportions of CFEA. General properties of aggregate
like specific gravity, flakiness index and elongation
index are shown in Table 4.7. Properties of aggregate,
for 30% CFEA, are given in Table 4.8.
To prepare the specimen of combined flakiness and
elongation aggregates (CFEA) of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and
50% in which flaky and elongated particles mixed in
proportions 1:3, 1:1 and 3:1.To prepare specimens
(beam & cube) for each proportions for M-30 and
M-40 grade of concrete, keeping 0.42 and 0.40 watercement ratios respectively, with superplasticizer 1%
by weight of cement.
4
TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1
Cement Testing
Cement has been tested for the following tests as per

the code provisions mentioned.

Normal consistency (IS 269-1967)
Compressive strength
(IS 269-1967)
of
cement
Setting time of
Cement
7 Days
28 Days
Initial
Final
32.30
45.16
120 min.
180 min.
The 43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement is used in the

study the 28 days compressive strength is more than
required strength. The specific gravity of cement is
3.15.
4.2
Sieve Analysis
All in grading, as per IS: 383:1970, shown in

Table 4.2
Table 4.2 ALL-IN-GRADING
4.3
IS Sieve
% Passing
Limits
40 mm
100
100
20 mm
96.1
95-100
4.75 mm
48.05
30-50
600
10
10-35
150
0-6
Properties of Aggregate
Properties of aggregate such as, bulk density, impact

value, crushing value and water absorption, for
different proportions and different % of CFEA, are
given in Table 4.3 to 4.6.
Table 4.3 Bulk Density for Different Proportions and
Different % of CFEA
BULK DENSITY (kg/m3)
mortar
Setting time of cement (IS 269-1967)
Summary of the values observed for the chosen cement

with regard to the above listed test are being presented
in Table 4.1
36
Compressive
Strength of
Cement Mortar
Proportions
of CFEA
% of CFEA
0
10
20
30
40
50
1:3
1586
1558
1534
1511
1478
1428
1:1
1586
1563
1544
1527
1498
1457
3:1
1586
1568
1553
1537
1512
1473
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4.4 Impact Value for Different Proportions and
Different % of CFEA
Table 4.8 Properties of Aggregate for 30% CFEA
Properties
Test value
Impact value,%
11.42
Crushing value,%
18.31
Water absorption,%
0.48
Bulk density, kg/ m3
1511
IMPACT VALUE (%)

Proportions
of CFEA
% of CFEA
0
10
20
30
40
50
1:3
10.12
10.46
10.89
11.42
12.04
12.71
1:1
10.12
10.51
10.97
11.53
12.15
12.88
3:1
10.12
10.48
11.04
11.67
12.38
13.16
Table 4.5 Crushing Value for Different Proportions

and Different % of CFEA
Testing of Hardened Concrete
Properties of Cement Concrete

Compressive strength of concrete of different
proportions of CFEA for M-30 is given in Table 4.9
to 4.11.
CRUSHING VALUE (%)

Proportions
of CFEA
4.4
% of CFEA
0
10
20
30
40
50
1:3
17.68
17.94
18.12
18.31
18.63
19.42
1:1
17.68
18.08
18.40
18.72
19.09
20.04
3:1
17.68
18.17
18.54
19.11
19.74
21.06
Table 4.9 Compressive Strength of 1:3

Proportions for M-30
Grade of
Concrete
Proportions
of CFEA
% of
CFEA
7 Days
28 Days
28.08
40.12
10
26.16
37.38
20
26.53
37.73
30
26.86
38.38
40
25.77
36.95
50
25.69
36.70
Table 4.6 Water Absorption for Different Proportions

and Different % of CFEA
WATER ABSORPTION (%)
Proportions
of CFEA
% of CFEA
0
10
20
30
40
50
1:3
0.34
0.36
0.42
0.48
0.55
0.64
1:1
0.34
0.39
0.45
0.51
0.59
0.67
3:1
0.34
0.43
0.49
0.57
0.65
0.72
The general properties of aggregate material are given

in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 General Properties of Aggregate Material
Properties
Test value
Specific gravity
2.78
Flakiness index,%
17.16
Elongation index,%
12.63
The properties of aggregate for 30% CFEA are given

in Table 4.8.
M 30
1:3
Avg. Comp.
Strength (MPa)
Table 4.10 Compressive Strength of 1:1 Proportions

for M-30
Grade of
Concrete
M 30
Proportions
of CFEA
1:1
% of
CFEA
Avg. Comp. Strength

(MPa)
7 Days
28 Days
28.08
40.12
10
25.80
36.86
20
25.93
37.05
30
26.53
37.90
40
25.70
36.72
50
25.61
36.50
37
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4.14 Flexural Strength of 3:1

Grade of
Concrete
M 30
Proportions
of CFEA
3:1
% of
CFEA
Avg. Comp.
Strength (MPa)
Grade of Proportions of % of Flexural Strength

Concrete
CFEA
CFEA
(MPa)
7 Days
28 Days
3.80
4.40
10
3.08
3.70
20
3.14
3.74
37.37
30
3.39
3.94
25.56
36.52
40
2.80
3.40
25.37
36.24
50
2.66
3.27
7 Days
28 Days
28.08
40.12
10
25.65
36.34
20
25.77
36.60
30
26.16
40
50
M 30
3:1
Flexural strength of concrete of different proportions

of CFEA for M-30 is given in Table 4.12 to 4.14.
Compressive strength of concrete of different

proportions of CFEA for M-40 is given in Table 4.15
to 4.17.

Table 4.15 Compressive Strength of 1:3 for M-40
Grade of
Concrete
M 30
Proportions
of CFEA
1:3
% of
CFEA
Flexural Strength
(MPa)
Grade of Proportions of % of
Concrete
CFEA
CFEA
7 Days
28 Days
39.97
57.10
10
39.12
55.89
20
39.24
56.06
4.3
30
39.63
56.47
3.2
3.84
40
39.02
55.74
3.05
3.72
50
38.91
55.59
7 Days
28 Days
3.8
4.4
10
3.22
3.88
20
3.43
3.96
30
3.78
40
50
M 40
M 30
38
Proportions
of CFEA
1:1
% of
CFEA
1:3


Grade of
Concrete
Avg. Comp.
Strength (MPa)
Flexural Strength
(MPa)
Grade of Proportions of % of
Concrete
CFEA
CFEA
Avg. Comp.
Strength (MPa)
7 Days
28 Days
39.97
57.10
10
37.38
53.41
20
37.66
53.80
30
38.02
54.32
3.60
40
37.24
53.20
3.45
50
37.08
52.98
7 Days
28 Days
3.80
4.40
10
3.14
3.79
20
3.28
3.82
30
3.60
4.12
40
2.04
50
2.88
M 40
1:1
TECHNICAL PAPERS

Grade of Proportions % of Avg. Comp. Strength

Concrete of CFEA CFEA
(MPa)
M 40
28 Days
4.95
5.90
10
4.10
4.90
20
4.27
4.97
51.78
30
4.63
5.17
34.40
50.14
40
3.95
4.8
34.24
49.92
50
3.76
4.57
28 Days
39.97
57.10
10
34.92
50.89
20
35.10
51.14
30
35.55
40
50
Flexural strength of concrete of different proportions

of CFEA for M-40 is given in Table 4.18 to 4.20.
Proportions
of CFEA
M 40
1:3
% of
CFEA
Flexural Strength
(MPa)
7 Days
28 Days
4.95
5.9
10
4.35
5.21
20
4.53
5.33
30
4.94
5.64
40
4.25
5.15
50
4.1
5.01

Grade of
Concrete
Proportions
of CFEA
% of
CFEA
Flexural
Strength (MPa)
7 Days 28 Days
M 40
1:1
Flexural Strength
(MPa)
7 Days
7 Days
3:1
Grade of
Concrete
Grade of Proportions % of
Concrete
of CFEA
CFEA
4.95
5.90
10
4.20
5.07
20
4.38
5.13
30
4.73
40
50
M 40
3:1
On the basis of above given data (Table 4.9 to 4.20)

it is observed that 30% of CFEA give more strength,
both compressive and flexural strength. Due to more
surface of flaky and elongation aggregate the water
absorption also increase. There are need more mortar
paste in concrete mix. So increase 3% & 1.5% extra
cement of total cement content for M-30 & M-40
respectively and find out 28 days compressive strength
for 30% CFEA given in Table 4.21 & 4.22.
Table 4.21 28 Days Compressive Strength (MPa) of
M-30 for 30% CFEA with 3% Extra Cement of Total
Cement Content Per m3
Proportions of
CFEA
Normal Cement
Content
3% extra
Cement
1:3
38.38
40.20
1:1
37.90
39.51
3:1
37.37
39.32
Table 4.22 28 Days Compressive Strength (MPa) of

M-40 for 30% CFEA with 1.5% Extra Cement of Total
Cement Content Per m3
Proportions
Normal Cement
Content
1.5% extra
Cement
5.34
1:3
56.47
57.35
4.08
4.95
1:1
54.32
55.32
3.91
4.78
3:1
51.79
53.27
39
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.5
Cost Analysis
Table 4.26 Cost (Rs.) Difference for PQC

in per m3 for M-30
Cost analysis for PQC are shown from Table 4.23 to

Table 4.23 Cost Calculation of PQC for Normal
Cement Content of Total Cement Content with
Aggregate Produced by Jaw Crusher for M-30
Material Quantity
Rate in
Rs./m3
245/bag
725
500
Cement
380
Sand
631
Aggregate
1254
Water, mixing, placing
Total cost
Contractor profit @10%
Grand total
Volume,
m3
7.6 bags
0.375
0.830
Cost in
Rs./m3
1862
272
415
350
2899
290
3189
Table 4.24 Cost Calculation of PQC for Extra 3%

Cement of Total Cement Content with Aggregate
Produced by Jaw Crusher for M-30
Material Quantity
Cement
391.4
Sand
649.72
Aggregate 1291.62
Total cost
Grand total
Rate in
Rs./m3
245/bag
725
500
Volume,
m3
7.828
bags
0.387
0.855
Cost in
Rs./m3
1918
281
427
350
2976
297
3273
Extra 3%
Cement
Content
VSI product
Cost diff.
Rs./m3
%of cost
saving
3273
3575
302
8.45%

Aggregate Produced by Jaw Crusher for M-40
Material
Quantity
in kg
Rate in
Rs./m3
Volume,
m3
Cost in
Rs./m3
Cement
410
245/bag
8.2 bags
2009
Sand
619
725
0.368
267
Aggregate
1230
500
0.814
407
350
Total cost
3033
303
Grand total
3336
Table 4.28 Cost Calculation of PQC for Extra 1.5%

Cement of Total Cement Content with Aggregate
Produced by Jaw Crusher for M-40
Material Quantity

Aggregate Produced by Vertical Shaft Impector (VSI)
Crusher for M-30
Material
Quantity Rate in
Rs./m3
Cement
380
245/bag
Sand
631
725
Aggregate
1254
950
Total cost
Grand total
40
Volume,
m3
7.6 bags
0.375
0.806
Cost in
Rs./m3
1862
272
766
350
3250
325
3575
Rate in
Rs./m3
Volume,
m3
Cost in
Rs./m3
Cement
416.15
245/bag
8.323
bags
2039
Sand
628.38
725
0.374
271
Aggregate 1248.45
500
0.826
413
350
Total cost
3073
309
Grand total
3380
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Aggregate Produced by VSI Crusher for M-40
Material Quantity
Rate in
Rs./m3
Volume,
m3
Cost in
Rs./m3
Cement
410
245/bag
8.2 bags
2009
Sand
619
725
0.368
267
Aggregate
1230
950
0.791
751
350
Total cost
3377
338
Grand total
3715
Table 4.30 Cost (Rs.) Difference for PQC

in per m3 for M-40
Extra 1.5% VSI product
Cement
Content
3380
Properties of Cement Concrete

1.
At 10% CFEA interlocking of aggregate is less.

So strengths are decreased.
2.
At 20% CFEA interlocking of aggregate

is extended. So strengths are increased as
compared to 10% CFEA.
3.
At 30% CFEA maximum interlocking of

aggregate is arise. So strengths are maximum.
4.
More than 30% CFEA apart from interlocked

excess. Flaky and elongated particles are
present in the mix and when load comes on
the concrete the excess particles break at lower
load. So the strengths achieved less for more
than 30% CFEA.
Cost diff.
Rs./m3
%of cost
saving
1.
Flaky and elongated particles do adverse affect

the material properties, however, this effect
gets increased beyond 30% CFEA.
335
9.02%
2.
Percentage reduction in bulk density is less

with inclusion of flaky particles as compared to
elongated particles.
3.
Percentage increase in impact value, crushing

value, and % water absorption is more with flaky
particles as compared to elongated particles.
4.
Therefore at 30% CFEA with 1:3 proportions

of flaky and elongated particle, a combination
of above properties results in minimum
reduction in compressive and flexural strength
as compared to 0% CFEA.
CONCLUSIONS
1.
The maximum compressive and flexural strength

for PQC mix is observed at 30% CFEA, having
flaky and elongated particles in proportions of
1:3.
2.
Flaky particles have more adverse effect on

crushing value, impact value and % water
absorption, whereas elongated particles have
on bulk density. All these adverse effects
3715
DISCUSSIONS
Based on present study following facts are discussed:

1.
Properties of cement concrete
2.
Fig 5.1 Interlocking Between Aggregates with

Different % of CFEA
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
increase rapidly after 30% CFEA. Therefore,
a combination of above properties with 30%
CFEA and 1:3 proportions of flaky and elongated
particles, results in minimum reduction in
compressive and flexural strength.
3.
4.
5.
By addition of 3% and 1.5% extra cement of

total cement content per m3 in M-30 and M-40
grades of concrete respectively, made with 30%
CFEA, the strength of concrete made with 0%
CFEA is achieved.
The addition of extra 3% cement in Concrete
made with aggregate produced by Jaw crusher
reduces the cost of M-30 grade of concrete
made with aggregate produced by VSI crusher
by 302 Rs. / m3, i.e. 8.45% of total cost.
The addition of extra 1.5% cement in Concrete
made with aggregate produced by Jaw crusher
reduces the cost of M-40 grade of concrete
made with aggregate produced by VSI crusher
by 335 Rs. / m3, i.e. 9.02% of total cost.
9.
IS: 2386 (Part IV)-1963, Methods of Test for Aggregates

for Concrete- Mechanical Properties, Bureau of Indian
Standards.
10.
Khanna, S.K. and Justo, C.E.G. (2010) Highway

Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros, Roorkee (U.A.)
11.
Nagendra, R., Dhabale, A., Sharada Bai, H., and Rajeeva,

S., (2006), Analysis of Shape Parameters of Coarse
Aggregate and their Effect on Packing Density by DIP
Technique Indian Concrete Journal ,vol.80 , 29-38
12.
Pradhan Ajit and Banerjee Sandeep (2000), Selection

of Aggregate Crushing Plants for Road Projects-Techno
Economic Aspects, Indian Concrete Journal, vol.76,
Number 2, 123-129.
13.
Ramanaiah, C., Wong, C.Y., and Mukherjee P. (2000),

Control of Flakiness and Elongation Indices with
Selection of Crusher Type, Highway Research Bulletin,
Number 62, pp. 37-47.
14.
Sengupta, J.B. and Kumar S., (2008), Effect of Flakiness

Indices on the Properties of Aggregate and Concrete,
Indian Highways, pp. 57-62.
REFERENCES
1.
Bouquety, M., N., Descantes, Y., Barcelo, L., De Larrard,

F., and Clavaud B., (2006), Automated Measurement of
Aggregate Properties: Part 2-Flakiness Index, Journal of
Materials and Structures, vol.39, pp.13-19.
2.
IRC: 44-2008, Tentative Guidelines for Cement Concrete

Mix Design for Pavements, Indian Roads Congress.
3.
IS: 10262-2009, Indian Standard Recommended

Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian
Standards.
4.
IS: 383-1970, Specification for Coarse and Fine

Aggregates From Natural Sources for Concrete, Bureau
of Indian Standards.
5.
IS: 516-1959, Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete,

Bureau of Indian Standards.
6.
IS:SP:23, Hand Book on Concrete Mixes, Bureau of

Indian Standards.
7.
IS: 2386 (Part I)-1963, Methods of Test for Aggregates

for Concrete- Particle Size and Shape, Bureau of Indian
Standards.
8.
IS: 2386 (Part III)-1963, Methods of Test for Aggregates

for Concrete- Specific Gravity, Density, Voids, Absorption
and Bulking, Bureau of Indian Standards.
42
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Y.C. Tewari* and R.S. Bharadwaj**
Abstract
Nanotechnology deals with understanding, controlling, and
manipulating matter at the level of individual atoms and molecules
in the range of 0.1100 nm (10-9m) and creating materials, devices,
and systems with new properties and functions. The construction
sector can benefit from these advances in nanotechnology because
materials are the core elements in construction. By significantly
improving the performance of sensors and data acquisition
systems and reducing their sizes, nanotechnology can also enable
the practical deployment of structural health monitoring systems
for large civil infrastructure systems and provide vital tools to
design an innovative civil infrastructure and facilitate the practice
of managing and protecting the civil infrastructure. In this paper,
the innovation of relevant nanotechnology and its impact on
highway engineering practice is introduced for broadening vision
and inspiring the creativity of highway engineering.
Introduction
Nanotechnology, introduced almost half century

ago, is one of the most active research areas with
both novel science and useful applications that has
gradually established itself in the past two decades.
The evolution of technology and instrumentation as
well as its related scientific areas such as physics and
chemistry are making the research on nanotechnology
aggressive and evolutional. The bulk properties
of materials often change dramatically with nano
ingredients. Composites made from particles of nanosize ceramics or metals smaller than 100 nanometers
can suddenly become much stronger than predicted
by existing materials-science models.1 For example,
nanotubes are very strongone of the strongest
materials we know of. A carbon nanotube is one
atom thick sheet of graphite rolled up into a seamless
cylinder with diameter of the order of nanometer
(Fig. 1).
Principal Scientist,
**
Senior Principal Scientist,
Fig. 1 A Plane of Graphite (left) Rolled up (middle) Gives a

Nanotube (right), Matching Points A with A, B with B
and so Forth
Nanotubes are many times stronger than steel, yet

lighter. They are also more resistant to damage; that
is, they are highly elastic. Nanotubes can be bent to
surprisingly large angles before they start to ripple,
buckle, or break. Even severe distortions wont break
them (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 A Severely Distorted Nanotube Still Doesnt Break
Table 1, below, shows the Youngs Modulus, tensile

strength, and density of nanotubes compared to other
common materials. (GPa stands for gigapascals.) For
example, wood is very light (low density) but weak
(low Youngs Modulus and low tensile strength),
while nanotubes are many times stronger than steel
(nanotubes have a higher Youngs Modulus and much
CSIR - Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
43
TECHNICAL PAPERS
higher tensile strength) and yet much lighter (lower
density). Nanotubes also have higher tensile strength
even than diamond and a similar (slightly lower)
elasticity, and yet they are half as dense.
Table 1 Comparison of Mechanical Properties of
Various Materials
Material
Youngs
Modulus
(GPa)
Tensile
Strength
(GPa)
Density
(g/cm3)
Single wall nanotube
~800
>30
1.8
Multi wall nanotube
~800
>30
2.6
Diamond
1140
>20
3.52
Graphite
0.2
2.25
Steel
208
0.4
7.8
Wood
16
0.008
0.6
APPLICATION IN CONCRETE
Plain concrete itself is a brittle material that is much

stronger in compression than in tension. Carbonnanotubes may be applied to improve mechanical
performance of cement/cabon-nanotube composite. It
has also been reported that adding small amount of
carbonnanotube (1%) by weight could increase both
compressive and flexural strength.2
Cracking is a major concern for many structures.
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is working on
healing polymers, which include a microencapsulated
healing agent and a catalytic chemical trigger. When
the microcapsules are broken by a crack, the healing
agent is released into the crack and contact with the
catalyst. The polymerization happens and bond the
crack faces (Fig. 4). The self healing polymer could
be especially applicable to fix the microcracking in
bridge piers and columns.
Addition of nanoscale materials into cement could

improve its performance. Use of nano-SiO2 could
significantly increase the compressive strength for
concrete, containing large volume fly ash, at early
age and improve pore size distribution by filling the
pores between large fly ash and cement particles at
nanoscale (Fig. 3). The dispersion/slurry of amorphous
nanosilica is used to improve segregation resistance
for self-compacting concrete.
Fig. 4 Self-healing Concept for a Thermosetting Polymer
Fig. 3 Evidence of Reinforcing Mechanisms of CNT in Cement
44
APPLICATION IN ASPHALT
The mechanical behavior of bituminous materials

depends to a great extent on structural elements and
phenomena which are effective on a micro- and nanoscale. The basic concept behind nano modification of
TECHNICAL PAPERS
materials is that of bottom-up engineering, starting
with engineered modifications to the molecular
structure with an aim to affect the bulk properties of
the material. The nano-modification of bituminous
materials has the potential to open up whole new uses
and classes of bituminous materials, with wide-ranging
implications for the transportation infrastructure. The
ability to target material modification at the nanostructural level promises to deliver the optimization
of material behavior and performance needed to
significantly improve mechanical performance,
durability, reflectivity and skid resistance, better
binding, quicker curing, better maintenance and
sustainability.
Currently IntegraBase is the only asphalt modifiers
available in the market that work on a nano-scale.
The majority of products that are used with asphalts
are simply additives, which dont do anything to the
chemistry of the asphalt, rather just improving specific
properties such as binding, flexibility, etc. IntegraBase
is a catalyst which, unlike polymer additives, reacts
with bitumen and changes the chemistry and the
molecular structure of the bitumen under the influence
of temperature and oxygen.
This catalytical reaction results in the formation of
ketones at the most reactive sites within the bitumen
molecules, thereby greatly reducing the bitumens
susceptibility to oxidative ageing, and improving its
anti-stripping properties. In a second consecutive
phase, the organo-metallic components of the
IntegraBase modifier will react with the ketones,
producing strong, irreversible bonds between the
bitumen molecules, resulting in a bitumen with highly
reduced temperature susceptibility.
The formation of ketones can be demonstrated by
infrared spectroscopy. The ketones found in bitumen
characteristically absorb light in the spectral region
defined by wave numbers around 1690 cm-1. The
comparison of the relative levels of absorbance for
conventional bitumen and IntegraBase modified

bitumen in this spectral region confirms that a
very significant amount of ketones is formed in the
IntegraBase bitumen, while only a small amount
of ketones is evident in the unmodified bitumen
(Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Infrared Spectra of Unmodified Bitumen and Integra

Base Modified Bitumen
APPLICATION IN STEEL
Steel has been widely available material and has

a major role in the construction industry. The use
of nanotechnology in steel helps to improve the
properties of steel. The current steel designs are based
on the reduction in the allowable stress, service life
or regular inspection regime. This has a significant
impact on the life-cycle costs of structures and limits
the effective use of resources. The Stress risers are
responsible for initiating cracks from which fatigue
failure results. The addition of copper nano particles
reduces the surface un-evenness of steel which then
limits the number of stress risers and hence fatigue
cracking. Advancements in this technology using nano
particles would lead to increased safety, less need for
regular inspection regime and more efficient materials
free from fatigue issues for construction.
It is possible to develop new, low carbon, High
Performance Steel (HPS) with higher corrosionresistance and weld ability by incorporating copper
nano particles from at the steel grain boundaries
(Fig. 6).
45
TECHNICAL PAPERS
at would result in a smaller resource requirement
because less material is required in order to keep
stresses within allowable limits. The carbon nanotubes
are exciting material with tremendous properties
of strength and stiffness, they have found little
application as compared to steel, because it is difficult
to bind them with bulk material and they pull out
easily, Which make them ineffective in construction
materials.3,4
5
Fig. 6 Copper Nano Particles at the Steel Grain Boundaries
The nano-size steel produce stronger steel cables

which can be used in bridge construction. Also these
stronger cable material would reduce the costs and
period of construction, especially in suspension
bridges as the cables are run from end to end of the
span. This would require high strength joints which
leads to the need for high strength bolts. The capacity
of high strength bolts is obtained through quenching
and tempering. The microstructures of such products
consist of tempered martensite. When the tensile
strength of tempered martensite steel exceeds 1,200
MPa even a very small amount of hydrogen embrittles
the grain boundaries and the steel material may fail
during use. This phenomenon, which is known as
delayed fracture, which hindered the strengthening of
steel bolts and their highest strength is limited to only
around 1,000 to 1,200 MPa.
The use of vanadium and molybdenum nano particles
improves the delayed fracture problems associated
with high strength bolts reducing the effects of
hydrogen embrittlement and improving the steel
micro-structure through reducing the effects of the
inter-granular cementite phase.
Welds and the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) adjacent to
welds can be brittle and fail without warning when
subjected to sudden dynamic loading. The addition of
nano particles of magnesium and calcium makes the
HAZ grains finer in plate steel and this leads to an
increase in weld toughness. The increase in toughness
46
SELF-CLEANING MATERIALS: LOTUS

LEAF-INSPIRED NANOTECHNOLOGY
The story of self-cleaning materials begins in nature

with the sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), a radiantly
graceful aquatic perennial that has played an enormous
role in the religions and cultures of India, Myanmar,
China and Japan. The lotus is venerated because of
its exceptional purity. It grows in muddy water, but
its leaves, when they emerge, stand meters above the
water and are seemingly never dirty. Drops of water on
a lotus leaf have an unearthly sparkle, and rainwater
washes dirt from that leaf more readily than from
any other plant. Microscopic bumps on a lotus leaf
transform its waxy surface into an extremely water
repellent, or super hydrophobic, material. Raindrops
roll easily across such a surface, removing any dirt.5
Researchers have developed synthetic self-cleaning
materials, some of which are based on this lotus
effect, whereas others employ the opposite
propertysuper hydrophilicityas well as catalytic
chemical reactions. The lotus effect exterior coating
or paint on traffic signs requires no labor intensive or
periodic washing or remove road grim and enhances
visibility and safety. In terms of the usage of the
facility, visibility is one aspect where the application
of nanotechnology is already showing promise. This
is through the improvement of the materials used
for the application of signage to the facility, or the
incorporation of the signage into the facility through
the application of materials such as nanophosphors
(Fig. 7). Current work in regard shows promise in
terms of rendering infrastructure surfaces autoluminescent, thereby providing guidance to traffic at
night.6
TECHNICAL PAPERS
power and cost optimized. Using multi-hop techniques,
the data of the sensor network has to be transmitted
over short distances of some 10 m to a base station
on site. There the data items are collected and stored
in a data base for subsequent analysis. This data can
then be accessed by a remote user. If the central unit
detects a hazardous condition by analyzing the data,
it raises an alarm message. Each mote is composed
of one or more sensors, a data acquisition and
processing unit, a wireless transceiver and a battery
as power supply. The acquisition and processing unit
usually is equipped with a low power microcontroller
offering an integrated Analogue to Digital Converter
(ADC) and Sufficient Data Memory (RAM) to store
the measurements. This unit also incorporates signal
conditioning circuitry interfacing the sensors to the
ADC.7
Fig. 7 Self Cleaning Nano Coating on Traffic Sign
NANO SENSORS
It is reported that the feasibility of Cyberliths, or Smart

Aggregates, as wireless sensors embedded in concrete
is being evaluated. In the future these micro sensors
might be reduced to dust-particle size, with the ability
to coat an entire bridge with Smart Dust for optimum
monitoring capabilities via a smart sensor net. These
sensors can be used to remotely monitor the condition
of the concrete and reinforcement without damaging
the structures. MEMS (Micro-Electro-MechanicalSystems) sensors have been developed and installed
on structures. These sensors do not constitute nano
technology, but they do illustrate use of embedded
sensors and give an indication of what can be
accomplished in the future as the nanotechnology
reduces the sensor size.
Monitoring systems using traditional wired sensor
technologies and several other devices are time
consuming to install and relatively expensive. A
wireless monitoring system with MEMS (MicroElectro-Mechanical-Systems) sensors could reduce
these costs significantly. MEMS are small integrated
devices or systems that combine electrical and
mechanical components. The principle of such a
system is shown in the scheme given in Fig. 8. Each
sensor device (mote), which is itself a complete, small
measurement and communication system, has to be
Fig. 8 Scheme for Wireless Sensing of Large Structures Using

Radio Frequency Transmission Techniques and MEMS
ECONOMICAL ASPECTS
The use of nano technology will also potentially affect

the economical aspects of infrastructure provision
for transportation. Though the cost of the nano
materials is high, the benefits that can be obtained
through the application of stronger materials should
ultimately result in the decrease for the amount of
material (i.e. thinner concrete layers for pavements)
affecting the construction cost. Obviously, the lifecycle effects in terms of durability and expected
maintenance requirements of the material should be
included in any cost evaluation. The general service
life of infrastructure can be increased through the
improvement of the resistance of the infrastructure
to environmental effects. In this regard the various
types of nano-composite coatings that can be applied
to concrete surfaces (i.e. bridge abutments and
pillars) is an example of prolonging the life of the
facility. Most of these coatings differ from traditional
47
TECHNICAL PAPERS
coatings in terms of the way in which they bond
to the substrate material, providing a more robust
layer that binds chemically with the substrate. The
incorporation of sensing elements that can provide
timely indications of changes in the properties of
infrastructure materials to ensure timely maintenance
is another area where potential developments may
cause cost savings. However, most of the work in this
regard (on a nanoscale) is currently performed in the
areas of biological and chemical sensors, and further
developments will be required to obtain realistic
systems.
8
CONCLUSIONS
Although the cost of nanotechnology-enabled

materials and devices may hinder their widespread
application for highway engineering at the current
stage, their price is expected to drop in the near future.
In addition, the benefits from nanotechnologys
application could justify the additional cost. However,
the useful improvements that nanotechnology might
bring to highway infrastructure could be minimized
48
if highway engineering professionals lack appropriate

vision and awareness of potential nanotechnology
applications for highway engineering.
9
REFERENCES
1.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology
2.
Balaguru, P. N. (2005), Nanotechnology and Concrete:

Background, Opportunities and Challenges. Proceedings
of the International Conference Application of
Technology in Concrete Design , Scotland, UK,
p.113-122.
3.
Ar.Mohd.Firoz Anwar(2009) nanotechnology and its

Impact on Architecture March 2009 IIA Journal Article.
4.
Ar.S.M.Noman tariq (2010) The Nano Revolution In

Architectural World
5.
November 2010 NBM&CW (Vol.16,Issue-5)
6.
NanoArchitecture, Maged Elsamny thesis, Faculty of

Engineering, University of Alexandria.
7.
Roco, M. C. (2002). NanotechnologyA Frontier

for Engineering Education. Int. J. Eng. Educ., 18(5),
488497.
8.
Tewari, Y.C. (2011), Health Monitoring of Civil

Structures Diamond Jubilee Year Souvenir CSIR-CRRI,
July 16, 2011.
Comparison between Coarse Aggregate Shape

Factors and Resulting Mix Properties using
Conventional and New Universal Gauge Instruments
Dr. Mohamed Ilyas Anjum*
Abstract
The aggregate shape factors such as flakiness, elongation
separately dealing with thickness and length respectively, as well
as in combination and angularity number play a vital role in the
properties of resulting granular as well as bituminous mixes.
These properties are determined using a set of IS sieves such as
50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm and based on this
the upper limits for their presence in mixes have been specified.
However, in mixes, the aggregate gradation consists of sieves
such as 26, 19.5, 11.2 mm etc. This indicates that sieves used for
shape factors determination and actual use are different which
needs rethinking. It is expected that the shape factors and mix
properties determined by the conventional sieves, instruments
may be different from those determined using actual sieves. It was
therefore attempted to design and fabricate a single, simple and
inexpensive new instrument, referred in the paper as Universal
Gauge, to determine the aggregate sizes and compare with those
determined by conventional instruments. It was also attempted to
compare the Marshall test properties of Semi Dense Bituminous
Concrete mixes using the same aggregate with shape factors
determined by the two approaches separately. It was found that
the results obtained from the two approaches are different.
Index (C.I) which is the sum of F.I and E.I determined

separately. The shape factors can be determined using
the standard length and thickness gauge which caters
to only few aggregate sizes. Hence it is necessary
to device a new instrument which can cater to a
wide range of aggregate sizes in view of frequent
changes made in the gradation requirements of coarse
aggregates in bituminous mixes. The objectives of the
present study, therefore, are
1.
To fabricate a new instrument referred as

universal gauge to determine the aggregate
shape factors such as F.I, E.I and C.I using the
new instrument.
2.
To compare the shape factors and resulting mix

properties determined using the conventional
and the new instruments.
Experimental work
2.1
Determination of Flakiness Index
Introduction
The aggregate shape factors are evaluated in terms

of Flakiness Index (F.I), Elongated Index (E.I) and
Angularity Number (AN). The suitability of aggregate
for use in road construction is based on satisfaction
of several requirements in general and resistance to
impact, crushing and abrasion in particular. These
properties are influenced by several factors such
as type of aggregate, its size, its shape, gradation,
specific gravity etc. IS 2386 part I 1964 has laid down
the standard procedure for determination of aggregate
shape factors such as F.I, E.I and AN. However, the
MOST in its Specifications for Road and Bridge
Work, 1998 suggested a slightly different approach to
determine E.I and brought in the concept of Combined
The F.I was determined as per the procedure laid down

by IS 2386 part I. The aggregate were sieved into
fractions such as 25-20, 20-16, 16-12.5, 12.5-10 and
10-6.3 mm using a coarse aggregate mechanical sieve
shaker. The specific gravity and water absorption of
aggregate in each fraction were determined as per IS
2386 part III. The weight of aggregate in each fraction
was found by using an electronic balance. Using the
conventional thickness gauge shown in Fig.1, each
aggregate in the first fraction was passed along its
thickness through the respective opening. The flaky
aggregate passing through respective opening were
separated and weighed. Similarly weights of flaky
Prof. & HoD, Department of Civil Engineering, Ghousia College of Engineering, Ramanagaram, Karnataka,
E-mail: anjum61@rediffmail.com
49
TECHNICAL PAPERS
aggregate in the other fractions were determined.
The F.I was calculated as the ratio of weight of flaky
aggregate in each fraction to total weight of aggregate
sample in each fraction expressed as a percentage.
referred as universal gauge shown in Fig.3, developed

at Department of Civil Engineering of Ghousia
college of Engineering. In the new instrument, there
is provision for adjusting the opening to any desired
size. To determine the shape factors using the universal
gauge the gradation of semi dense bituminous concrete
as per MoRTH presented in Table.1 was used.
Fig. 1 Conventional Thickness Gauge
2.2
Determination of Elongation Index
The EI was determined as per procedure laid down by

IS 2386 part I and MoRTH. Using the conventional
length gauge shown in Fig.2, each aggregate in the
first fraction, after separating the flaky aggregates, was
passed along its length through respective opening.
The elongated aggregate retained on the respective
opening was separated and weighed. Similarly the
weights of elongated aggregate in the other fractions
were determined. The F.I and E.I so determined were
added to get the respective C.I. The weighted average
F.I, E.I and C.I of the sample was then calculated.
Fig.2 Conventional Length Gauge
2.3
Determination of F.I and E.I using the

Universal Gauge
The same aggregate sample was then used and the F.I,
E.I and C.I were determined using the new instrument
50
Fig. 3 Universal Gauge
Table 1 Composition of Semi Dense Bituminous

Concrete Pavement Layers as per MoRTH
Grading
Nominal aggregate
size
13 mm
10 mm
Layer Thickness
35-40 mm
25-30 mm
IS Sieve(mm)
Cumulative % by
weight of total
aggregate passing
Cumulative % by
weight of total
aggregate passing
45
37.5
26.5
19
13.2
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.6
0.3
0.15
0.075
100
90-100
70-90
35-51
24-39
15-30
9-19
3-8
100
90-100
35-51
24-39
15-30
9-19
3-8
Bitumen content
% by mass of total
mix
Min 4.5
Min 5.0
Bitumen grade
(pen)
65
65
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.4
Determination of Angularity Number
The Angularity Number was determined as per the

procedure laid down by IS 2386 part I. The aggregate
were sieved in to fractions such as 25-20, 20-16, 1612.5, 12.5-10 & 10-6.3 mm using a mechanical sieve
shaker. The AN for each fraction was determined
using a three litter capacity cylinder. The weight of
empty cylinder (a) was determined. The aggregate of
each fraction were filled in the cylinder in three layers
tamping each layer 100 times using a tamping rod of
16mm diameter and 600 mm length. The weight of
cylinder with aggregate (b) was determined and the

weight of aggregate (w) in the cylinder was found.
The cylinder was emptied and filled completely with
water. The weight of cylinder filled with water (d)
was determined and the weight of water (C) in the
cylinder was found. The AN was calculated using the
equation.

AN = 67 100W/CG
G being the specific gravity of aggregate.

The results obtained are presented as Tables 2-4.
Table 2 Aggregate Shape Factors Using Conventional Instruments
Fraction
Size mm
Initial
weight
in g.
Wt. of flaky
aggregate
F.I %
Wt. of
elongated
aggregate.
E.I %
C.I %
AN %
50-40
15000
788
5.2
1807
12.71
17.91
11.7
40-25
10000
749
7.49
4102
44.34
51.83
9.32
25-20
15000
1462
9.74
1540
11.37
21.11
6.32
20-16
10000
1284
12.84
2902
33.29
46.13
10.8
16-12.5
7000
1339
19.12
1791
31.63
50.75
12
12.5-10
4000
971
24.27
1239
40.90
65.17
9.32
10-6.3
5000
1045
20.9
1376
34.79
55.69
9.8
Table 3 Aggregate Shape Factors Using Universal Gauge
Fraction Size Initial wt.

mm.
in g.
Wt. of flaky
aggregate
F.I %
Wt. of
elongated
aggregate.
E.I %
C.I %
A.N %
45-37.5
15000
661
4.40
2052
14.31
18.71
10.10
37.5-26.5
15000
1588
10.58
5119
38.16
48.74
10.05
26.5-19
10000
1840
18.4
1056
12.94
31.34
8.64
19-13.2
5000
852
17.04
2079
50.12
67.16
9.25
13.2-9.5
3000
770
25.66
717
32.15
57.81
10.17
9.5-4.75
3000
1157
38.56
820
44.49
83.05
8.9
51
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4 Weighted Average Shape Factors of Test Sample
F.I
11.51
2.5
Using IS sieves
E.I
C.I
A.N
25.28
9.91
36.79
Using sieves as per gradation by MoRTH for SDBC

F.I
E.I
C.I
A.N
Determination of Marshall Test Properties
The Marshall test specimens were prepared first by

using the aggregates sieved as per IS set of sieves
having 20% and 30% combined index respectively
at trial bitumen contents and then using aggregates
sieved as per the MoRTH gradation for SDBC at the
13.46
26.83
40.29
9.81
same combined index and trial bitumen contents. The

Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) was determined.
The specimens were again prepared at OBC using the
aggregates as described and above at the two combined
indices and the usual Marshall test properties were
determined. The test results are presented in Table 5.
Table 5 Marshall Test Properties at 20% and 30% CI for SDBM Using Conventional
Instruments and Universal Gauge
Instrument
Conventional Instruments
Universal Gauge
Conventional Instruments
Universal Gauge
CI % OBC % Stability
Kg
20
30
Flow mm
Vv %
Vb %
VMA % VFB %
4.44
1142
3.6
5.1
10.43
11.13
56.17
4.7
1798
4.55
2.93
11.23
9.805
70.94
4.1
1315
2.15
6.18
9.61
11.4
46.3
4.2
1370
3.1
4.42
9.98
10.84
54.24
2.6 Data Analysis

The experimental data with regards to aggregate shape
factors and Marshall test properties so obtained was
analyzed so as to have comparison when determined

as per the two approaches described above. These are
presented in Figs. 4 - 11.
Fig. 4 Weighted Average Shape Factors Using Conventional

Instruments and UG
Fig. 5 Weighted Average Angularity Number Using Seives as

per IS and MoRTH
52
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 6 OBC at 20% & 30% CI for SDBM Using Conventional

Instruments and UG
Fig. 10 Marshall Test Results @ 20% & 30% CI for SDBM

Using Conventional Instruments and UG
Fig. 7 Marshal Test Result @ 20% & 30% for SDBM Using
Conventional Instrument and UG
Fig. 8 Marshall Test Results @ 20% & 30% CI for SDBM Using
Conventional Instruments and UG
Fig. 9 Marshall Test Results @ 20% % 30% CI For SDBM

Fig. 11 Marshall Test Results @ 20% & 30% CI for SDBM

Conclusions
1.
The values of shape factors such as F.I, E.I

and C.I determined by using the two different
instruments are different even though the same
aggregate sample was used.
2.
These values determined using the universal

gauge are more dependable as it considers the
actual size of aggregate.
3.
The F.I, E.I determined for the gradation for

SDBC indicate slightly higher values using
the universal gauge. The C.I is 40.29% using
universal gauge as against 36.79% using the
conventional instruments.
4.
The Marshall test properties using the same

aggregate and gradation based on shape factors
determined by conventional and universal
gauge instruments are different.
5.
The values of OBC, Stability, Flow, Vb and

VFB of SDBC mix based on shape factors
53
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.
MoRTH- Specification for Road & Bridge Works, 2002.
3.
IS-2386-Part-I, 1964.
4.
IS-2386-Part-III, 1964.
Acknowledgement
5.
Ferasat Hussain, Syed Irshad Geelani, Shahrez

Aslam, Naveed Ahmed and Intikhab Ahmed, final
year students (Civil Engineering), Ghousia College of
Engineering, Ramanagram-562159.
Mohamed Ilyas Anjum, Effects of Aggregate Shape

Factors on Properties of Bituminous Mixes for Road
Pavements, Ph.D. thesis (unpublished), 2005.
6.
Mohanty, K.P, Flakiness of Aggregates for Highway

Construction: Its importance and Determination, Indian
Highways, Vol. 23, No.2, Feb 1995.
7.
Ishai, I, and Gelber, H., Effect of Geometric Irregularity of

Aggregates on the Properties and Behavior of Bituminous
Concrete, proceedings, Association of Asphalt Paving
Technologists, Vol.51,1982.
determined using universal gauge are higher

while Vv and VMA are lower compared to those
determined using conventional instruments.
REFERENCE
1.
54
MOST Specification for Road & Bridge Works,

III-Edition, 1998.
55
56
57
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80
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INDIAN HIGHWAYS

A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Imperative of Risk Management in Highway Projects

Design of High Embankment Using Red Mud

Effect of Shape of Aggregate on Pavement Quality Concrete

Nanotechnology in Highway Engineering

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Imperative of Risk Management in Highway Projects

Risks are nothing more than the variables or

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Failure to keep within the cost estimate

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Failure to achieve the required quality and

In highway construction projects risks are related to

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