Algebra Class 10 (Zambak)

y
A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that maps

each element of D to a single element of R.
y = f(x)
f: D R
f: D R
f: x y= f(x)
domain range
O
For each x in D there exists a single element y in
R such that f(x) = y. x is called the variable of f
and y = f(x) is called the image of x. The set of
images of all the elements of D is called the image set of f.
a
f(a) = b
b is the image of a
Consider the function f: A B, f(x) = x2. We can write this function in different ways:
f(x) = x2, y = x2 or f: x x2. All of these mean the same function. A is the domain and B is
the range of f.
A. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION

Unless stated otherwise, the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real
x-values for which f(x) is defined. The range of the function is a set which includes at least
all the images of the elements in its domain. The domain and range of many functions are
subsets of the set of real numbers. The largest possible range of a function is \.
Let us look at the domain and range of some common types of function. In these
examples we will use the letter D to mean the domain of the function. The
notation D( f ) means the domain of the function f.
Type of function
Form
polynomial
f(x) = anxn+an1xn1+...+a0
function
n + {0}
Domain
Examples
f(x) = 2x+5
D( f ):
f(x) = 2x23x+1
D( f ):
As stated in the table, the domain of any polynomial function f is \. The range of the
polynomial function depends on the function itself. For example, let us draw the graph of the
function y = f(x) = xn and find its domain and range when n is odd or even.
y
when
n is
even
y = f(x) = x
when
n is
odd
O
f: + {0}
domain range
10
y = f(x) = xn
f:
domain range
Algebra 10
Type of function
Form
rational
function
f(x) =
Domain
g(x)
Examples
f(x) =
2x 3
x+1
f(x) =
x2 + 5
D( f ): {5, 2}
(x 5)(x + 2)
{x | h(x)=0}
h(x)
D( f ): {1}
The value of the denominator in a rational expression cannot be zero, so any numbers which
make the denominator zero must be excluded from the domain of a rational function.
1
As an example, let us look at the graph of the function y = x n = n .
x
y
y = f(x) =
when
n is
even
1
xn
when
n is
odd
x
f: {0} +
y = f(x) =
1
xn
x
f: {0} {0}
We can see that the domain of a rational function changes according to the function.
Type of function
Form
Domain
radical
function
f(x) = n g(x)
n is an odd integer
When the index of a radical expression is odd,

the radicand can be negative, positive or zero.
Therefore there is no restriction on the value of
x and so the domain is \.
The figure at the right shows the graph of
y = n x when n is odd and n > 1. We can see
that the range of the function is the set of real
numbers.
Functions
Example
f(x) = 3 x2 + 5x
D( f ):
y
y = f(x) = n x
O
f:
n is odd, n > 1
11
Type of function
Form
Domain
Examples
f(x) = n g(x)
f(x) =
n is an even {x | g(x) < 0}
f(x) =
integer
radical
function
x2 2
4
When the index of a radical expression is even,

the radicand cannot be negative, so we must
exclude any numbers which make the radicand
negative from the domain.
range of y = x are the set \ {0}.

n
EXAMPLE
nx
y = f(x) =
f : [0, +) [0, +)
x
n is even
Domain
Range
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1
[0, +)
f(x) = x2 2x 3
f(x) = x3 x2 + x + 1
f(x) =
1
x+1
f(x) =
x3 1
x 5x + 6
2
f(x) = 1 x2
12
The following table shows some more examples of the domain and range of different
functions. Write the missing values in the table.
Function
Solution
x 3x + 2 D( f ): (1, 2)
As we can see in the graph opposite, since the

radicand is non-negative both the domain and
D( f ): (2, 2)
(, 0) (0, +)
{2, 3}
[0, 1]
The solution is left as an exercise for you.

Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the domain and range of the function f ( x) = x2 +5 x +6.

We know that the radicand of a square root function cannot be negative.
Let us look at the sign of the radicand x2 + 5x + 6:
x
2
x + 5x + 6
3
+
The radicand is non-negative in the intervals (, 3] and [2, +).

Therefore the domain of the function is (, 3] [2, +).
As x increases, the value of y also increases without limit.
So the range is [0, +).
In conclusion, the domain of f is (, 3] [2, +) and the range is [0, +).
Note
If a function f is a sum or difference of different functions then the domain of f is the
intersection of the domains of each function.
EXAMPLE
Solution
The image set I of a

function f: A B is the
set of images of all the
elements of A, so I B.
Find the image set of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 3x + 6, x [0, +)
b. f(x) = x2 2x + 8, x [1, 2]
c. f(x) = x2 4x 5, x [1, 1]
d. f(x) = 2x x2, x [0, 3]
We can find each range by drawing the graph of the function over the given interval.
a. As we can see in the graph, f(x) is an
increasing function. The solid line shows the
graph on the interval x [0, +). On this
interval the minimum value of f is f(0) = 6,
and the maximum value goes to infinity.
y
y = f(x) = 3x + 6
6
So the image set of f on this interval is

[6, +).
2
O
Functions
min value
13
b. The figure shows the graph of the function

y = f(x) = x2 2x + 8. The solid line shows
the graph on the interval x [1, 2].

Since the extremum (vertex) of a function
b
b
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is (
, f ( )),
2a
2a
the minimum value of the function on this
2
b
interval is f ( ) = f ( ) = f (1) = 7.
2a
2
y = x2 2x + 8
11
max value
8
7
min value
Its maximum value on this interval is

f(1) = 11.
[7, 11].
c. The figure shows the graph of

y = f(x) = x2 4x 5. The solid line shows
the graph on the interval x [1, 1].
On this interval,
min f(x) = f(1) = 8 and
max f(x) = f(1) = 0.
1 O
1 2 3 4
14
d. The solid line in the figure shows the graph

of y = f(x) = 2x x2 on the interval
So the image set of the function on this

interval is [3, 1].
2 1 O
min value
On this interval,
min f(x) = f(3) = 3 and
max f(x) = f(1) = 1.
y = x2 4x 5
max value

[8, 0].
x [0, 3].
1 2
8
9
y
max value
1
3
O
1
2
3
min value
y = 2x x2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Find the range of each function for its largest domain.

a. f ( x) = x2 + 4x +5
Solution
a. Let us define g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5 and plot

its graph (shown opposite).
y
9
As we can see, the function is positive over

the interval x [1, 5].
So f ( x) = x2 + 4x +5 is defined on the
interval x [1, 5]. Also, on this interval the
minimum value of f(x) is 0 and the maximum
value of f(x) is 9, so we can write
0
x2 + 4x +5 9
x2 + 4x +5 3
g(x) 0
1 O
y = g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5
0 f(x) 3. So the range of f is [0, 3].
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the domain of f ( x) = | x 1| | x + 2|.
The radicand |x 1| |x + 2| must be non-negative, i.e.

|x 1| |x + 2| 0.
This gives |x 1| |x + 2|. Taking the square of both sides gives
us x2 2x + 1 x2 + 4x + 4
6x 3
1
1
x . So the domain of the function is (, ].
2
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
2
Find the domain of f ( x) = 3 12 x .
We have the radicands 12 x2 and 3 12 x2 , and both of them must be non-negative:

12 x2 0
and
3 12 x2 0
9 12 x2
x2 3 0.
Functions
15
Let us solve each quadratic inequality by constructing its sign table:

x
23
+
12 x2
23
x2 3
23
23
The domain of the combined function f ( x) = 3 12 x2 is the intersection of these

intervals: D( f ) = [23, 3] [3, 23].
Check Yourself 1
1. Find the domain of each function.
a. f ( x) =
x
x +2
b. f ( x) = 3 2 x +1+ x2 1
c. f ( x) = 2 x 4 x +1
x 1
d. f ( x) = 2 x 1 3x +1
2. Find the image of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x [1, 5)
b. f(x) = x2 4x 5, x [1, 3)
c. f ( x) = x2 + 2, x ( 2, 7]
3. Find the range of each function for its largest domain.
2
a. f ( x) = x +7 x 12
Answers
1. a. \
b. \ (1, 1)
2. a. [3, 11)
3. a. [0,
16
b. [9, 8]
c. \ (1, 1]
7
d. [ , )
4
f. (2, 3]
1
]
2
Algebra 10
B. COMPOSITE FUNCTION
composite function
Definition
A function that is formed by the composition of two or more elementary functions is called a
composite function.
x
f(x)
g( f(x))
The function g(f(x)) is called the composite of g with f.

The composite function g(f(x)) is also sometimes written as
(g f )(x). The composition of functions is associative but not commutative, i.e.
(f (g h))(x) = ((f g) h) but (f g)(x) (g f )(x).
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
Given f(x) = x2, g(x) = sin x and h(x) = 2x + 5, find

a. f(g(x)).
b. g(f(x)).
c. f(h(g(x))).
a. f(g(x)) = f(sin x) = sin2 x

b. g( f(x)) = g(x2) = sin x2
c. f(h(g(x))) = f(h(sin x)) = f(2sin x + 5) = (2sin x + 5)2
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
Write each function as a composite function.

a. f(x) = (3x 5)3
a. Notice that these are not the only possible solutions to the question. We could have
chosen different elementary functions and still achieved the same function. For example,
for the function f(x) = (3x 5)3, we could have chosen g(x) = 3x, h(x) = x 5 and
t(x) = x3 to get f(x) =(3x 5)3 = t(h(g(x))).
Check Yourself 2
Write each function as a composite function.
3
7 x +5
2x 1
1. f ( x) =
2. f ( x) = sin 2
x +1
7
Functions
17
C. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION
Recall the definition of inverse function: if the function f: D R is both a one-to-one function
and an onto function then the function f 1: R D is called the inverse of f.
f(x) = y f 1(y) = x
A function f: A B is a
one-to-one function if
for each x1 x2 in A,
f(x1) f(x2).
To find the inverse of a given function y = f(x)

it is enough to find x in terms of the variable y.
y
y = f(x) = 2x 1
y=x
For example, let us find the inverse of the

polynomial function f : \ \, f (x)= 2x 1:
y = f 1(x) =
Write y = f(x): y = 2x 1.
A function f: A B is an
onto function if for any
y B there exists an x A
such that f(x) = y.
Express x in terms of y: x =
y +1
= f 1( y).
2
1
Finally, express the inverse function in terms
x+1
2
x
of the variable x: f 1( x) = x +1.

2
This is the inverse of f(x) = 2x 1.
Recall that the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse are symmetric
with respect to the line y = x.
Let us recall the inverse of some common types of function:

Function
Form
linear function
f(x) = ax + b
rational function
f (x) =
ax + b
cx + d
Inverse
1
f (x) =
xb
a
f 1(x) =
dx + b
cx a
Look at some more examples of inverse functions:

Function
3x + 1
2
f: ,
f(x) =
f: ,
f(x) = 2 3x
f: {1} {2}, f(x) =

18
Inverse
2x + 1
x1
f 1: , f 1(x) =
2x 1
3
1
1
f : , f (x) =
x + 2
3
f 1: {2} {1}, f 1(x) =
x+1
x2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
12
Solution
Find the inverse of the function f : [2, ) [0, ), f (x) = x2 4x + 4.

In the given domain and range, f(x) is both
one-to-one and onto, so its inverse is a function.
We can find this inverse function as follows:
x2 4x + 4
(x 2)2
x2
x
=
=
=
=
y
y = f(x) = x2 4x + 4
y
y
y
y + 2 = f 1(y).
So the inverse is
f 1: [0, ) [2, ), f 1(x) = x + 2.

EXAMPLE
13
Solution
The function f: \ \, f(x) = x3 3x2 + 4x 1 is given. Find the real number a which
satisfies the equation f(a) = f 1(a).
To solve the problem we have to find the
intersection of the graphs of f and f 1. However,
we know that the graph of a function and the
graph of its inverse are symmetric with respect
to the line y = x. In other words, the intersection
of the two graphs will be on this line. At the
intersection point, therefore, y = f(x) = x, and
so f(a) = a = f 1(a), as shown at the right.
If f(a) = a then a3 3a2 + 4a 1
a3 3a2 + 3a 1
(a 1)3
a
=
=
=
=
y
y = f(x) y = x
a
y = f (x)
O
a
0
0
1.
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the inverse of each function.
x
a. f : \ \, f ( x) = 3
2
5x 2
5
b. f : \ {1} \ , f ( x) =
2x 2
2
c. f : \ \, f(x) = x3 3x2 + 3x
2. For each function, find the real number a which satisfies the equation f(a) = f 1(a).
b. (x) = 8x3 12x2 + 7x 1
a. f(x) = 3x + 1
Answers
1. a. 6 2x
Functions
b.
2x 2
2x 5
c.
x 1 +1
2. a.
1
2
b.
1
2
19
D. CONSTANT, INCREASING AND DECREASING

FUNCTIONS
Let f: D R be a function and let I D and x1, x2 I and such that x1 < x2.
1. If f(x1) = f(x2) for all x1, x2 I then f is called
a constant function on the interval I.
We write a constant function as f(x) = c
(c \).
If f is a constant function,
x1 < x2 f(x1) = f(x2) = c.
y
c
x1
y=c
x2
f(x) is constant on I = [AB]
2. If f(x1) < f(x2) for all x1, x2 I then f is called

an increasing function on the interval I.
If x1 < x2 and
f(x1) f(x2) then f is
decreasing
called a non-d
function.
If f is an increasing function,
f(x2)
x1 < x2 f(x1) < f(x2).
f(x1)
O
y = f(x)
x1
x2 B
f(x) increases on I = [AB]
Note
The increasing function f: \ \, f(x) = x is called the identity function.
3. If f(x1) > f(x2) for all x1, x2 I then f is called

a decreasing function on the interval I.
y= f(x) y
If f is a decreasing function,
x1 < x2 f(x1) > f(x2).
If x1 < x2 and
f(x1) f(x2) then f is
called a non-iincreasing
function.
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
f(x1)
f(x2)
A
x1
x2 B
f(x) decreases on I = [AB]
Given that f(x) = (5 a)x2 + (b + 2)x 3 is a constant function, find a and b.

Since f is a constant function, the coefficients of x2 and x must be zero:
5 a = 0 and b + 2 = 0. So a = 5 and b = 2.
20
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
Show that
a. f: [0, ) \, f(x) = x + x3 is an increasing function.
1
b. f: \ {0} \, f ( x) = is a decreasing function.
x
a. Let x1, x2 [0, ) such that x1 < x2.
For all x1 < x2, x1 < x2 and x13 < x23. So x1 + x13 < x2 + x2 3 and f(x1) < f(x2).
So f is an increasing function on [0, ).
b. First let x1, x2 (0, ) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 ,
Now let x1, x2 (, 0) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 ,
1
1
>
and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
1
1
>
and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
In both cases f is decreasing, so f is a decreasing function on \ {0}.

EXAMPLE
16
Solution
Find the interval(s) on which each function decreases and/or increases.

1
a. y = 1 2x
b. y = x2 3x
c. y = 2
x
We can draw a graph of each function to
determine the intervals.
a. We can see from the graph that f(x) = 1 2x
decreases on (, ).
y
y = f(x) = 1 2x
b. f decreases on the interval ( ,
1
2
3
].
2
y = f(x) = x2 3x
3
f increases on the interval [ ,+).
2
3
2
O
9
4
Functions
21
c. f increases on the interval (, 0).
y
y = f(x) =
f decreases on the interval (0, +).
EXAMPLE
17
Solution
Find the value a + b if f ( x) =
1
x2
( a 2)x2 + bx + 4
is a constant function.
3x + 2
( a 2)x2 + bx + 4
= k ( k \).
3x + 2
This gives (a 2)x2 + bx + 4 = 3kx + 2k.
Since f is constant, we can write f ( x) =
By the equality of polynomials, we can write

(a 2) = 0
b = 3k
4 = 2k, which gives
a = 2, k = 2, b = 6. So a + b = 8.
EXAMPLE
18
The function f ( x) =
( a 1)x2 +( b +5)x
is an identity function. Find a and b.
2 x +1
Solution Since f is an identity function, f(x) = x. So

( a 1)x2 +( b +5) x
= x, i.e.
2 x +1
( a 1)x2 +( b +5) x = 2 x2 + x.
By the equality of polynomials, a 1 = 2 and b + 5 = 1. So a = 3 and b = 4.
Check Yourself 4
1. f ( x) =
3mx +1
is a constant function. Find m.
6 x +5
2. f(x) = (m 2)x + n + 5 is an identity function. Find m + n.

22
Algebra 10
3. Decide whether each function increases or decreases on the given interval.

a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x \
b. f(x) = 1 x, x \
c. f(x) = x2 8x + 1, x (4, )
d. f(x) = x2 2x 1, x (, 1)
e. f(x) = x3 + 1, x \
Answers
1. 2
5
2. 2
E. EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Definition
even function, odd function

Let f: D R be a function.
1. If f(x) = f(x) for all x D then f is called an even function.
2. If f(x) = f(x) for all x D then f is called an odd function.
For example, the cosine function is an even function because cos (x) = cos x.
Similarly, the sine, tangent and cotangent functions are odd functions because sin(x) = sinx,
tan (x) = tan x and cot (x) = cot x.
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
y
Not all functions are even

or odd. For example,
f(x) = x + 1 is neither
even nor odd.
y
y = f(x) = cos x
2p
3p
2
p
p
p O
p
2
2p
3p
2
1
f(x) = f(x)
cos (x) = cos (x)
Functions
y = f(x) = x2
f(x) = f(x)
Even functions
(x)2 = (x)2
23
The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin.

y
y
The following rules help
us to calculate the parity
(even or odd) of the sum
and product of even
functions (E) and odd
functions (O):
EE=E
OO=O
E O = neither E nor O
EE=E
EO=O
O O = E.
EXAMPLE
19
1
2p
y = f(x) = sin x
2p
3p
2
p
2
p
2
3p
2
f(x) = f(x)
f(x) = f(x)
sin (x) = sin (x)
tan (x) = tan (x)
y
y = f(x) = x3
f(x) = f(x)
(x)3 = x3
Odd functions
Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2
b. f(x) = 7 tanx + x3
e. f ( x) = x2 6 x +9 + x2 +6 x +9
Solution
y = f(x) = tan x
2
c. f ( x) = x6 28
x +x
d. f(x) = 3x + 3x
f. f(x) = |x 3| + |x + 4| g. f(x) = 3x2 + 2|x| 5
Let us find f(x) and compare it with f(x) in each case.

a. f(x) = x2 3x + 2, so f is neither even nor odd.
b. f(x) = 7 tanx x3 = (7tan x + x3) = f(x), so f is odd.
x2 2
= f ( x) , so f is even.
c. f ( x) = 6
x + x8
d. f(x) = 3x + 3x = 3x + 3x = f(x), so f is even.
e. f ( x) = x2 +6 x +9 + x2 6 x +9 = f ( x) , so f is even.
f. f(x) = |x 3| + |x + 4|, so f is neither even nor odd.
g. f(x) = 3x2 + 2|x| 5 = f(x), so f is even.
EXAMPLE
20
f: \ \, f(x) is an odd function such that f(2) = k + 5 and f(2) = 2k + 3. Find k.
Solution Since f is an odd function, f(x) = f(x) and f(2) = f(2).

So
k + 5 = (2k + 3)
k + 5 = 2k 3
3k = 8
8
k= .
3
24
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
21
Complete the graph of the function if it is

a. even.
b. odd.
x
Solution
a. The graph of an even function is

symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
y
b. The graph of an odd function is symmetric

with respect to the origin.
y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
f(x) is an even function
f(x) is an odd function
Check Yourself 5
1. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = |x| + cos x
b. f(x) = x3 + sin x
d. f(x) = cos x4 x3 sin x
e. f ( x) =
x
cos( x3 )
c. f(x) = x4 + x2 + 1
sin x + tan x
f. f ( x) = 2
x3
2. f is an odd function and g is an even function. f(2) + g(1) = 8 and g(1) + f(2) = 6 are given.
Find f(2) and g(1).
Answers
1. a. even b. odd c. even d. even e. odd f. even
Functions
2. f(2) = 1, g(1) = 7
25
EXERCISES
1 .1
A. Domain and Range of a Function
4. Find the range of each function for its largest
1. State the domain and range of each function.

y
a.
y = f(x)
b.
y = g(x)
a. f ( x) = x2 + 4
b. f ( x) = x2 10 x 9
B. Composite Function
y
c.
domain.
d.
3
2
y = h(x)
4 3
2 1
5. Given f(x) = x, g(x) = x2, and h(x) = x + 1,
write each function.

y = t(x)
11
O
1
2
a. g(h(f(x)))
b. f(h(g(x)))
6. Write each function as a composite of elementary

functions.
a. f ( x) = 5
1
x +1

a. f ( x) = 9 | x2 4|
b. f ( x) =
C. Inverse of a Function
x 3x 4
x2 1
7. Find the inverse of each function.
2x
c. f ( x) = 3x +1+
x5
2
a. f: \ \, f ( x) =
2x
5
2 x 3
x+ 3
c. f: [1, +) [1, +), f(x) = 4x2 8x + 5
b. f: \ {3} \ {2}, f ( x) =
3. Find the range of each function over the given

interval.
8. For each function, find the real number a
a. f(x) = 1 3x,
x [2, 4)
which satisfies the equation f(a) = f 1(a).
b. f(x) = x2 2x 3,
x (2, 4]
a. f(x) = 5x 2
c. f(x) = x + 4x + 5, x [0, 1)
26
b. f(x) = x3 6x2 + 13x 8

Algebra 10
D.Constant, Increasing and

Decreasing Functions
9. f ( x) =
ax2 + 2 x + b
is a constant function. Find
3x2 + bx + 2b
a and b.
10. Determine whether each function is increasing or

decreasing on the given interval.
a. f(x) = x2 6x + 1,
x (3, )
b. f(x) = x2 + 4x 3,
x (, 2)
c. f(x) = x3 + 3,
x\
11. The function f(x) = 2x2 7x 15 is given.

a. On which interval does the function decrease?
b. On which interval does the function increase?
E. Even and Odd Functions

12. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = x5 + x3 + x
b. f ( x) =
cos x + x2
3+ x4
c. f ( x) = (
x tan x 5
)
x3 + sin x
d. f(x) = sin (tan(x3 + x))

e. f(x) = x4 sin x
Functions
27
A. PIECEWISE FUNCTION
piecewise function
A function that is defined by different formulas on different intervals of its domain is called a
piecewise function.
Definition
EXAMPLE
22
The piecewise function f :
2 x + 1 if x > 2
, f ( x) = x2
if 0 x 2 is given.
x2 1 if x < 0
a. Draw the graph of f.

Solution
b. Find f(5) + f(2) + f(3).
a. When x > 2, we draw the graph of y = 2x + 1,
y = f(x)
when 0 x 2, we draw the graph of y = x and

2
when x < 0, we draw the graph of y = x2 1.
4
3
2
1
b. When x = 5, f(x) = x2 1. So f(5) = (5)2 1 = 26.

When x = 2, f(x) = x2. So f(2) = 22 = 4.
When x = 3, f(x) = 2x + 1. So f(3) = 2 3 + 1 = 7.
Hence, f(5) + f(2) + f(3) = 26 + 4 + 7 = 15.

y = x2 1
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
The domain of the function f(x) shown in the figure is

[0, 3]. Define f(x) as a piecewise function.
The graph consists of three line segments. Working from
left to right:
1
the first line segment is valid for 0 x < 1 and f ( x) = ,
2
the second segment is valid for 1 x 2 and f(x) = 1,
y = x2
y = 2x + 1
y
y = f(x)
2
1
0.5
O
and the third segment is valid for 2 < x 3 and f(x) = 2.

So the definition is
1
2 if 0 x < 1
f ( x) =
1 if 1 x 2
2 if 2 < x 3.
28
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 6
1. The piecewise function f :
Calculate f(f(f(1))).
x2 if x > 3
, f ( x) = 3 x + 4 if 0 x 3 is given.
x3 + 2 if x < 0
2. Sketch the graph of each piecewise function.

a. f :
x if x 1
, f ( x) =
x if x < 1
b. f :
x2 if x > 1
, f ( x) =
2
x if x 1
c. f :
2 x 1 if x < 0
, f ( x) = 1
if 0 x < 1
1 x if x 1
Answers
1. 49
B. ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION

Recall that for any number x, the absolute value of
x (written |x|) is the distance between x and the
origin on a number line.
x if x 0
|x| =
x if x < 0
y = |x|
absolute value function
Definition
The absolute value function |f(x)| is defined as

f ( x) if f ( x) 0
f ( x) =
f ( x) if f ( x) < 0.
EXAMPLE
24
Solution
Functions
Draw the graph y = |x 3|.

We begin by drawing the graph
y = x 3. We then draw the
graph y = |x 3| by reflecting
the negative part of the graph.
3
O
3
O
y=x3
y = |x 3|
29
Note
When solving absolute value equations or inequalities or when drawing the graph
of an absolute value function, begin by finding the intervals in which the value of
the function is negative, positive or zero.
EXAMPLE
25
Solution 1
Draw the graph y = |x2 1|.

x
Let us construct the sign table for x2 1.
Solution
y = x2 1
y = x2 + 1
y
y = x2 1
y = |x2 1|
method: first we graph

y = x2 1 and then we reflect the
negative y-values in the graph
with respect to the x-axis.
26
x2 1 if x 1 or x 1
So|x 1| = 2
x +1 if 1 < x < 1.
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.
EXAMPLE
y = x2 1
We could also graph

y = |x2 1| using a different
x2 1
x2 1 is positive for x < 1 or x > 1 and

zero for x = 1 or x = 1.
For these values of x, |x2 1| = x2 1.
x2 1 is negative for 1 < x < 1.
For these values of x,
|x2 1| = |x2 1| = x2 + 1.
Solution 2
Draw the graph of f(x) = |x 1| + |x + 2|.

First we construct a sign table.
x
x1
x+2
+
+
When x < 2, f(x) = x + 1 x 2 = 2x 1.

When 2 x < 1, f(x) = x + 1 + x + 2 = 3.
When x 1, f(x) = x 1 + x + 2 = 2x + 1.
So f(x) can be defined piecewise as
x < 2
2 x 1 if
f ( x) = 3
if 2 x < 1
2 x +1 if
x 1.
y = f(x)
y = 2x 1
O 1
y=3
y = 2x + 1
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.

30
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 7
Draw the graphs.
1. y = |2x 3|
2. y = |x3|
3. y = |x2 + 2x 3 |
4. y = |x 5| + |x + 3|
5. y = |x 5| x + 2x 1
6. y = |2x + 1| + x 3
C. SIGN FUNCTION
sign function
Definition
Let f:
be a function.
The sign function sgn f(x) is defined as
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
28
Solution
Write the function f(x) = sgn(3 x) as a piecewise function.

Let us construct the sign table of (3 x):
3
3x
sgn(3 x)
1 if x < 3
Hence, sgn(3 x) = 0 if x= 3
1 if x > 3.
Solve the equations.

a. sgn (2x + 1) = 1
b. sgn (x2 + 5x) = 0
c. sgn(
2x
) =1
x +1
1
.
2
b. If sgn (x2 + 5x) = 0 then x2 + 5x = 0, so x = 5 or x = 0.
a. If sgn (2x + 1) = 1 then 2x + 1 < 0, so x <
c. If sgn(
Functions
For example, if x = 5 then sgn x = 1, if x = 0, sgn x = 0 and if x = 7, sgn x = 1.
EXAMPLE
The sign function helps us to determine the

sign of a function on different intervals.
The sign function is also
called the signum function.
y = sgn x
1 if f ( x) > 0
sgn f ( x) = 0 if f ( x) = 0
1 if f ( x) < 0.
2x
2x
) =1 then
> 0, so x
x +1
x +1
[ 1, 0].
31
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
f:
, f(x) = x2 x 6 is given. Draw the graph of sgn(f(x)).
Let us construct the sign table of x2 x 6:

x
x2 x 6
sgn(x2 x 6)
y = sgn f(x)
1 if x < 2 or x > 3
So sgn f ( x) = 0 if x = 2 or x= 3
1 if 2 < x < 3.
O
1
The graph of y = sgn f(x) is shown opposite.
Check Yourself 8
1. Solve the equations.
a. sgn (x2 1) = 0
b. sgn (2 x) = 1
d. sgn(
2. Draw the graph of each function.

b. f(x) = sgn (x2 5x + 6)
a. f(x) = sgn (2 x)
x
) =1
x 1
c. f(x) = x sgn (x)
Answers
1. a. {1, 1}
b. x < 2
c.
[0, 1]
D. FLOOR FUNCTION
For any real number x, the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x is called the floor of
x, denoted by x .
Definition
floor function
Let f:
be a function. Then the floor function f(x) is defined as

f ( x)
if
f ( x) =
the greatest integer which is less than f ( x) if
32
f ( x)
f ( x) .
Algebra 10
Look at some examples of the floor function:

2
2.5
The floor function

f : , f(x) = x
is also called the greatest
integer function.
2.5 = 2
5.75 6
5.75 = 5
0 0.123
0.123 = 0
4 3.7
3.7 = 4
0.4 = 1
0.4
Similarly, 6 = 6, 5 = 5, 0.85 = 0,
2.5 = 3, = 3, e = 2, 0.6 = 1 and
5.003 = 6.
Now let us draw the graph y = x in the domain [3, 3].

Since the value y = x changes for each integer value of x, the integer values of x are
important points for the function y = x . We say that these values are the crucial points of
x . To draw the graph we have to consider the value of y between each of these crucial
points:
y
if
if
if
if
if
if
if
3 x < 2,
2 x < 1,
1 x < 0,
0 x < 1,
1 x < 2,
2 x < 3,
x = 3,
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
3;
2;
1;
0;
1;
2;
3.
3
2
1
3
1
O
1
2
3
y = x
Remark
1. If x = t then we can write t x < t + 1 (t ).

2. For a
and x
For example, if
if
if
if
Functions
x
x
x
x
, x + a = x + a.
= 3 then 3 x < 4;
= 2 then 2 x < 1;
= a then a x < a + 1;
+ 5 = 4 then x + 5 = 4, x = 1 and so 1 x < 0.
33
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
Draw the graph of f: [4, 4]
, f ( x) = x
x
.
2
x
takes an integer value.
2
x
x
= t then we can write t < t +1, i.e. 2t x < 2t + 2.
For any real number x, if
2
2
First of all we have to find the crucial points at which
So the points 2t (t ) are the crucial points and we need to evaluate the function on the
corresponding intervals:
x
if 4 x < 2 then 2 < 1
2
x
if 2 x < 0 then 1 < 0
2
x
if 0 x < 2
then 0 <1
2
x
if 2 x < 4
then 1 < 2
2
x
then
=2
if x = 4
2
We can now draw the graph on
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
x
2
x
2
x
2
x
2
x
2
= x (2)= 2 x;
= x (1)= x;
= x 0= 0;
= x 1= x;
= 4 2 = 8 .
each interval.
y
y = f(x)
8
6
4
2
Check Yourself 9
1. Find each value.
a. 2.1
b. e
c. 0.9
d. 2

a. x 2 = 3
b.
c.
2x + 1 = 5
3. Draw the graph of each function.

a. f(x) = 2x for 1 x 1
Answers
2. a. x [1, 0)
34
b. x [2,
5
)
2
e.
3x 1
4
f.
= 1
b. f(x) = x for 2 x 2
c. x [1,
1
)
3
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
2 .1
A. Piecewise Function
1. Given
x 1 if
f ( x) = x
if
4x if
x> 2
f (0)+ f (2)
0 < x 2, find
.
f (3) f (1)
x0
2. Draw the graph of each piecewise function.
a. f ( x) =
C. Sign Function
if x >1
2 if x 1
2 x + 4 if
b. f ( x) =
if
x
x >1
x 1
a. sgn x = 1
b. sgn (x 1) = 1
c. sgn (x2 1) = 1
d. sgn (x3 x) = 0
6. Draw the graphs.

a. y = sgn x2
b. y = sgn (x 1)
x +1
c. y = sgn (
)
x2
x2 +1 if x > 0
c. f ( x) =
2
x 1 if x 0
D. Floor Function
B. Absolute Value Function
3. Write each absolute value function as a piecewise
function.
a. f(x) = |x + 3|
b. f(x) = |x| + x

a.
x = 2
b.
x+1 =3
c.
x 1 = 4
d.
2 x +1
=1
3
e.
1 3x
=1
4
c. f(x) = |x2 x 2|
d. f(x) = |x 2| + |x 3|
e. f(x) = |x + 1| + |x 1|
f. f(x) = |x + 4| x + x2 2x
8. Draw the graph of each function on the given

interval.
a. f(x) = x + 1 , x [2, 2)
b. f(x) = 2 x , x [3, 1]
4. Draw the graphs.

a. y = |x|
b. y = |2 4x|
c. f(x) = 2x 1 , x [1, 1]
c. y = |x2 1|
d. y = |x2 4x 5|
d. f(x) = x x , x [2, 2]
e. y = x|x + 1| + 3 f. y = |5x + 4| + 2x 1
Functions
e. f(x) = x + x , x [2, 2]
35
9. Find the values of x for which each function is

undefined.
x2
f ( x) =
x2
1
16
if x > 0
1
if x 0
x2
10. f and g are two piecewise functions defined as

x2 1 if
f ( x) =
3x +1 if
x +1
g( x) =
x + 2
x>2
x2
and
if x > 0
if x 0.
Find an expression for the function f(g(x)).
11. Find the inverse of the piecewise function

f:
4 x 1 if x >1
, f (x) =
2 x +1 if x 1.
12. Write each function as a piecewise function.

a. f(x) = |1 x|
b. f(x) = |x2 3x| 4
c. f(x) = |x3| x
13. Write each function as a piecewise function.

a. f(x) = x |x|
b. f(x) = x + |x 1|
c. f(x) = x2 |x2 2x 3|
d. f(x) = |x| + |x 1|
e. f(x) = |x 2| |x 3|
f. f(x) = |x2 1| + |x|
36
Algebra 10
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
1. What is the domain of f ( x) = | 2x 1| | 3x +1|?

A) [2, 0]
B) (2, 0)
C) [0, )
D) (, 2]
6. Which one of the following is the graph of an odd

function?
A)
B)
E)
2
2
A) [4, 2)
D) (2, 2]
C) (2, 2)
C)
D)
2
3. What is the range of f(x) = x + 5 for x [5, 5]?
D) [5, 10]
E) (2, 0]
B) [0, 5]
2
2
A) [5, 5]
2x
?
x+ 2
B) [0, 2] {1}
2. What is the domain of f ( x) =
E)
C) [5, 10]
y
2
E) [0, 10]
2
O
4. Find the inverse of f: [1, ) [4, ),

f(x) = x2 2x + 5.
A)
x4
D)
B)
C)
x 4 +1
x 2 +1
E)
x2 2 +1
x 4 1
7. Given that f ( x) =
find a.
A) 2
B) 3
2 x + 1
is a constant function,
ax + 3
C) 4
D) 6
E) 10
5. Which one of the following is an odd function?

A) f ( x) =
x2
| x|
C) f ( x) =
x5
x x
3
B) f ( x) = 5 x + 5+ x
to f ( x) = x
D) f(x) = x3 + x
E) f ( x) =
Chapter Review Test 1
8. Which one of the following functions is equivalent
x2
x 1
x 1
for x < 1?
| x 1|
A) g(x) = x + 1
B) g(x) = x 1
C) g(x) = 2x + 1
D) g(x) = x 2
E) g(x) = x + 2
37
9. Which one of the following functions is equivalent

x 5 if x 5
to f ( x) =
?
x +5 if x < 5
A) g(x) = |x| 5
B) g(x) = |x| + 5
C) g(x) = |x 5|
13. Find the inverse of f:

A)
x 1
B)
, f(x) = x3 3x2 + 3x.

x 1+1
x +1
D)
E)
C)
x +1 1
x 1+1
D) g(x) = |x + 5|
E) g(x) = |2x 5|
14. Which one of the following is an even function?
10. What is the domain of f ( x) = 5 x2 4x 12 ?

A) (6, 2)
B) (2, 6)
D)
C)
A) f(x) = x7 x3
B) f(x) = 2x
C) f(x) = xsin x
D) f(x) = xcos x
E) f(x) =
(2, 6)
cos x
x3
E)
15. Given that

11. What is the domain of f ( x) =
A) [2, 2]
D)
2 x +1
4 x2
B) [0, 2]
(2, 2)
3x2 ( a 2)x + 3
1 x2
is an even function, find the value of a2 f(a).
f:
C) (2, 2)
A) 5
{1, 1} , f ( x) =
B) 10
C) 15
D) 20
E) 25
E)
16. Given f: [a, a] , which of the following must

12. What is the range of f ( x) = x2 +5 x + 36 for
the largest domain of f ?
A) [0,
9
]
2
D) (0,
38
B) [0,
15
)
2
11
]
2
C) [0,
E) [0,
17
)
2
13
]
2
be an odd function?
A) f(x) f(x)
C)
f ( x)+ f ( x)
2
1
D) f ( x)+ f ( )
x
B)
f ( x) f ( x )
2
1
E) f ( x) f ( )
x
Algebra 10
A. LIMIT OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

Consider the polynomial function f(x) = 2x. We are asked to investigate what happens to the
value of f(x) as x gets closer to 2. We could begin by choosing a value of x which is close to 2,
for example 1.5. We can calculate f(1.5) = 2 1.5 = 3. Now we choose a value which is closer
to 2, for example 1.75: f(1.75) = 3.5. Continuing like this, we can make a table of values of f(x)
as x gets closer to 2.
x
1.5
1.75
1.8
1.9
1.95
2x
3.5
3.6
3.8
3.9
2.05
2.1
2.2
2.25
2.5
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
Using this table, we can guess that as x gets closer to (i.e. approaches) 2, the
value of f(x) approaches 4. We say that 4 is the limit of f(x) = 2x as x
approaches 2, and write lim( 2 x) = 4. In this notation, the arrow symbol ()
x2
means approaches. x 2 means x approaches the number 2.

Notice that for f(x) = 2x, lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 4, which is the same as f(2). Similarly, we can
x 2
x 2
calculate lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 6 = f (3) and lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 24 = f (12), etc. In other
x 3
x 3
x 12
x 12
words, in each case lim f ( x) = f ( c). In fact, this result is true for any polynomial function.
x c
limit of a polynomial function
Definition
The limit of a polynomial function f(x) as x approaches a point c is f(c): lim f ( x) = f ( c).
x c
In other words, for f(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + ... + a0, lim f ( x) = f(c) = ancn + an1cn1 + ... + a0.
x c
For example, let us calculate the limit of f(x) = 2x when x approaches 5:

lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 2 5 = 10.
x5
EXAMPLE
x5
Calculate the limits.

a. lim(4 x 1)
x 2
Solution
b. lim( x2 + 3x + 2)
x 1
c. lim(3t t2 )
t 4
These are all polynomial functions, so we can use lim f ( x) = f ( c).

x c
a. lim(4 x 1) = 4 2 1= 7
x 2
b. lim( x2 + 3x + 2) = (1) 2 + 3 (1)+ 2 =1 3+ 2 = 0

x 1
c. lim(3t t 2 ) = 3 4 4 2 =12 16 = 4.
t 4
40
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 1
1. Given f(x) = 4x 1, complete the table to find the limit of f(x) as x approaches 3.
x
f(x)
2.5
9
2.75
2.8
2.9
2.95
3.05
2. Calculate the limit of each polynomial function.

a. lim5 x
b.
lim x(2 x)
x0
x 3
d. lim 2 x( x +1)
e.
x a
lim 3t2 (2t 1)
t 3
3.1
3.2
3.25
12
c.
lim( x2 3x 15)
f.
lim7
3.5
x6
x 3
Answers
2. a. 0
b. 3
c. 3
d. 2a2 + 2a
e. 189
f. 7
B. LIMITS ON A GRAPH
We can also use the graph of a function to study its limit as x approaches a certain point. For
example, let us draw the graph of the function f: , f(x) = x + 1 and use it to find lim f ( x).
x 3
The notation f:
means a function from

(the domain) to
(the
range).
The notation lim f ( x)
x 3
means the limit of f(x) as

x approaches 3.
4.1
y = f(x) = x + 1
4.05
4.03
5
4.01
4
3.99
3.97
3.95
3.9
2.9
2.95
2.97
2.99
3.01
3.03
3.05
3.1
We can approach the point x = 3 from two directions: the right (as the values of x get
gradually smaller) and the left (as the values of x get gradually bigger).
In both cases, the limit of f(x) = x + 1 as x approaches 3 is 4: lim( x + 1) = 3+1= 4.
x 3
Limit of a Function
41
EXAMPLE
Solution
A point at which we need

to check the right-hand
and the left-hand limits
of a function is called a
crucial point of the
function.
4
if
Given the piecewise function f : , f ( x) =

2
if
2 x 1 if
Let us first draw the graph of the function. As

5
we can see, x = is a crucial point in the graph.
2
5
When we approach from the right-hand side
2
5
(i.e. when x is greater than ) we use the
2
function f(x) = 2x 1 and get lim(2 x 1) = 4.
x
5
2
5
2
5
x = , find lim f ( x).
5
2
x
2
5
x>
2
x<
y = f(x)
6
5
4
So we can say that f approaches 4 from the
right-hand side. When we approach x from the

5
left-hand side (i.e. when x is less than ) we
2
use the function f(x) = 4, which is constant. Its
2
1
O
limit is 4 when x approaches from the left-hand
2 5 3
2
side. As a result, f approaches 4 as x approaches

5
from both sides, i.e. lim f ( x) = 4.
5
2
x
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
Given the piecewise function f :
x 1 if x 2
, find lim f ( x).
, f ( x) =
x 2
if x = 2
3
x = 2 is a crucial point. Notice that f(2) = 3 but

3 is not the limit of f at 2. This is because the
limit is the value which f(x) approaches as x
approaches 2. And in the graph we can see that
the limit of f(x) when x approaches 2 is 3.
As x gets closer to a point
c, although the limit
exists and approaches a
number, at the point c a
function may have a
different value, or may
not even be defined.
What happens at the
given point is not
important for the limit at
this point.
42
Let us draw the graph of f(x).

3
y = f(x)
2
1
1
1
O
1
2
3
Algebra 10
Note
If we get different results for a limit when we approach it from the right and from the left, we
say that the limit does not exist at this point.
Check Yourself 2
Graph each function and evaluate the given limit.
1. f:
, f(x) = 3,lim f ( x)
x 2
2. f:
, f(x) = x 2, lim f ( x)
x 1 if x >1
, f ( x) = 1 if x =1, lim f ( x)
x 1
x2 +1 if x < 1
x 3
3. f:
x2 if x 2
, f ( x)=
, lim f ( x)
x 2
1if x = 2
4. f:
Answers
1. 3
2. 5
3. 4
4. does not exist
C. DEFINITION OF LIMIT
We have seen how to calculate the limit of a polynomial function, and we have used graphs
to calculate the limits of some other functions. However, we still do not have a general
formula for the limit of a function.
For example, consider the limit of the function f:
{2}
, f ( x) =
x2 4
when x
x2
x2 4
. f(x) is not a polynomial function and the graph of f(x) will be
x 2 x 2
x2 4
difficult to draw. Also, f ( x) =
is undefined at x = 2.
x2
However, remember that when we calculate a limit we are examining the value of a function
approaches 2, i.e. lim
as it approaches a point, not the value at the point itself. So by applying simple factorization
methods we can get
lim
x 2
x2 4
( x 2)( x + 2)
= lim
x
2
x2
( x 2)
= lim( x + 2) = 2+ 2 = 4.
2
f(x) = x 4
x2
x 2
x2
=1 because x is very close
x2
x2
to 2 but not equal to 2, so
is not zero
x2
divided by zero and so it can be simplified. As we
We can say that
can see in the graph of the function

f:
{2} , f ( x) =
x2 4
, the limit of f(x) as
x2
3
2
1
O
x approaches 2 is 4.
Limit of a Function
43
1. Neighborhood of a Number
Let x0 be a real number and let a be a positive real number less than 1. Now consider the
real number x between x0 a and x0 + a such that x0 a < x < x0 + a.
In other words x is an element of the interval (x0 a, x0 + a). This interval is called the
a-n
neighborhood of x0.
x0 a
x0
x0 + a
a-neighborhood of x0
x is a real number between x0 a and x0 + a
For example, let us take x0= 5 and a = 0.1. The 0.1-neighborhood of 5 is the interval
(5 0.1, 5 + 0.1) = (4.9, 5.1).
4
4.9
5.1
0.1-neighborhood of 5
Check Yourself 3
1. Write the 0.01-neighborhood of 7 as an interval and show it on a number line.
2. Write the 0.2-neighborhood of
5
as an interval and show it on a number line.
2
2. -neighborhood of a Number
Now let x be an element of the -neighborhood of x0:
is a Greek letter,
pronounced epsilon.
-neighborhood is read
as epsilon-neighborhood.
x (x0 , x0 + ).
x0 e
x0
x0 + e
e-neighborhood of x0
We can write the -neighborhood of x0 as an inequality: x0 < x < x0 + .

When we subtract x0 from all parts of this inequality we get: < x x0 < .
We can write this inequality as an absolute value: |x x0| < .
44
Algebra 10
x (3.8, 4.2)
For example, consider
x (4 0.2, 4 + 0.2)
(4 0.2) < x < (4 + 0.2)
0.2 < x 4 < 0.2
|x 4| < 0.2.
This means that x is a real number in the 0.2-neighborhood of 4.
3.8
4.2
x is here
3. Limit of a Function
Definition
limit of a function
Let f: be a function and let x0 and L be real numbers.
Given any about L if there exists a about x0 such that for all x,
|x x0| < |f(x) L| <
then the limit of f as x approaches the point x0 is L, i.e. lim f ( x) = L.
x x0
Let us look at each part of the statement in turn.

|x x0| <
is a Greek letter,
pronounced delta.
-neighborhood is read
as delta-neighborhood.
< x x0 <
x0 < x< x0 +
x (x0 , x0 + ), i.e. x is in the -neighborhood of x0.
x0 d
x0
x0 + d
Similarly, |f(x) L| <

< f(x) L <
L < f(x) < L +
f(x) (L , L + )
i.e. f(x) is in the -neighborhood of L.
Limit of a Function
L+e
L
Le
45
In other words, lim f ( x) = L means that for any small number there is another small
x x0
number such that any point in the -neighborhood of x corresponds to a point in the
-neighborhood of L.
y
y = f(x)
L+e
Any point in
this neighborhood...
L
Le
... maps to a point
in this neighborhood.
EXAMPLE
Solution
x0 d
x0 x0 + d
Show that lim(3x 5) = 4 by using the definition of limit.

x 3
We will use the definition of limit with x0 = 3, f(x) = 3x 5 and L = 4.

To satisfy the definition, we need to show that for any > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
for all x, |x 3| < |(3x 5) 4| < .
y
y = f(x)
Let us rewrite the second part of this statement:
.
3
All these inequalities are equivalent. Now we
|(3x 5)
|3x
3 |x
|x
4|
9|
3|
3|
<
<
<
<
need to show that for any > 0, there exists a

> 0 such that for all x,
|x 3| < |(3x 5) 4| < .
4+e
4
4e
3
2
1
O
2
3
4
3 e 3+e
3
3
. Of course = is
3
3
not the only value of that will satisfy the
This is true if we take =
definition. Any smaller positive will work as

well. However, the definition of limit asks us to
find just one that satisfies the statement, so
this is enough.
46
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
2 x 1 if x 2
, f ( x) =
is given. Show that lim f ( x) = 3 by using the definition of
x 2
1 if x = 2
f:
limit.
Solution
To prove that lim f ( x) = 3 we need to show that for all > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
x 2
|x 2| < |f(x) 3| < .

Let us begin with the second part of the expression (|f(x) 3| < ) and let us try to show
that for all > 0 we can find a number .
|f(x) 3| < |(2x 1) 3| < |2x 4| < |x 2| <
which is similar to
2
the first part of the expression (|x 2| < ).
Now we have |x 2| <
Indeed, since
is a real number we can
2
choose =
and so |x 2| < .
2
2
Now we have found that there is a real number
which is equal to , so for any > 0 we can

2
choose = for this function.

2
y = f(x)
4
3+e
3
3e
2
1
1
2
3
2 e 2+e
2
2
Moreover, we can say that for all > 0 there
exists a = > 0 and |x 2| < |f(x) 3| < .

2
For x (2 , 2 + ) = (2 , 2 + ), f(x) (3 , 3 + ).
2
2
So as approaches zero, the point x approaches 2 and the value of f(x) approaches 3.
Thus, lim f ( x) = lim(2 x 1) = 3.
x 2
x 2
Check Yourself 4
Use the definition of limit to prove each
statement and find the value of .
1. lim(7 x 2) = 5
x 1
2. lim(4 x + 3) = 5
x 2
Answers
1.
2.
7
4
Limit of a Function
47
D. ONE-SIDED LIMITS
Notice that in limit notation,
x x0 and x x0+ mean
different things. x x0
and x x0 also have
different meanings.
As we have already seen, sometimes the limit of a function can have two different values: one
value when x approaches x0 from the right, and another when x approaches x0 from the left.
hand
When this happens, we call the limit of f as x approaches x0 from the right the right-h
limit of f at x0 and write it as lim+ f ( x) .
x x 0
hand limit of f at x0 and write

We call the limit of f as x approaches x0 from the left the left-h
it as lim f ( x) .
y
x x 0
For example, consider the function y = f(x)

shown opposite. Let us find the left-hand and
right-hand limits at the points 2, 5 and 6:
5
4
a. lim f ( x) = 3 and lim+ f ( x) = 5
b. lim f ( x) = 2 and lim+ f ( x) = 2
c. lim f ( x) = 3 and lim+ f( x) does not exist,
x2
x2
x5
x5
x6
x6
since f is not defined for x > 6.
y = f(x)
In other words the left-hand and right-hand

limits as x 2 are different; as x 5 the
left- and right-hand limits are the same, and as x 6 only the left-hand limit exists.
Definition
one-ssided limits
1. The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches
x0 from the right equals L if for any > 0
there exists a > 0 such that for all x,
y
L+e
x0 < x < x0 + |f(x) L| < ,
i.e. for all x in the interval (x0, x0 + ),
Le
f(x) (L , L + ).
O
2. The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches

x0 from the left equals L if for any > 0 there
exists a > 0 such that for all x,
x0 < x < x0
|f(x) L| < , i.e.
for all x in the interval (x0 , x0),

f(x) (L , L + ).
48
x0 x0 + d
y
L+e
L
Le
O
x0 d
x0
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
5 5
Find the one-sided limits at all the integer values of the graph of f : [ , ]
2 2
the figure.
shown in
The integer values are {2, 1, 0, 1, 2}, so we

need to inspect these points.
a. lim+ f ( x) = 0,
lim f ( x) = 0
x 2
x2
b. lim+ f ( x) =1,
x1
c. lim+ f ( x) = 1,
x0
e.
lim+ f ( x) = 0,
lim f ( x) = 1
x0
lim f ( x) =1
x 1
x 1
lim+ f ( x) = 0,
x 2
lim f ( x) = 0
x1
d.
y = f(x)
lim f ( x) = 0.
x 2
existence of a limit
The limit of a function f(x) at a point x0 exists if and only if the right-hand and left-hand
y
limits at x0 exist and are equal.
Definition
In other words,
a
b
lim f ( x) = L lim+ f ( x) = L and
x x0
x x0
y = f(x)
lim f ( x) = L.
x2
x x0
The left-hand limit and

right-hand limit of a
function are also called the
one-ssided limits of the
function.
EXAMPLE
Solution
For example, in the figure the function f has a

limit at point x2, but it has no limit at point x1
because the left-hand and right-hand limits at
x1 are different.
f:
{2}
x1
if x > 2
x 1
is given. Find lim f ( x).
, f ( x) =
x 2
x + 3 if x < 2
y
As we can see from the graph, the point x0 = 2

is the crucial point of f(x).
Therefore, let us examine the one-sided limits
at this point.
lim+ f ( x) = lim(
x 1) = 2 1=1
+
x2
x2
y = f(x)
3
2
lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 3) = 2+ 3 =1
Since lim+ f ( x) = lim f ( x) =1, they exist
x2
x2
x 2
x2
and are equal, and so lim f ( x) =1.

x 2
Limit of a Function
49
Check Yourself 5
1. The graph of f: [1, 7] , f(x) is shown in the figure.
Find the one-sided limits at all integer values of the domain and find
at which point f has a limit.
x2 +1 if x >1
2. Given the function f: {1} , f ( x) =
, find
x
1
if
x
<
1
the limit of f(x) at the point x0 = 1.
y
y = f(x)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x if 1 x < 0 or 0 < x 1
3. The function f: , f ( x) = 1 if x = 0
is given.
0 if x < 1 or x > 1
a. Find the one-sided limits at the points 1, 0, and 1.
b. At which point does the limit of f(x) exist?

Answers
2. does not exist
E. LIMITS OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

We have now learnt the definition and basic concepts of the limit of a function, and studied
one-sided limits. In this section we will look at the limit of some special functions: the
absolute value function, the sign function and the floor function.
We know that at a given point, the limit of a function exists if the right-hand limit and the
left-hand limit exist and are equal.
We can evaluate a limit of an absolute value, sign or floor function at a point by treating the
function as a piecewise function and checking the one-sided limits at the point. If the two
limits exist and are equal, then we can say that a limit exists at the given point.
EXAMPLE
Solution
f:
{2}
, f ( x) =
| x 2|
+ x + 3 is given. Find lim+ f ( x) and lim f ( x).
x2
x 2
x2
Since the function f involves the absolute value expression |x 2|, x0 = 2 is a crucial point
for f.
Let us begin by writing the function as a piecewise function.
If x > 2, x 2 > 0 and so |x 2| = x 2. Therefore
f ( x) =
50
| x 2|
x 2
+ x+ 3 =
+ x + 3 =1+ x + 3 = x + 4.
x2
x2
Algebra 10
Similarly, if x < 2,
x 2 < 0 and |x 2| = (x 2) and so
f ( x) =
| x 2|
( x 2)
+ x+ 3 =
+ x+ 3
x2
x2
y=x+4
6
5
4
3
2
1
= 1+ x + 3 = x + 2.
x + 4 if x > 2
In conclusion, f( x) =
x + 2 if x < 2.
3 2 1 O
1 2 3
y=x+2
So the limits are

lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 4) = 2+ 4 = 6
+
x2+
x2
lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 2) = 2+ 2 = 4.
x2
x2
Remark
When we evaluate the right-hand and left-hand limits of special functions it is sometimes
useful to define a positive real number h and look at what happens as h approaches zero.
For h
and h 0, the following statements are true:
lim f ( x) = lim f ( a + h) and
x a+
h0
x a
h0
For example, when h
EXAMPLE
Solution 1
(x 3 )
(h 0)
3h
h0
lim f ( x) = lim f (3 h).
x3
(x 3+)
3 + h (h 0)
and h 0,
lim+ f ( x) = lim f (3+ h) and
x3
lim f ( x) = lim f ( a h).
h0
Given f(x) = sgn(4 x), find lim+ f ( x) and lim f ( x) and decide whether lim f ( x) exists or
x 4
x4
x 4
not.
x0 = 4 is a crucial point.
When x > 4 (x 4+), 4 x is negative and so

sgn(4 x) = 1. So
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ sgn(4 x) = 1.
x4
O
1
x4
y = sgn(4 x)
1 2 3 4
When x < 4 (x 4), 4 x is positive and so

sgn(4 x) = 1. So
lim f ( x) = lim sgn(4 x) =1.
x4
x4
Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 4
Limit of a Function
51
Solution 2
Let h > 0 be a very small real number. Instead of writing x 4+, we can write x = 4 + h
and consider h 0:
lim sgn(4 x) = lim sgn(4 (4+ h)) = lim sgn( h).
x4+
h0
h0
Since h is a very small positive number, h is negative and so sgn(h) = 1,

i.e. lim sgn( h) = 1. This is the right-hand limit.
h 0
Similarly, lim sgn(4 x) = lim sgn(4 (4 h) = lim sgn( h) =1.

h0
x4
h0
Since h is a positive number, sgn(h) = 1. This is the left-hand limit.

As before, lim+ f ( x) lim f ( x) and so lim f ( x) does not exist.
x4
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
The function f:
x4
x4
, f(x) = 5x + 4 is given. Find lim f ( x).

x 2
To find the limit as x approaches 2, we have to check the right-hand and left-hand limits:
lim f ( x) = lim+ 5 x + 4 = lim 5(2+ h)+ 4 = lim 14+5 h =14
x2+
h0
x2
h0
lim f ( x) = lim 5 x + 4 = lim 5(2 h)+ 4 = lim 14 5 h =13.
x2
h0
x2
h0
Notice that since h is a very small positive number, 14 5h<14 and so 14 5h = 13.
We can see that lim+ f ( x) lim f ( x).
x2
x2
So lim f ( x) does not exist.

x 2
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
Find lim
x1
| x 1|
.
|1 x|
x 1 means x is less than 1. Therefore, x 1 < 0 so |x 1| = (x 1) = 1 x, and

1 x > 0 so |1 x| = 1 x.
| x 1|
1 x
=1.
= lim
= lim1
So lim
x1 |1 x|
x1 1 x
x1
52
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
12
Solution
Find lim sgn(

x1
x2 1
).
x+ 2
x2 1
.
x+ 2
Let us make a sign table of
x2 1
x+ 2
x 1 means that x approaches 1 from the

left-hand side, and in this interval
1
+
x2 1
is
x+ 2
negative.
2
So lim sgn( x 1) = 1.
x1
x+ 2
EXAMPLE
13
Solution
Find lim 2 x+1 .

x 2
Let h > 0 be a very small real number.

Then lim 2 x +1 = lim 2(2 h)+1 = lim 5 2 h = 4.
h 0
x2
h 0
Check Yourself 6
Evaluate the limits.
1. lim( x2 | x +1|)
2.
x 3
lim
x +| x |
x
2
3. lim | x 4|
x2
x2
lim
|2 x|
sgn( x 2)
6. lim+ sgn(3 x) x
lim+
1 x
sgn( x2 1)
9. lim+ 2 x +1
x 1
| x2 3x + 2|
x 1
5.
7. lim+
| x |+2
sgn( x2 2)
8.
10. lim
5x +1
16
11. lim( x + x + 2)
12. lim 8 x +1
x4+
3
14. lim 2 x
15. lim
x 4
4. lim
x1
x0
x3
x2+
x1
x3
x2
x 2
2007 x 1)
13. lim(
x0
x3
3x + 4 x
Answers
1. 18
12. 11
Limit of a Function
2. 0
3. 4
13. 2
4. 1
14. 4
5. 0
6. 4
7. 2
8. 0
9. 5
10. 0
11. does not exist
15. does not exist

53
F. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

In this section, we will use the concept of infinity. Infinity is not a real number, but we can
use it to describe a graph which continues without end in a positive or negative direction.
For example, consider the function
f : {0} {c} graphed in the figure.
f(x) tends to
positive infinity
How can we evaluate lim f ( x) and lim+ f ( x)?

x0
x0
As we can see in the graph, as we approach zero

from the left-hand side the value of f(x) gets
larger and larger. In other words, for any chosen
number M, we can always find an x closer to
zero on the left such that f(x) > M. We say that
f(x) tends to (i.e. moves in the direction of)
positive infinity, and write
c
x 0
x 0+
y = f(x)
x
f(x) tends to
negative infinity
lim f ( x) =+.
x0
Similarly, when we approach zero from the right-hand side the value of f(x) gets smaller and
smaller. In other words, for any chosen number M, we can always find an x closer to zero
on the right such that f(x) < M. We say that f(x) tends to negative infinity:
lim f ( x) = .
x0+
In both cases, f(x) has an infinite limit as x

approaches a real number. Now, what about
lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)?
x +
As we can see in the graph, as the value of x

increases, the value of f(x) approaches the
number c. In other words, for any chosen > 0,
we can find a number M such that for all x > M,
the value of f(x) will be in the -neighborhood of
c, i.e. f(x) is getting closer and closer to c. So we
can write
f(x) tends to c
c
x
x +
x
O
y = f(x)
lim f ( x) = c.
x+
Similarly, as x gets smaller and smaller, the value of f(x) also approaches the number c as
shown in the figure. For chosen any > 0, we can find a number N such that for all x < N,
the value of f(x) will be in the -neighborhood of c, i.e. f(x) approaches the number c while
x approaches negative infinity. So we can write
lim f ( x) = c.
In both cases, as x approaches negative or positive infinity, f(x) approaches a real number.
54
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
14
f:
{0}
a. lim+ f ( x)
x0
Solution
1
is given. Find the limits.
x
b. lim f ( x)
c. lim f ( x)
, f ( x) =
x +
x0
d. lim f ( x)
x
1
First, let us graph f ( x) = to study the limits of the
x
function.
y
y = f(x) = 1
x
a. As x approaches zero from the right-hand side, f(x)

approaches +:
lim
x0+
1
=+.
x
x 0 x 0+
x
For example, when we choose a positive number

which is very close to zero such as x = 0.0001, we
1
get a large positive number: =10000.
x
b. As x approaches zero from the left-hand side, f(x)

approaches :
1
lim = .
x0 x
For example, when we choose a negative number which is very close to zero such as
x =0.00001, we get a large negative number:
1
= 100000.
x
c. As x approaches +, f(x) approaches zero:

lim
x+
1
= 0.
x
For example, when we choose a large

positive value of x such as x = 1000000, we
get a small positive number close to zero:
1
= 0.000001.
x
Limit of a Function
y
y = f(x) = 1
x
x
O
x
x +
55
d. As x approaches , f(x) approaches zero:

1
= 0.
x x
lim
For example, when we choose a large negative value of x such as x = 10000000, we get a
small negative number close to zero:
1
= 0.0000001.
x
As a consequence of results a and b, notice that lim

x 0
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
Find the limit of the function f:
{0}
1
does not exist.
x
, f ( x) =
2 x2 x
as x approaches +.
x2 + 4
1
1
x2 (2 )
(2 )
2 x2 x
x
x
= lim
lim f ( x) = lim 2
= lim
x+
x+ x + 4
x+ 2
x+
4
4
x (1+ 2 )
(1+ 2 )
x
x
1
(2 )
1
4
x = 2.
0 and 2 0, so lim
As x + we have
x+
4
x
x
(1+ 2 )
x
0
EXAMPLE
16
Solution
Find the limit of the function f ( x) =
1
as x 1.
x 1
y
The function f is not defined at x0 = 1 and so

x0 = 1 is a crucial point.
So let us check the right-hand and left-hand
limits. Let h > 0 be a very small number, then
lim f ( x) = lim+
x1+
x1
y= 1
x1
1
1
1
= lim
= lim =+ ,
x 1 h0 (1+ h) 1 h0 h
1
O
lim f ( x) = lim
x1
x1
1
1
1
= lim
= lim
= .
h
0
h
0
x1
(1 h) 1
h
x1
x 1+
The right-hand and left-hand limits are not

equal, so lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 1
56
Algebra 10
Remark
For some functions f:
, the following infinite limits are possible:
a. lim f ( x) =+
b. lim f ( x) =
c. lim f ( x) =+
d. lim f ( x) = .
x +
x +
Look at the examples.

y
y = x2
x
O
x +
x +
y = x3
x +
x
y = x2
Check Yourself 7
1. The graph of a function f(x) is shown opposite. Find

each limit.
a.
lim f ( x)
x +
c. lim f ( x)
x 1
2. Calculate the limits.

2x + 3
a. lim
x + 5 x + 4
c.
x2 2 x + 3
x + 2 x2 + 3x 1
lim
b. lim f ( x)
d. lim f ( x)
x 3
b.
Limit of a Function
lim( x5 + x4 + x3 )
x3 +1
x +
x4
| x|
x | x |+1
c. lim+
x 2
1
x 4
2
e.
d. lim
x e

x
lim
d. lim

1
1
a. lim 2 b. lim
x 0 x
x1 x 1
a.
y = f(x)
b. lim(1 x x2 )
x
c.
1 x2
x 1+ 3x2
f.
lim
1
1 ln x
e. lim
x 2
lim
x2 2
4x 2
5x 1
2x
3
lim(2 x )
x
57
Answers
1
2
1
b. 0 c.
d. 1 e. 1 f.
3. a. + b.
4
5
2
3
c. + d. does not exist e. + 4. a. b. c.
1. a. 2 b. 2 c. + d. does not exist 2. a.
Theorem
limit combination theorem

Let f(x) and g(x) be functions such that lim f ( x) = a and lim g( x) = b. Then
x x0
x x0
a. lim[ f ( x)+ g( x)]= a + b

x x0
b. lim[ f ( x) g( x)]= a b
x x0
c. lim[ f ( x) g( x)]= a b
x x0
d. lim[
x x0
f ( x)
a
]= ( b 0)
g( x)
b
e. lim k f ( x) = k a (k ).
x x0
EXAMPLE
17
Given f(x) = 5 and g( x) =
1
(x 0), evaluate the limits.
x
a. lim[ f ( x) + g( x)]
b. lim[ f ( x) g( x)]
x 2
Solution
x 2
x +
x 2
x 2
{0}
x0
x+
x+
x+
f ( x)
]
g( x)
1
1
9
= 5+( ) =
x
2
2
1
=5 0=0
x
f ( x)
5
]= lim = lim 5 x = 5 lim x = 5(3) = 15
x
3
x3
1 x3
g( x)
x
a. lim+ f ( x)
58
x 2
lim [ f ( x) g( x)]= lim f ( x) lim g( x) = lim 5 lim
x 3
f:
x 2
x +
c. lim[
18
x 3
a. lim[ f ( x)+ g( x)]= lim f ( x)+ lim g( x) = lim 5+ lim

b.
EXAMPLE
c. lim[
x+
, f ( x) =
1
is given. Calculate the limits.
1+ 22 / x
b. lim f ( x)
x0
c. lim f ( x)
x0
Algebra 10
Solution
a. lim+ f ( x) = lim+
x0
x0
lim 1
1
x0+
=
2/ x
1+ 2
lim+ 1 + lim+ 2 2 / x
x0
+
As x 0 ,
x0
lim 1
2
1
x0+
=
= 0.
+ and so 2 2 / x + . So
lim+ 1 + lim+ 2 2 / x 1 +
x
x0
f ( x) = lim
b. xlim
0
x0
lim 1
1
x0
=
2/ x
1+ 2
lim 1+ lim 2 2 / x
x0
As x 0 ,
x0
x0
lim 1
2
1
1
1
x0
and so
=
=
=
=1.
x
lim 1+ lim 2 2 / x 1+ 2 1+ 1 1+0
x0
x0
2
c. Since lim+ f ( x) lim f ( x), lim f ( x) does not exist.

x0
x0
x0
Check Yourself 8
1. Given lim f ( x) = 2, find lim
x a
x a
f 2 ( x) f ( x)
.
f ( x)+ 3
2. f(x) = sin x + 2 and g(x) = cos 2x are given. Find lim

x
f ( x) g( x)+ f ( x)
.
g
( x)
f
3. Calculate each limit by using the limit combination theorem.

2
1+
x2
x
a. lim 2
b. lim
c. lim(3 x +1)2
x
4
x 1 x + 4
x 1
5+
x
d. lim(6 x3 + 4 x2 3)
x 1
Answers
1.
Limit of a Function
2
5
2. 0
3. a.
1
5
b.
1
5
c. 16
d. 5
59
EXERCISES
2 .1
A. Limit of a Polynomial Function
15. Use the definition of the limit of a function to

prove each statement.
In questions 1-7, calculate the limits.
1. lim(3 x + 2)
2. lim( x2 2 x)
3. lim 3(2t 1)( t +1)
4. lim17
5. lim(2 k +1)
x +1) x2
6. lim(2
x a
x5
x 4
t2
5=5
c. lim
x 3
16.
y
2
x2 2 b +1)
7. lim(
x b
B. Limits on a Graph
, f(x) = 4x 7, lim f ( x)
x if x > 0
, f(x) = 3 if x = 0
2
x if x < 0
y = f(x)
3
2
In questions 8-10, draw the graph of each

function and calculate the given limits.
8. f:
D. One-Sided Limits
x 4
x 2
x + 3) = 2
b. lim(2
1
2 x = 10
a. lim
x5
1
2
x3
3
2
9. f:
a. lim f ( x)
x0
10. f:
a. lim+ f ( x)
b. lim+ f ( x)
c. lim f ( x)
d. lim+ f ( x)
e. lim f ( x)
f.
x1
c. lim f ( x)
x 2
if
2
, f(x) = 1 if
x + 3 if
a. lim f ( x)
x 5
b. lim f ( x)
The figure shows the graph of a function f(x).

Find each limit.
x 2
x2
x0
x > 3
x 2
x 2
17.
x = 3
y
y = f(x)
x < 3
b. lim f ( x)
x 3
c. lim f ( x)
x 1
C. Definition of Limit
11. Write the 0.3-neighborhood of 12 as an interval.
12. Write the 0.1-neighborhood of 5 as an interval
and show it on a number line.

60
lim f ( x)
x 1
1
3
The graph of a function f is shown in the figure.

For which integer values of p in the interval
7 9
( , ) does lim f ( x) exist?
x p
2 2
Algebra 10
18. The function f:
,
if x >1
2
if x =1 or x = 1
f(x) =
2
x +1 if 1 < x <1
if x < 1
x
is given.
21. f:
b. Find at which point(s) the limit does not exist.
x> 3
x= 3
1 x<3
x <1
is given. Calculate the limits.
a. Find the one-sided limits as x 1, x 0 and

x 1.
19. The function f:
x 2 if
if
3
, f(x) =
x + 4 if
if
1
a. lim f ( x)
if x >1
3
2
if x =1 or x 2
f(x) =
2
x 4 if 2 < x <1
x 3
22. The figure shows the

graph of a function
g(x). Find the sum of
the left-hand limits of
g(x) at the integer
values in the interval
(0, 8).
b. lim f ( x)
x 1
is given.
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
O
y = g(x)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
a. Find the limits as x 0 and x 1.

b. Find at which point(s) the limit does not exist.
E. Limits of Special Functions

20.
y
4
y = f(x)
3
2
a. lim | x 2|
x2+ |2 x|
b. lim|9 x2 |
c. lim |2 x |
x0+ x + x
d. xlim
5
e. lim+
x
2
|cos x|
cos x
x 3
| x 5|
x5
f. lim | x|
x0 x
1
3

x2 sgn( x 2))
a. lim(
x2
The graph of a function f: (3, 3) is shown in

the figure. At which integer value(s) of the
domain does a limit exist?
Limit of a Function
x))
b. lim(sgn(cos
+
x
c. lim+
|4 x2 |
sgn|2 x| x
d. lim
e. lim
3x + 2
sgn( x2 +6 x 9)
f. lim
x2
x 3
x5
x 1
x2 2 x
x 3sgn( x 5)
1 x
sgn( x2 3 x + 2)
61

x + 3sgn x)
a. lim(
x2
c. lim+
x
sin x
sin x +1
e. lim x2 3
x 3

b. lim( x + x)
a. lim+
1
x2 4
b. lim
1
| x|
cos x + cos| x|)

d. lim(
+
c. lim
x
x 9
d. lim
x3 + 2
x | x 1| 6
x 3
x2
f. lim+
x3
3 x
x3
x 0
x3
x 3
e. lim(
x tan x)
g. lim x5
x2
29. f:
, f ( x) =
x+ 2
is given.
x( x +1)( x 2)

a. lim f ( x)
b. lim f ( x)
F. Limits Involving Infinity
c. lim+ f ( x)
d. lim f ( x)
26. The graph of a function f
e. lim+ f ( x)
f. lim f ( x)
g. lim+ f ( x)
h. lim f ( x)
x 1
x +
x +
c. lim f ( x)
x 2
x2
a. lim f ( x)
x
x0
x0
is shown in the figure.

b. lim f ( x)
x 1
1 O
1
x
y = f(x)

a. lim ( x2 +1)
x +
x 1
d. lim f ( x)
2 x3 x2 +1
x x2 + 2 x +1
c. lim
x 1
e. lim f ( x)
x3
x x +5
b. lim
d. lim
x +
1
1
1 5x
x 2
31. Evaluate lim

x 2
f ( x)+ f ( x)
given lim f ( x) = 4.
x 2
f ( x) 5
32. Use the limit combination theorem to calculate

2 x2 +1
a. lim
x + 3x2 + 4
c. lim(
x
e. lim
62
x 1
)
x2
4 x2 + x 5
3
x3 + 1
1
b. lim ( +1)
x + x
d. lim(
x
2| x |
)
x
f. lim (1+ cos 1 )

x +
x
each limit.
2x 1
a. lim 2
x 3 x + 1
c. lim 5
x
e. lim
x 7
x
x+
b. lim(4 x2 3 x+6)
x 2
d. lim 2 x2 + 4
x 2
x2 1
x 1
Algebra 10
So far we have studied the concept and formal definition of the limit of a function. We have
seen that even if a given function f is not defined at x0, in some cases the limit of the function
may exist as the point x approaches the point x0 or infinity.
For example, the function f ( x) =
value
x2 9
is not defined at x0 = 3: when x0 = 3, we get the
x3
0
. But we know that lim f ( x) is not the same as f(3). It doesn't matter what happens
x 3
0
at x0 = 3; the important thing is what happens as x approaches this point. So the limit of a
function may exist even at undefined points.
Similarly, the function f ( x) =
x2 + x +1
approaches the value

as x approaches infinity.
2
2x 3
0
and
are two examples of indeterminate forms. In the following section we will look at
0
0
how to evaluate limits which have the indeterminate forms , , 0 , , and 1.
0
A.
0
AS A LIMIT
0
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \ such that f(x0) = 0 and g(x0) = 0.
Then lim
x x0
f ( x)
0
has the indeterminate form .
g( x)
0
In this case there exists a function h(x) which is a common factor of the functions f and g
such that f(x) = f1(x) h(x), g(x) = g1(x) h(x) and h(x0) = 0.
So we can write
lim
x x0
f ( x) h( x)
f ( x)
= lim 1
.
g( x) x x0 g1( x) h( x)
Since x x0 (it is very close to, but not equal to, x0) we can cancel the factors h(x) and so
lim
x x0
f1( x) h( x)
f ( x) f1( x0 )
= lim 1
=
g1( x) h( x) x x0 g1( x) g1( x0 )
which is the result of the limit.

Limit of a Function
63
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Find lim
x 3
x2 9
.
x3
0
As x approaches 3, the quotient approaches the indeterminate form . However, by
0
factoring the expression in the numerator we get
lim
x 3
x2 9
( x 3)( x + 3)
= lim
= lim( x+ 3) = 6.
x 3
x 3
x3
( x 3)
Remember that we can cancel the factor
( x 3)
because x 3 at the limit (it is only
( x 3)
approaching this point).
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
Find lim
x 2
x2 5x +6
.
x2 x 2
0
as x approaches 2, so we need to factor the numerator
0
and denominator and find the common factor:
This limit has the indeterminate form
lim
x 2
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
Find lim
x 1
x2 5x +6
( x 2)( x 3)
( x 3)
1
= lim
= lim
= .
x 2 ( x 2)( x +1)
x 2 ( x +1)
3
x2 x 2
x 1
.
x3 1
0
as x approaches 1.
0
We can begin by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of x 1:
The limit has the indeterminate form
lim
x 1
x 1
( x 1)( x +1)
( x 1)
= lim 3
= lim 3
.
3
x
1
1
x 1
( x 1)( x +1)
( x 1)( x +1)
We know that x3 1 = (x 1)(x2 + x + 1), so

lim
x 1
( x 1)
3
( x 1)( x +1)
= lim
x 1
= lim
x 1
64
( x 1)
2
( x 1)( x + x+1)( x +1)

1
1
= .
( x + x +1)( x +1) 6
2
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 9
1. lim
x2 2 x 8
x2 3 x 4
4. lim
x+ 2 2
x2
x 4
x 2
Answers
6
2
1.
2.
5
9
3.
2. lim
x 3
x2 9
x3 27
5. xlim
16 4
2
3
4.
1
4
5. 4
3. lim
x 1
4 2x
x 2 4 x 16
x4
6. lim
x2
6.
1. The Indeterminate Form
x3 x2 x +1
3 x2 6 x + 3
1
8
0
in Trigonometric Functions
0
As x approaches a point x0, the limit of a trigonometric function is the image of x0.
For example, lim cos x = cos0 =1, lim sin x = sin0 = 0, and limtan x = tan =1.
x0
x0
4
x
4
But what about a limit such as lim

x 0
sin x
?
x
When we are calculating the limit of a trigonometric function which involves the
indeterminate form
sin x
0
=1.
, we can use the rule lim
x
0
x
0
Conclusion
1. lim
tan x
=1
x
2. lim
sin ax a
tan ax a
= and lim
=
x
0
bx
b
bx
b
3. lim
sin ax a
tan ax a
= and lim
=
x
0
sin bx b
tan bx b
4. lim
sin ax a
tan ax a
= and lim
= .
x 0 sin bx
b
tan bx b
1. lim
tan x
sin x 1
sin x
1
lim
= lim
= lim
=1 1=1.
x0
x
x cos x x0 x x0 cos x
x0
x0
Proof
x0
2. As x 0, let ax = u so x =
lim
x0
Limit of a Function
x0
x0
u
and consider u 0.
a
sin ax 1
sin ax 1
sin u a
sin u a
a
= lim
= lim
= lim
= 1=
bx
b x0 x
b u 0 u
b u 0 u
b
b
a
65
tan ax
tan ax
ax
tan ax
a 1 a a
= lim ax
= lim ax = =
3. lim
x 0 tan bx
x 0 tan bx
x 0 tan bx b
1 b b
bx
bx
bx
sin ax
sin ax
sin ax
ax .
lim
sin ax
a
a x0 ax
a 1 a
ax
ax
= lim
= lim
=
= =
4. lim
x0 tan bx
x0
tan bx b x0 tan bx b
tan bx b 1 b
bx
lim
x0
bx
bx
bx
EXAMPLE
22
Solution
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
Find lim
x 2
4 x2
(2 x)(2+ x)
(2 x)
lim(2+ x) =1 4 = 4
= lim
= lim
2
x 2 sin(2 x)
x 2
x
sin(2 x)
sin(2 x) x 2
lim
Find lim
x
24
tan x
.
3( x )
Since tan x = tan( x),

lim
EXAMPLE
4 x2
.
sin(2 x)
tan x
tan( x) 1
tan( x) 1
1
= lim
= lim
= 1= .
3( x ) x 3( x)
3 x ( x)
3
3
Find lim
x0
sin 2
3x2
x
2.
2
Solution
EXAMPLE
25
Solution
x
x
x
x
sin 2
sin 2
sin
1
1
1
1
2 = lim
2 = lim
2=
2 = 1 12 = 1
lim
lim
2
2
x 0 3 x2
x
0
x
0
x
0
x
3
4x
3 4
12
12
12
x
4
2
sin 2
Evaluate lim
x0
1 cos 2 x
.
8 x2
Since cos 2x = 1 2sin2 x,

1 cos 2 x
1 (1 2 sin 2 x)
1 1+ 2 sin 2 x
sin 2 x 1
sin x 2
= lim(
=
lim
=
lim
=
lim
)
2
2
2
2
x0
x
0
0
0
0
8x
8x
8x
4x
4
x
lim
=
66
1 2
1 = 4.
4
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
26
Evaluate lim cos x .
x 2 x
2
Solution
Since cos x = sin(
x) we can write
2
1
sin( x)
sin ( 2 x)
cos x
1
2
2
lim
= lim
= lim
= .
( 2 x)
( 2 x)
2
x ( 2 x)
x
x
2
Check Yourself 10
tan 2 x
1. lim
x 0 tan5 x
sin 2 2 x
x0
x2
sin(2 x 2)
x 1
4x 4
sin5 x
5x cos5 x
4. lim
5. lim
6. lim
x0
tan x
7. lim
x 1 1 x
3x2
8. lim
x 0 1 cos 2 x
3
)
2
9. lim
x 0 sin( 2 x)
Answers
1
2
1.
2.
3
5
B.
x
2
3. lim
x 0 3x
sin
sin x
2. lim
x 0 tan 3 x
3.
1
6
4.
1
2
5. 4
6. 1
7.
cos(3 x +
8.
3
2
9.
3
2
AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \ such that as x approaches x0, both f(x) and g(x)
approach positive or negative infinity, i.e. lim f ( x) = and lim g( x) = .
x x0
Then lim
x x0
x x0
f ( x)
has the indeterminate form . We can find the limit of such functions as
g( x)
follows:
Limit of a Function
67
Let P(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + ... + a0 and

Q(x) = bmxm + bm1xm1 + ... + b0 be two polynomial functions, then
a xn + an 1x n 1 +...+ ao
P( x)
= lim n m
m 1
x Q( x)
x b x + b
+...+ bo
m
m 1x
lim
a
a
xn ( an + n 1 +...+ on )
n
x
x = lim an x .
= lim
x m
x b x m
b
b
m
x ( bm + m 1 +...+ mo )
x
x
0
As x approaches , the limit of each rational expression approaches zero, so we have

eliminated the rational expressions. In conclusion, we can write
an
if n = m
b
n
m
a
x
P( x)
lim
= lim n m =
x Q( x )
x b x
if n < m
m
0
if n > m.
The degree of a polynomial
is the highest power of
the variable in the
polynomial. The leading
coefficient
is
the
coefficient of the term
with the highest degree.
For example, x 3x2 has
degree 2 and its leading
coefficient is 3.
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
This is the same as saying the following:

1. If the degrees of the polynomials are equal then the limit is the ratio of the leading
coefficients.
2. If the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is greater than the degree of the
polynomial in the numerator then the limit is zero.
3. If the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is less than the degree of the polynomial
in the numerator then the limit is infinite (i.e. it approaches positive or negative infinity).
5 x 3 2 x2 + x 1
x
4x3 x2 +12
2 x3 1
x x5 + x3 +1
a. lim
b. lim
The indeterminate form is
x2 + 2
x x + 4
c. lim
5 x 3 2 x2 + x 1 5
= because the polynomials have the same degree. Alternatively, we
x
4x3 x2 +12
4
a. lim
can calculate
5 x 3 2 x2 + x 1
lim
= lim
x
x
4x3 x2 +12
68
2 1
1
+
)
3
x x2 x3 = lim 5 x = 5 .
3
x 4 x
1 12
4
x3 (4 + 3 )
x x
x3 (5
Algebra 10
b. lim
x
2 x3 1
= 0 because the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is bigger. We
x5 + x3 +1
can also calculate this limit:

1
x3 ( 2 3 )
2 x3 1
2 x3
2
x
lim 5
= lim
= lim 5 = lim 2 = 0.
3
x x + x +1
x 5
x x
x x
1
1
x (1+ 2 + 5 )
x
x
x2 + 2
= because the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is bigger. We can
x x + 4
c. lim
also calculate this directly:

x2 + 2
lim
= lim
x x + 4
x
EXAMPLE
28

a. lim
x
Solution
x2 1+ 2
x2
x
= lim
= lim x = .
x x
x
4
x 1+
x
2x + 4
b. lim
9 x2 + 2
x 4x2 1
x2 + 2 x + 2
a. The indeterminate form is
x 2+
x
lim
= lim
2
x
x
2
9x + 2
9x2 1+ 2
9
x
2x + 4
b. The indeterminate form is
4
4
x 2+
x 2+
2
x
x
= lim
= lim
=
x
x
3
2
2
3 x 1+ 2
3 x 1+ 2
9
9
x
x
1
1
x x 4 2
x ( x) 4 2
x
x
x 4x 1
lim
= lim
= lim
2
x
x
x
2 2
2 2
x + 2x + 2
x 1+ + 2
x 1+ + 2
x x
x x
2
1
1
x 1+ 4 2
x 1+ 4
x2 = lim
= lim
=
= 3
x
x
1
2 2
2 2
x 1+ + 2
x 1+ + 2
x x
x x
x+ x 4
Limit of a Function
69
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
2 x +5 x+1
.
x 3x +5 x
Find lim
The indeterminate form is
2
5x ( )x +5
2 x +5 x+1
= 5, since lim( 2 ) x = 0 and lim( 3 ) x = 0 .

5
lim x
= lim
x 3 +5 x
x
x 5
x 5
3
5x ( )x +1
5
Check Yourself 11
1 x2 +7 x3
1. lim
x 5+ x x3
4. lim
x5 + 2 x +7
x x2 +12 x 1
3x2 +1
5. lim
4x + 4
x
tan
2
7. lim
x cot( x )
2.
3. lim
x 9 x2 1
6. lim
x0
x +1+ 3x
x2 + cos x
x
3 x2
3. 0
4.
5.
1
2
6.
6
5
cot 5 x
cot 6 x
7 x+2 + 3x
x 5 x + 7 x
8. lim
Answers
1. 7
x2 + 2 x 12
x
1 x3
2. lim
9. lim
7. 2
8.
1
3
9. 49
C. 0 AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, f(x)
approaches zero but g(x) approaches positive or negative infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g( x) = .
x x0
x x0
Then lim[ f ( x) g( x) has the indeterminate form 0 .

x x0
We can find the limit of such functions by transforming the indeterminate form 0 into the
0
indeterminate form or
as follows:
0
f ( x)
0
lim [ f ( x) g( x)]= lim
has the indeterminate form .
x x0
x x0
1
0
g( x)
lim [ f ( x) g( x)]= lim
x x0
70
x x0
g( x)
1 has the indeterminate form .

f ( x)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
1
Find lim( x sin ).
x
x
The function has the indeterminate form 0. We can transform it into the form
0
by writing
0
1
sin
1
x ).
lim( x sin ) = lim(
x
x
1
x
x
1
1
= t. As x , 0 so t 0,
x
x
1
sin
x ) = lim( sin t ) =1.
and so lim(
x
t0
1
t
x
Let us take
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
Find lim
1
(3x 2).
x +5
The indeterminate form is 0 .

lim
1
3x 2
(3x 2) = lim
= 3.
x x +5
x +5
Check Yourself 12
x
9
1. lim( sin )
x 3
x
2. lim( x tan
x
1
2
x + 2) 2
) 3. lim(
x
1)
x
(
x
4. lim x2 +5 x +1
x
1
x+ 4
Answers
1. 3
2. 2
3. 0
4. 1
D. AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions. Let x0 \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, both f(x)
and g(x) approach infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = and lim g( x) = .
x x0
x x0
Then lim [ f ( x) g( x)] has the indeterminate form . We can find the limit of such
x x0
functions by transforming the indeterminate form into the indeterminate form
or ,
0
as shown in the following examples.

Limit of a Function
71
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
1
2
Find lim 2
.
x1 x 1
x 1
The indeterminate form is as x approaches 1. We can rewrite the function to transform

0
the indeterminate form into the indeterminate form :
0
1
2
1
2 x1
1 x
2
lim 2
= lim
.
= lim
= lim
x 1 x 1
x
1
1
1
x 1
( x 1)( x+1)
( x 1)( x+1)
( x 1)( x +1) x 1
Now we have the indeterminate form
lim
x 1
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
0
and we can calculate the limit:
0
1 x
1
1
= lim
= .
x
1
( x 1)( x +1)
( x +1)
2
2
2
Find lim( 4 x 6 x + 3 4 x + 3 x+1).
x
The indeterminate form is . Let us multiply and divide the expression by its conjugate.
Then we get
lim
( 4 x2 6 x + 3 4 x2 + 3 x +1)( 4 x2 6 x+ 3 + 4 x2 + 3 x+1)
( 4 x2 6 x + 3 + 4 x2 + 3 x +1)
= lim
x
4 x2 6 x + 3 (4 x2 + 3 x +1)
6
3
2
+ 2
4x 1
x
x
4
4
3
1
2
+ 4 x 1+ + 2
4 x 4x
= lim
x
9 x+ 2
2x + 2x
9 x 1
9 x
9
9x
= lim
= lim
= .
x
x 4 x
2x+ 2x
4
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
2
Find lim( x 2 x 3 + x 4).
x
The indeterminate form is .

Use the theorem:
lim( x2 2 x 3 + x 4) = lim 1 x+
+ x 4 = lim | x 1|+ x 4
x
2
= lim( x +1+ x 4) = 3.
x
72
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 13
2
1
+
1. lim
x1 x 1
1 x2
x2
x

2. lim
x 2 x 5
2
3. lim 1 1
cot x
x cos x
2
4. lim( x2 + 3x +1 x) 5. lim( x2 + 4 x +1 x2 + 3 x + 3)
x
6. lim( x + 2 x 2 ) 7. lim( x2 8 x +1+ x+ 4)

x
Answers
1
5
1.
2.
4
2
3. 0
4.
3
2
5.
1
2
6. 0
7. 8
E. 1 AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, f(x)
approaches 0 and g(x) approaches infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g( x) = .
x x0
x x0
Since lim(1+ f ( x)) approaches 1 but is not equal to 1, the limit lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) has the
x x0
x x0
indeterminate form 1 . We can remove the indeterminate form 1 by using the following rule:
Let lim f ( x) = 0, lim g( x) = and lim f ( x) g( x) = k ( k \). Then
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) = e k , where e 2.718.
x x0
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
For f ( x) =
1
and g(x) = x, find lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ).
x
x
We have lim f ( x) = lim

x
1
= 0,
x
lim g( x) = lim x = and

x
1
lim f ( x) g( x) = lim x =1.
x
x x
So k = 1 and by the given rule,

x
lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) = lim 1+ = e1 = e.

x
x
x
Limit of a Function
73
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
For f ( x) =
3
and g(x) = 5x, find lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ).
x
x
We have lim f ( x) = lim

x
3
= 0,
x
For m, n \,
lim(1+
x
lim g( x) = lim 5 x = and

x
m nx
) = emn.
x
lim f ( x) g( x) = lim 5 x =15. So k = 15 and by the given rule,

x
x x
5x
lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) = lim 1+ = e15.

x
x
x
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
Find lim 1+
x
2 x +1
3 x+1
We can rewrite the limit in the form

g(x) = 3x + 1.
So f ( x) =
lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) using

x
f ( x) =
2
2 x +1
and
2
2
and lim f ( x) = lim
= 0,
x
x 2 x +1
2 x +1
g( x) = 3x +1 and lim g( x) = lim 3 x+1= .

x
This gives lim f ( x) g( x) = lim

x
2
6x+ 2 6
(3 x+1) = lim
= = 3. So k = 3 and
x
2x + 1
2 x +1 2
by the given rule, lim 1+
x
2 x +1
EXAMPLE
38
Solution
3x +1
Find lim
x 3x 1
We can write
3 x+1
= e3.
4x2
3x +1 3x 1+ 2
2
=
=1+
.
3x 1
3x 1
3x 1
3x +1
Then lim
x 3x 1
4 x 2
4 x2
= lim 1+
x
x
3
1
and we can take f ( x) =
2
and g(x) = 4x 2.
3x 1
8x 4 8
8
2
Since lim f ( x) g( x) = lim
= , k= .
(4 x 2) = lim
x
x 3x 1
x 3 x 1
3
3
3x +1
So lim
x 3x 1
74
4 x 2
4 x 2
= lim 1+
x
3x 1
= e 3.
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 14
5
1. lim 1+
x
x
3x 2
4. lim
x
3x
x+ 2
7. lim
x x +5
x2
2. lim
x
x
4x
5. lim 1
x
2 x +7
2 x +1
3. lim
x
2x
2 x+5
2x 5
6. lim
x 2 x + 3
x+ 4
3 x +1
Answers
1
1. e5
2. e2
3. e 2
4. e
8
3
5. e3
6. e4
7. e9
The figure shows an n-sided regular polygon inside a circle centered at O.

2
In the figure let |AB| = a, |OA| = r and m( AOB) =
so in the right triangle AOH,
n
a
O
a
and a = 2rsin(AOH).
sin( AOH) = 2 =
r 2r
Since AOB is an isosceles triangle, m( AOH ) =

and a = 2 r sin .
n
n
H
B
A
The perimeter of the polygon is therefore n 2 r sin .
a
n
As the number of sides of the regular polygon increases to infinity, the polygon gets closer and closer to a circle.
sin
n
Therefore the circumference of the circle is lim n 2 r sin = lim 2 r
= 2 r.
n
n n
n
It can also be proved that the area of a circle is equal to r2 by using a limit. (This is left as an exercise for you.)
Limit of a Function
75
EXERCISES
A.
2 .2
0
as a Limit
0
| x |+2 x 1
x 3x + 4| x |+5
g. lim

x5
a. lim 2
x 5 x 25
x2 x 6
b. lim 2
x 2 x + x 2
x2 5 x 6
c. lim
x 1
x +1
5 x3 5
d. lim
x 1
x 1
x2 9
x 5x +6
e. lim
x 3
2 | x|
x 2 2+ x
g. lim
f. lim
x 2
2 x 3x + 4
x3 m 3
x m 2 x2 mx m 2
h. lim
sin5 x
7x
x0
sin(3 x 6)
x 2 tan( x 2)
c. lim
sin x
e. lim
1 cos 2 x
x0
2
g. lim cos 2x 1
x0
x
i. lim
x0
sin2 x
cos x cos 2 x
b. lim
x3
tan(2 x 6)
d. lim
1 cos 2 x
sin 2 x
x 3
x0
cos x +1
f. lim
x ( x)2
2x
h. lim
sin 2 x
x
2
2
3
j. lim (1 x 2 )( x 1)
x 1
tan ( x 1)
x2 +1
x 5x 4
d. lim
2005 x + 2010
x
x2 +1
f. lim
c. lim
e. lim
76
x2 + x +1
3 x3 + 4
x+ 2 4
2)
x
x
x4 + ax + 2
x ( x2 1)2 a
x0
b. lim(
x
d. lim(
x1
2 x 3 x2
x)
1+ 2 x2
x
2
+
)
x 1 x2 4 x + 3
b. lim( x2 + x +1 x2 + 2 x 3)
x
c. lim( x2 + 2 x + 2 x+1)
x
d. lim( x x2 +1 x2 )
x
E. 1 as a Limit
x+ 3 x
)
x
3
b. lim(1 )3 x
x
x
d. lim(
6 x +1 2 x
)
6x
e. lim(1
2 2 x+1
)
3x +1
f. lim(
5x +1 3 x+1
)
5x 1
g. lim(1+
7
)2 x
5x + 3
h. lim(
x + 2 9 x 1
)
x+ 4
x2 + x + 2
3+ 5 x5 +1
d. lim(sin 2 x cot 5 x)
a. lim( x2 +5 x +1 x)
b. lim
5
x+ 2
c. lim(
3x3 + 2 x2 +1
x
x3 1
2
a. lim(1+ )x
x
x
b. lim x2 x + 3
D. as a Limit
x0
B. as a Limit
a. lim
c. lim( 3x tan 3 )
x
x
c. lim(

a. lim
6
)
7x
2
x
a. lim( x
)
x 3x + 4
3
2 2 x+4 16
i. lim x+1
x 0 2
2
x5 1

x
C. 0 as a Limit
a. lim( x sin
x2
x2 + x 2 + 3 x
h. lim
i. lim(
x
3x +1 3 x+1
)
3x + 2
j. lim(
x
2 x +7 x 1
)
2x 1
Algebra 10
A. CONTINUITY AT A POINT
In this section we will look at the concept of continuity of a function. During our study of the
limit of f(x) as x approaches x0, we have continuously emphasized that the limit is not
necessarily equal to f(x0). Indeed, what actually happens at the point x0 is not important for
the limit of the function at that point. However, the nature of f(x0) becomes important when
we are considering the continuity of a function.
Definition
continuity at a point, discontinuity at a point

Let A be a subset of \, let f: A \ be a function and let x0 A. If
lim f ( x) = f ( xo )
x xo
then we say f is continuous at x0. Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x0.

It is important to note that for a function f to be continuous at x0, three things are necessary:
1. The limit of f(x) as x x0 must exist.
2. The function f must be defined at the number x0, i.e. f(x0) must exist.
And also, by the definition above,
3. lim f ( x) = f ( xo ).
x xo
If even one of these three conditions is not satisfied, the function f is said to be
discontinuous at point x0.
Let us begin by looking at the continuity of some functions at given points.
y
y = f( x )
The figure shows the graph y = f(x).

At x = a, lim f ( x) does not exist.
f(a)
x a
So f is discontinuous at x = a.
O
Limit of a Function
77
At x = b, lim f ( x) = L but f(b) does not exist.

x b
This means that f is not defined at x = b.

So f is discontinuous at point b.
y = f(x)
L
O
At x = c, lim f ( x) = L and f(c) exists, but

x c
lim f ( x) f ( c).
x c
So f is discontinuous at point c.
f(c)
y = f(x)
L
x
At x = d, lim f ( x) = f ( d) .
y = f(x)
x d
So f is continuous at point d.
f(d) = L
d
Note
The graph of a function which is continuous at a point has no gaps or breaks in its line at
that point. In other words, we can draw the graph of the function without lifting our pen from
the paper when we pass through the point.
EXAMPLE
39
Examine the continuity of the function f(x) in

the figure at the points x = 3, x = 1, x = 2
and x = 4.
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
4 3 2 1 O
78
y = f(x)
1 2 3 4
Algebra 10
Solution
a. The graph shows f(3) = 2 and lim f ( x) = 2, so

x 3
lim f ( x) = f ( 3). So f is continuous at x = 3.
x3
b. f(1) is not defined. So f is discontinuous at x = 1.

c. lim f ( x) does not exist. So f is discontinuous at x = 2.
x2
d. lim f ( x) = 5 but f(4) = 6.

x4
Since lim f ( x) f (4), f is discontinuous at x = 4.

x4
EXAMPLE
40
Solution
Examine the continuity of f: \ \,

x2 +1 if x < 1
f ( x) = 2x if x = 1 at the point x =1.
x + 3 if x > 1
Since f(1)= 2 1 =2, f(x) is defined at x = 1.

Let us find the limit of the function at x = 1:
lim f ( x) = lim(
x2 +1) =12 +1= 2 and
x 1
y = x2 + 1
x 1
lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 3) = 1+ 3 = 2, so
+
x 1+
x 1
lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = 2 and so lim f( x) = 2.
x 1
x 1
x 1
Since lim f ( x) = f (1), f is continuous at x = 1.
x1
EXAMPLE
41
Solution
x
y = x + 3
Examine the continuity of f: \ {2} \,

x3 8
if x 2 and x 2
2
f ( x) = x 4
at the points x = 2 and x = 2.
if x = 2
3
a. At x = 2, f(2) = 3.
lim f ( x) = lim
x 2
x 2
= lim
x 2
x3 8
( x 2)( x2 + 2 x + 4)
=
lim
x2 4 x 2
( x 2)( x + 2)
x2 + 2 x + 4 12
=
=3
x+ 2
4
Since lim f ( x) = f (2), f is continuous at x = 2.

x 2
b. At x = 2, f(2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at x = 2.

Limit of a Function
79
Check Yourself 15
y
4
3
2
1. Examine the continuity of the function f shown in the figure

at the points x = 3, x = 2, x = 1, x = 0, x = 2 and
x = 3.
y = f(x)
1
4
2 1 O
1 2 3 4
2. Examine the continuity of f: \ \,
f(x) =
8x 3
if x < 3
3
3x
x6
if x = 3 at the point x = 3.
if x > 3
x2 + 5x if x < 1
3. Examine the continuity of f: \ \, f ( x) =
at x = 1.
3
x 4x if x 1
4. Examine the continuity of f: \ \, f(x) =
2
mx + nx if
8
if
5. f: \ \, f(x) =
mx n if
5+ x2
x9
x3
3
if x < 0
if x = 0 at x = 0.
3
1+ x2
if x > 0
x < 2
x = 2
is a function which is continuous at x = 2.
x > 2
Find the values of m and n.

Answers
2. continuous
80
3. discontinuous
4. continuous
5. m = 5, n = 14
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
2 .3
A. Continuity at a Point
1. The figure shows the graph

y
5
of a function f. Examine
the continuity of f at the
integer points in the
domain.
4
y = f(x)
3
2
2 x2 +1 if x < 1
f ( x) = x + 2 if x =1 at the point x= 1.
x + 4 if x > 1
1
7 3 2 1
2
37
2
x2 + 2 x + 2 if x < 1
m
if x = 1
6. The function f ( x) =
mx + n if x > 1
is continuous at x = 1. Find m + n.
x + 4 if x = 4
at the point x = 4.
f ( x) =
2 x if x 4

x +6 if x > 3
f ( x) =
at the point x = 3.
2
x if x < 3
4. Find the points at which the function
f ( x) =
Limit of a Function
7. The function f( x) =
mx + 3 if x > 2
x+1
if x= 2
n2 1
if x < 2
is continuous at x = 2. Find the possible values of

m and n.
2
2
ax a x + 3 if x < 1
8. f ( x) =
2 if 1 x 2 is discontinuous.
is given.
3 2
a x + ax +5 if x 1
Find the possible values of a if f is continuous at
1 if x > 2
the point x = 1.
1 if x < 1
81
B. Continuity on an Interval
9. Find the largest interval on which each function
is continuous.
a. f(x) = x3 x2 + x 1
c. f ( x) =
1
x 1
e. f ( x) = x3 +
g.
1
x
b. f ( x) =
x
x +2
d. f ( x) =
x+ 2
x 5x 6
f.
f ( x) = 3 2 x 5
f ( x) = 3 3 x + 4 + x2 4
h. f ( x) =
x2 2 x +1
x2 3 x 4
10. Find the largest interval on which each function

is continuous.
1
a. f ( x) = cos x
2
b. f ( x) =
c. f ( x) = sin x
d. f ( x) = sin(
e. f(x) = arccos(x 4)
f. f ( x) = sin(log
g.
f ( x) = arcsin(
sin x
1 cos x
x+ 2
)
x2
x+2
)
x2
3x + 4
)
x 1
x3 27
if x > 3
3x
if x = 3
a
11. f ( x) =
x2 bx + 27 if x < 3
is a continuous function in the set of real

numbers. Find a + b.
12. f ( x) =
ax
x2 +1
if x > 1
ax 2
if x 1
is continuous in \. Find a.
82
Algebra 10
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. The figure shows the
graph of f(x). At which
integer point in the
interval (1, 7) does a
finite limit of f(x) exist?
5. Find xlim
0
y = f(x)
3
2
1
O
A) 0
1 2
3 4 5
3x +| x|
.
3x + 2| x|
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3
E) 4
C) e5
D) e15
E) e15
C) 6
D) 8
E) 16
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
E) 6
5
x
6. Find lim(1+ ) 3 x.
x
A) e3
B) e3
2. Find lim( x7 + x6 x5 ).
x
B)
A)
C) 0
D) 2
E) 1
7. Find lim(
x0
1
x
.
3. Find xlim
0
A) 0
B) 1
A) 2
C) 1
D)
B)
Chapter Review Test 2
B) 4
E)
x2 3 x+ 4 x).
8. Find lim(
x
2 x 3 x2 1
4. Find lim 2
.
x x + 2 x +1
A)
sin 4 x x+2
) .
x
C) 2
D) 2
E) 0
A) 1
2
B) 3
2
C) 3
2
D) 1
2
E) 0
83
9. Find lim(
x a
A)
3a
2
a 3 x3
).
a 2 x2
B) a
2
13. Find lim

x
C) 3
2
D) 3a
A) 1
B) 1
C) 2
1
2a
A)
6
5
B) 2
5
4
3
2
1
O
1
2
y = f(x)
11. Find lim

x9
A) 0
x3
B) 3
1 2
3 4
D) 3
D) 9
12 x3 + 2 x2 1
.
x
x3 +1
84
B) 6
C) 12
E)
3
5
A) e5
B) e10
15. Find lim
sin3 2 x
.
x3
A) 0
B) 1
C) e2
D) e
E) 1
C) 2
D) 4
E) 8
E)
3
16. Find lim( x 4 8 x +8 ).
12. Find lim

A) 6
D) 1
5
E) 4
C) 6
1
4
14. Find lim( x + 5 )2 x.
x0
x9
C)
10. The graph of a function

f(x) is shown in the
figure. Find the sum of
the left-hand limits of
the function at the
integer values in the
interval (0, 5].
E)
( x + 2)(3x 1)
.
5 x2 4
x 2
D) 12
E) 14
A) 0
x 4x
B) 2
C) 4
D) 8
E) 16
Algebra 10
A. ANGLES AND THE UNIT CIRCLE

In your previous studies you have already learned the basic principles of trigonometry on the
unit circle and in right triangles. Before we begin our study of trigonometry, it will be helpful
to review these basic concepts and definitions.
Definition
angle, directed angle

An angle is the union of two rays which have the same initial point.
If one of the rays of an angle is called the initial side of the angle and other ray is called the
terminal side, then the angle is called a directed angle.
Definition
negative angle, positive angle

If a directed angle is measured in a clockwise
direction from its initial side then the angle is
a negative angle. If the angle is measured in a
counterclockwise direction then it is a
positive angle. In trigonometry we use both
positive and negative angles.
l
itia
in
ter
na
mi
ter
min
de
l si
sid
a
init
ial
s
al s
ide
ide
negative angle: a = 60
positive angle: a = 60
We can measure angles using different units of measurement. The most common units are
degrees and radians. We write to show a degree measurement: one full circle measures
360. We write R to to show a radian measurement: one full circle measures 2R. We can also
3
omit the radian notation if it is clear that an angle is in radians: =
means that the angle
2
3
measures
radians.
2
We can use a simple formula to convert between degree (D) and radian (R) measures:
D
R
=
180
, 45 = , ... .
2
4
In trigonometry we often work with angles drawn in the coordinate plane.
For example, 360 =2R, 90 =
86
Algebra 10
unit circle, quadrant
Definition
The circle whose center lies at the origin of the coordinate plane and whose radius is 1 unit
is called the unit circle.
The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into four parts, called quadrants. The quadrants
are numbered in a counterclockwise direction.
in degrees:
180
in radians:
90
2nd
quadrant
1st
quadrant
3rd
quadrant
4th
quadrant
0
p
360
p
2
2nd
quadrant
1st
quadrant
3rd
quadrant
4th
quadrant
0
2p
3p
2
270
quadrantal angles
Definition
The intersection points of the unit circle and the coordinate axes correspond to angles
measured on the circle. These angles are called quadrantal angles. In other words, 0, 90,
3
180, 270, 360, ... and 0, , ,
, 2, ... are quadrantal angles.
2
2
In the unit circle, if 0, then is in the first quadrant, if , then it is in the

2
2
second quadrant, if ,
then it is in the third quadrant and if , 2 then it
2
is in the fourth quadrant. The same applies to the equivalent intervals in degrees.
EXAMPLE
Solution
In which quadrant does each angle lie?

a. 75
b. 228
c. 305
d. 740
e. 442
f.
7
3
17
5
a. 75 < 90, so it is in the first quadrant.

b. 228 (180 , 270 ), so it is in the third quadrant.
We write to show that

two angles are coterminal:
means that and
are coterminal.
Be careful! does not
mean = . For example,
740 20 but 740 20.
c. 305 (270 , 360 ), so it is in the fourth quadrant.

d. 740 = 20 + (2 360) 20 and 20 (0 , 90 ). So 740 is in the first quadrant.
e. 442 = 278 (2 360) 278 and 278 (270 , 360 ). So 442 is in the fourth quadrant.
f.
7
is in the first quadrant.
= + 2 and 0, , so
3
3
3
3 2
3
g.
3
17
17 3
3
and
is in the second quadrant.
, , so
=
(2 2 )
5
5
5
5 2
5
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
87
Remember that there is a correspondence

between the points on the unit circle and the
real number line.
Imagine the real number line placed
vertically next to the unit circle, so that O on
the real number line coincides with A(1, 0)
on the unit circle. Then we can wrap the
real number line around the top and bottom
halves of the circle to see the correspondences:
in the figure, we can see that point D
corresponds to 1.571 on the number line,
2
point F corresponds to , point B(a, b)
2
corresponds to x1, and so on. The intercept of
one radian and the unit circle corresponds to
1 on the real number line.
EXAMPLE
Solution
p
2
x2
x1
B(a, b)
A(1, 0)
a
G
x3
p
2
Find the real number which corresponds to the central angle 60 on the unit circle, using
3.14.
From the formula
R
60
D
R
R
60
we have
=
= , so R =
= . Using 3.14 gives us
180
3
180
180
3.14
1.047. This is the required real number.
3
Check Yourself 1
1. Convert the measures to radians.
a. 30
b. 135
c. 210
2. Convert the measures to degrees.

5
a.
b.
c. 5
6
3
4
Answers
3
7
1. a.
b.
c.
6
4
6
2. a. 60
b. 150
c. 225
88
d. 900
d. 10
d. 5
d. 1800
Algebra 10
B. PRIMARY DIRECTED ANGLES

1. Coterminal Angles
Definition
standard position of an angle

An angle in the coordinate plane whose vertex is at the origin and whose initial side lies along
the positive x-axis is said to be in standard position.
Definition
coterminal angles
Two or more angles whose terminal sides coincide with each other when they are in standard
position are called coterminal angles.
Let us look at an example of coterminal angles. The figure shows a unit circle.
The positive angle AOP corresponds to the arc
AEP and the negative angle AOP corresponds to
the arc AFP. These angles are coterminal. The
measure of the positive angle AOP is m(AOP) =
and the measure of the negative angle AOP is
m(AOP) = (360 ).
y
P
F
E
q
a
O
We can also express the measure of each angle in

radians. Since this is a unit circle, if the length of
the arc AEP is then the measure of the positive
angle AOP is m(AOP) = and the measure of
the negative angle AOP is m(AOP) = (2 ).
Now assume that point P in the figure is moving around the circumference of the unit circle
from point A in the counterclockwise direction. Study the following table.
Position of point P (moving counterclockwise)
Measure of the central angle for AP

Degrees
Radians
P lies on the positive x-axis
P lies on the positive y-axis
90
P lies on the negative x-axis
180
P lies on the negative y-axis
270
3
2
P lies on the positive x-axis after one complete revolution
360
P lies on the ray [OP after one complete revolution
360 +
2 +
P lies on the ray [OP after a second revolution
720 +
4 +
k 360 +
2k +
P lies on the ray [OP after its kth revolution
89
EXAMPLE
Solution
For each angle, write the set of coterminal angles with the same unit of measurement.
5
a. 175
b.
4
Coterminal angles differ by an integral multiple of complete angles.
a. {175 + k 360, k ]} = {...,545, 185, 175, 535, 895,...}
b. {
5
11
3 5 13 21
+ k 2, k ]} = {...,
, ,
,
,
,...}
4
4
4
4
4
4
Note
a.
The angles in part a and part b are

coterminal. Therefore, if we graph them
in standard position, these angles will
have the same terminal side.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Solution
5p
175
185
3p

4
Find the arc length which corresponds to the central angle 40 on the unit circle ( 3).
40 R
2
D
R
we have
=
= , so R =
. We know that on the unit circle, the radian
180
180
9
measure of a directed angle is equal to the length of the directed arc corresponding to the
Since
angle. So the arc length is
EXAMPLE
b.
2
2 2 3 2
, and using 3 gives us
= 0.6.
9
9
9
3
Find the coordinates of the terminal point of the arc with length
which is in standard
2
position on the unit circle.
The circumference of a unit circle measures 2.
So
represents a quarter of the circle.
2
Therefore the arc length

corresponds to the
2
point B(0, 1) on the unit circle.
B(0, 1)
A(1, 0)
A(1, 0)
Furthermore, the arc length corresponds to the

point A(1, 0) on the unit circle and
corresponds to B(0, 1).
90
3
2
B(0, 1)
Algebra 10
2. Primary Directed Angles and Arcs

primary directed angle
Definition
Let be an angle which is greater than 360. Then the positive angle [0, 360) which is
coterminal with is called the primary directed angle of .
In order to find a primary

directed angle we must
divide the initial angle by
360. We must not simplify
before the division, because
360 represents a complete
rotation. For example, the
remainder in the operation
5000360 gives us the
required primary directed
angle whereas the simplified
version 50036 does not.
In other words, the primary directed angle of is the smallest positive angle that is
coterminal with . If we divide by 360, the remainder will be the primary directed angle.
m( ) = k (360) + m(), k ].
For example, 30 is the primary directed angle of 390 because 390 = 1 360 + 30.
We know that the radian measure of any angle is equal to the length of the arc which
corresponds to its central angle in the unit circle. The circumference of a unit circle is 2.
Therefore any two real numbers that differ by integral multiples of 2 will coincide at the
same point on the circle.
primary directed arc
Definition
The positive real number t [0, 2) which differs from a real number by integral multiples
of 2 is called a primary directed arc.
Since t is the smallest positive real number that is coterminal with a given angle , we can
find t by subtracting integral multiples of complete rotations from , or alternatively by
dividing by 2 and considering the remainder:
= k (2) + t, k ].
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the primary directed angle of each angle, using the same unit.
75
75
a. 7320
b. 7320
c.
d.
8
8
a.
7320
7200
120
360
20
number of
rotations
91
x
120
x
21st rotation
20 complete rotations in the positive direction
7320 = (20 360) + 120, so 120 is coterminal with 7320.

So the primary directed angle of 7320 is 120.
b. Solution 1
7320 = (20 360) + 120
7320 = (20 360 + 120)
= (20 360) 120
= 120
120 240
(coterminal angles)
7320 240
(coterminal angles)
Solution 2
7320 = (21) 360 + 240
Therefore the primary directed angle of 7320 is 240.
y
+240
x
x
120
20 complete rotations in the negative direction
92
21st rotation
Algebra 10
c. Solution 1
75 64 11
=
+
8
8
8
75
11
= 4 (2 )+
8
8
number of rotations
11
8
Solution 2
1. Divide the numerator by twice the
denominator:
2 8 = 16 and 75 16 = (4 16) + 11.
75p
8
2. Multiply the remainder by
11
: 11 =
.
denominator
8
8
So the primary directed angle of
5th rotation
75 16
11
75
is
.
8
8
64 4
11
number of rotations
remainder
d. If the angle was positive, the remainder
11
would be
as we found in part c. But the
8
11
angle is negative, so the remainder is
.
8
75p
8
Because a coterminal angle must be positive,
11
11 5
= .
2
8
8
8
5
So the primary directed angle is
.
8
we calculate
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the primary directed angle of = 30 42 15.

The primary directed angle must be positive, so we need to find the positive difference from
360. Let the primary directed angle be .
To make the calculation easier we can write 360 as 359 59 60. Then
1 = 60 and 1 = 60 so
360 = 359 59 60.
359 59 60
30 42 15
329 17 45.
So = 329 17 45.
93
Check Yourself 2
1. Find the primary directed angle of each angle, using the same unit of measurement.
3
33
a. 100
b. 7200
c.
d.
2
5
11
5
e. 400
f. 50
g.
h.
3
4
2. For each angle, write the set of coterminal angles with the same unit of measurement.
3
a. 30
b. 120
c.
d.
3
2
Answers
3
3
3
1. a. 100 b. 0 c.
d.
e. 320 f. 310 g.
h.
2
3
5
4
2. a. {..., 690, 330, 30, 390, ...}
b. {..., 600, 240, 120, 480, 840, ...}
11
5 7 13
5
3 7 11
,
, ,
,
, ...}
,
,
, ...}
c. {...,
d. {..., , ,
3
3 3 3
3
2
2 2
2
2
C. TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
1. Definition
C
hypotenuse
(hyp)
opposite
side
(opp)
q
adjacent side
(adj)
Consider the right triangle in the figure. The table shows the trigonometric ratios for the
acute angle .
94
Ratio
name
Ratio
abbreviation
Ratio
definition
Abbreviated
definition
sine
sin
length of side opposite

length of hypotenuse
opp
hyp
cosine
cos
length of side adjacent to

adj
hyp
tangent
tan

opp
adj
cotangent
cot

adj
opp
secant
sec
hyp
adj
cosecant
csc
hyp
opp
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
The figure shows a right triangle. Write the

six trigonometric ratios for the angle .
10
q
A
Solution
sin =
opp 4
=
hyp 5
cos =
adj 3
=
hyp 5
tan =
opp 4
=
adj 3
cot =
adj 3
=
opp 4
sec =
hyp 5
=
adj 3
csc =
hyp 5
=
opp 4
We know that any ratio can be expanded or simplified by multiplying its numerator and
denominator by the same non-zero number. For example:
2 2k 4 40 200
=
= =
=
=... etc. where k is any non-zero number.
3 3k 6 60 300
This property is also used in trigonometry. Look at the two right triangles below.
C
q
B
sin =
a
b
sin =
a
b
Although the lengths of the sides of the triangles are different, the two trigonometric ratios
a a
for the common angle are the same: = . In other words, the sides are in proportion. We
b b
say that these triangles are similar.
95
EXAMPLE
Two right triangles are shown below. Find the trigonometric ratios for the angle in each
triangle and show that they are equal.
C
C
13
a
12
26
10
a
24
opp 5
=
hyp 13
adj 12
cos =
=
hyp 13
opp 5
tan =
=
adj 12
adj 12
cot =
=
opp 5
Solution sin =
opp 10 5
=
=
hyp 26 13
adj 24 12
cos =
=
=
hyp 26 13
opp 10 5
tan =
=
=
adj 24 12
adj 24 12
cot =
=
=
opp 10 5
sin =
The ratios are the same because the sides are in proportion: these are similar triangles.
EXAMPLE
10
2
In a right triangle, is an acute angle such that cos = . Find the sine, tangent and
3
cotangent ratios of the same angle.
Solution We do not know the lengths of the sides of the triangle.

However, we know that any right triangle with angle
will be similar to this triangle. So we can use the numer2
ator and denominator of the given ratio ( ) as two sides
3
of the triangle, as shown in the figure.
Now we can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
length of the opposite side:
opp2 + 22 = 32
2
opp + 4 = 9
hyp = 3
opp
q
2
cos q =
3
adj = 2
opp2 = 5 so opp = 5.
The resulting right triangle gives us the following results:

sin =
96
opp
5
opp
5
adj
2
=
; tan =
=
; cot =
=
.
hyp
3
adj
2
opp
5
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 3
1. In a right triangle, is an acute angle such that tan = 4. Find the sine, cosine and
cotangent ratios of the same angle.
2. One leg of an isosceles right triangle is 1 unit long. Find all the trigonometric ratios of one
of the two equal acute angles in the triangle.
Answers
4
1
1
1. sin =
, cos =
, cot =
4
17
17
2. sin 45 = cos 45 =
1
2
, tan 45 = cot 45 =1, csc 45 = sec 45 = 2
2. Special Triangles and Ratios

Certain right triangles have ratios
which we can calculate easily using
the Pythagorean Theorem. One
example is the isosceles right
triangle which we obtain when we
bisect a square diagonally. If the
square has side length 1 unit we
obtain the isosceles right triangle
shown in the figure.
1
45
1
45
1
Another example is the right

triangle which we obtain when we
bisect of an equilateral triangle from
an altitude to a base. If the triangle
has side length 2 units we obtain
the right triangle shown in the
figure.
60
30 30
30
3
60
60
60
60
60
In each example we can find the unknown length using the Pythagorean Theorem:
12 + 12 = 2 and
2 2 12 = 3. We can use these two special right triangles to make a

table of trigonometric ratios for some common angles.
in
degrees
in radians
sin
cos
tan
cot
30
1
2
3
2
1
3
45
1
2
1
2
60
3
2
1
2
1
3
97
EXAMPLE
11
B
A surveyor located on level ground at a point A is standing

36 m from the base B of a flagpole. The angle of elevation
between the ground and the top of the pole is 30. Find the
approximate height h of the flagpole.
angle of elevation
A
h
30
angle of depression
Solution
36 m
We know that tan 30 =
1
3
from the trigonometric table we have just seen.
Looking at the figure, we also know that tan 30 =

Therefore
EXAMPLE
12
opp
h
= .
adj 36
1
36
h
20.78 m.
=
, and so h =
36
3
3
In the figure,
m(BAD) = m(DAC) = 30
and BD = 12 units.
Find the value of x.
30
30
12
C
x
Solution
In the right triangle ABD, tan 30 =
1
3
In the right triangle ABC, tan 60 = 3 =
12
so AB = 123.
AB
12+ x
12 3
so 12 + x = 123 3 = 36.
So x = 36 12 = 24 units.
98
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
13
In the figure,
m(ABC) = 30,
m(ACB) = 45
and AB = 6 units.
Find the value of x.
A
6
45
30
B
Solution
In the right triangle ABH, sin 30 =
1 AH
=
so AH = 3.
2
6
3 BH
=
so BH = 33. Since angle H is a right angle
2
6
and angle C measures 45 then in the triangle AHC, m(A) is also 45. Therefore AHC is an
Also, in the same triangle cos 30 =
isosceles right triangle.

So AH = HC = 3. Since BC = BH + HC, we have BC = x = 33 + 3.
Check Yourself 4
1. Find the length x in each triangle.
a.
b.
c.
15
30
30
22
60
45
B
H
C
1444442444443
x
2. Solve for x:
30
14243 D
x
tan 30 csc60
= x cot 30 sin 45.
cos 45 sin60
Answers
1. a. 4( 2 + 6 )
3
b. 23 2
c. 16
2.
8
9
99
D. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The trigonometric ratios are related to each other by equations called trigonometric identities.
1. Basic Identities
a. Pythagorean identities
Property
Pythagorean identities
For all \,
1. sin2 + cos2 = 1
2. tan2 + 1 = sec2
3. cot2 + 1 = csc2 .
C
hypotenuse
(hyp)
q
A
Proof
1. By the Pythagorean Theorem we have opp2 + adj2 = hyp2.

2
Therefore,
Be careful!
sin2 = sin sin and
cos2 = cos cos ,
etc. We do not write
sin 2 because it is not
clear what we mean:
sin ( 2) or (sin )2?
opp + adj
hyp
=
2
hyp
hyp 2
adjacent side
(adj)
(1)
(divide both sides by hyp 2)
hyp 2
opp2
adj 2
=
+
hyp2 hyp 2
hyp 2
opp 2
adj 2
) +(
) =1.
hyp
hyp
adj
opp
, we have sin2 + cos2 = 1.
Since sin =
and cos =
hyp
hyp
opp2 + adj 2 hyp 2
2. Dividing both sides of (1) by adj2 gives
=
, i.e.
adj2
adj 2
2
2
2
opp
adj
hyp
+
=
,
adj2 adj 2
adj 2
(
2
hyp 2
opp 2 adj
=(
).
) +
2
adj
adj
adj
Since tan =
opp
hyp
and sec =
we have tan2 + 1 = sec2.
adj
adj
3. Dividing both sides of (1) by opp2 gives

So
opp2 adj 2
hyp 2
+
=
,
opp2 opp 2
opp 2
opp2
opp
+(
opp2 + adj 2 hyp 2

=
.
opp2
opp 2
adj 2
hyp 2
) =(
).
opp
opp
Since cot =
100
opposite
side
(opp)
hyp
adj
and csc =
we have 1 + cot2 = csc2 , i.e. cot2 + 1 = csc2.
opp
opp
Algebra 10
b. Tangent and cotangent identities

Property
tangent and cotangent identities

sin
cos
cos
2. cot =
sin
3. tan cot = 1
1. tan =
Proof
opp
hyp
opp
opp
sin
adj
1. We know that sin =
and cos =
, so
=
.
=
adj
hyp
hyp
adj
cos
hyp
sin
= tan .
So
cos
adj
hyp
cos
adj
cos
=
=
, i.e.
2. Similarly,
= cot .
opp
sin
opp
sin
hyp
3. Consequently,
sin cos
= 1. So tan cot = 1.
cos sin
c. Reciprocal identities
Property
Proof
Remember!
csc =
1
sin
1
cos
(the first letters of
reciprocal ratios are
opposite:
1
1
c= ,s= )
c
s
sec =
reciprocal identities
1. csc =
1
sin
2. sec =
1
cos
1. We know that sin =
Since csc =
1
hyp
, csc =
.
opp
sin
2. Similarly, cos =
Since sec =
opp
1
1
hyp
, so
=
=
.
opp opp
hyp
sin
hyp
adj
1
1
hyp
so
=
=
.
adj
hyp
cos
adj
hyp
hyp
1
, sec =
.
adj
cos
101
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
Verify the eight trigonometric identities using the right triangle in the figure.
First we need to calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
hyp2
hyp2
hyp2
hyp
=
=
=
=
22 + 32
4+9
13
13.
opp = 3
hyp
q
adj = 2
Before verifying the identities, let us write the six trigonometric ratios for the given right triangle:
sin =
3
13
3
2
13
13
, tan = , cot = , csc =
.
, sec =
3
2
3
13
2
2
, cos =
Now we can verify the identities.

tan cot =
3 2
=1
2 3
1
1
13
=
=
= csc
3
sin
3
13
1
1
13
=
=
= sec
2
cos
2
13
We know that tan =
3
13
and sec =
, so by substitution,
2
2
3
13 2
( )2 +1=(
)
2
2
9
13
+1=
4
4
13 13
= . Therefore, tan 2 + 1 = sec 2 .
4
4
We know that cot =
13
2
, so by substitution,
and csc =
3
3
2
13 2
( )2 +1=(
)
3
3
4
13
+1=
9
9
13 13
= . Therefore, cot2 + 1 = csc2 ,
9
9
102
Algebra 10
sin
=
cos
13
3
cos
= = tan ,
=
2
2
sin
13
2
= = cot ,
3
3
13
13
sin 2 + cos 2 = (
) 2 +(
13
2
13
)2 =
9
4 13
+ =
=1.
13 13 13
Check Yourself 5
2
1. Verify the eight trigonometric identities for the acute angle in a right triangle if sin = .
5
2. Verify the eight trigonometric identities for a right triangle with sides of length 7, 24 and
25 units.
4
3. Let be an acute angle in a right triangle such that sin = .
5
Evaluate cos (tan + cot ).
21
cos 2 + sin 2
+1
5
5
4. Evaluate
.
2 tan cot
7
7
Answers
5
3.
4. 2
4
2. Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions

In the previous section we studied the eight most common trigonometric identities. These
identities are useful when we are simplifying trigonometric expressions. Let us look at some
examples.
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
Simplify cos x tan x.

We can use the identity tan x =
cos x tan x = cos x
sin x
cos x
= cos x
sin x
cos x
sin x
:
cos x
(substitute)
(cancel)
= sin x.
So cos x tan x = sin x.
103
EXAMPLE
16
a. Simplify tan x cos x csc x.

b. Simplify cos3 x + sin2 x cos x.
Solution a. We know tan x =
1
sin x
. Hence,
and csc x =
sin x
cos x
tan x cos x csc x =

=
sin x
1
cos x
cos x
sin x
(substitute)
sin x
1
cos x
=1.
sin x
cos x
(cancel)
So tan x cos x csc x = 1.

b. Since cos x is the common factor in both terms of the expression, let us factorize the
expression:
cos3 x + sin2 x cos x = cos x (cos2 x+ sin2 x) (factorize)
= cos x 1 = cos x
(using cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
So cos3 x + sin2 x cos x = cos x.

EXAMPLE
17
Solution
Simplify
sec x cos x
.
tan x
We know tan x =
sin x
1
and sec x =
. Hence,
cos x
cos x
1
cos x
sec x cos x cos x
=
sin x
tan x
cos x
104
(by substitution)
1
cos 2 x
= cos x cos x
sin x
cos x
(equalize the denominators)
1 cos 2 x
= cos x
sin x
cos x
(simplify the numerator)
1 cos 2 x
cos x
=
sin x
cos x
(cancel the common divisor)
Algebra 10
sin 2 x
sin x
(using sin2 x + cos2 x = 1)
= sin x.
As a result,
EXAMPLE
18
Solution
(by cancellation)
sec x cos x
= sin x.
tan x
2
x
Simplify 2+ tan
1
2
sec x
We know tan x =
2+ tan 2 x
1=
sec 2 x
sin x
1
and sec x =
. Hence,
cos x
cos x
sin x 2
)
cos x 1
1 2
(
)
cos x
2+(
(by substitution)
sin 2 x
cos 2 x 1
1
cos 2 x
2+
2 cos 2 x sin 2 x
+
2
cos 2 x 1
= cos x
1
cos 2 x
(equalize the denominators in the numerator)
2 cos 2 x + sin 2 x
cos 2 x
=
1
1
cos 2 x
(simplify the numerator)
2 cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x
1
(cancel the common divisor)
cos 2 x
= cos2 x + cos2 x + sin2 x 1
(2 cos2 x = cos2 x + cos2 x)
= cos2 x + 1 1
(using cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
= cos2 x + 1 1
(by cancellation)
= cos2 x.
2
x
As a result, 2+ tan
1 = cos 2 x.
2
sec x
105
Check Yourself 6
Simplify the expressions.
1. cos x tan x
2.
1+ csc x
cos x + cot x
3.
1
1
+
1 sin x 1+ sin x
Answers
1. sin x
2. sec x
3. 2 sec2 x
3. Verifying Trigonometric Identities

In the previous section we learned how to write a trigonometric expression in an alternative
(simpler) form using the eight basic identities. This means that we can derive other
identities using the eight basic identities. In this section we will learn how to verify a given
trigonometric identity.
To verify an identity, we try to show that one side of the identity is the same as the other side.
We take either the left-hand or right-hand side of the identity and do algebraic operations to
obtain the other side. Generally, it is easier to begin working with the more complex side of
the identity.
Let us look at some examples.
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Verify the identity sin x cot x = cos x.

We can begin with either the left-hand side or the right-hand side. In this example we will
show both approaches.
Working on the left-hand side:
sin x cot x = sin x
= sin x
cos x
sin x
cos x
= cos x.
sin x
(by substitution)
(simplify)
We have obtained the right-hand side and the verification is complete.

Working on the right-hand side:
cos x = cos x 1
= cos x tan x cot x
sin x
cot x
= cos x
cos x
= cos x
sin x
cot x = sin x cot x.
cos x
(by substitution)
(tan x cot x = 1)
(by substitution)
(simplify)
We have obtained the left-hand side and the verification is complete.

106
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
Verify the identity csc x = cos x (tan x + cot x).

Since the right-hand side is more complex than the left-hand side, let us try to transform the
right-hand side into the left-hand side.
We know tan x =
sin x
cos x
and cot x =
, so
cos x
sin x
cos x (tan x+ cot x) = cos x (

= cos x (
sin x cos x
+
)
cos x sin x
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
)
cos x sin x
= cos x
sin
cos
x
x
1
= csc x.
sin x
We have obtained the other side of the identity and the verification is complete.
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
2
Verify the identity (sin x + cos x) = 2+ sec x csc x.
sin x cos x
Let us begin with the left-hand side as it is more complex.

(sin x + cos x) 2 sin 2 x+(2 sin x cos x)+ cos 2 x
=
sin x cos x
sin x cos x
(expand the numerator)
(2 sin x cos x)+1

sin x cos x
(cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
2 sin x cos x
1
+
sin x cos x
sin x cos x
(separate the fractions)
= 2+ csc x sec x
(simplify)
We have obtained the right-hand side of the identity and the verification is complete.
107
EXAMPLE
22
Solution
Verify the identity
tan x
= sec x cos x.
csc x
Let us work on the left-hand side.

sin x
tan x cos x
=
1
csc x
sin x
(by substitution)
sin x sin x
cos x 1
sin 2 x
cos x
1 cos 2 x
cos x
(cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
1
cos 2 x
cos x cos x
(separate the fractions)
(invert the denominator and multiply)

(multiply)
= sec x cos x
(substitute and simplify)
We have obtained the right-hand side of the identity and so the verification is complete.
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
Verify the identity
cos x
1 + sin x
=
.
1 sin x
cos x
Begin with the left-hand side.

cos x
cos x 1+ sin x
=
1 sin x 1 sin x 1+ sin x
(multiply by 1)
cos x (1+ sin x)

1 sin 2 x
(write the product)
cos x (1+ sin x)

cos 2 x
(cos2 x + sin2 x =1)
1+ sin x
(cancel the common factor)
cos x
This is the right-hand side of the identity, so the verification is complete.
=
Check Yourself 7
Verify the identities.
1. sec x cos x = sin x tan x
3.
108
1+ sin x
cos x
+
= 2 sec x
cos x
1+ sin x
2.
cos x
= csc x sin x
sec x sin x
Algebra 10
4. Cofunctions
We have studied the trigonometric functions of certain angles and the trigonmetric ratios
between the sides and angles of a right triangle. In this section we will look at the relation
between the trigonometric ratios of complementary angles.
R
. Consider the right
2
triangle ABC with acute angles and shown in the figure. and are complementary angles.
b
C
We can also write sin = cos = . In other
a
words, the sine of and the cosine of its
a
Recall that complementary angles are angles whose sum is 90, i.e.
complement are equal. We say that sine and

cosine are cofunctions. Looking at the
b
q
triangle we can also write tan = cot =
B
c
(so tangent and cotangent are cofunctions)
a
and sec = csc =
(i.e. secant and cosecant are cofunctions).
c
In other words, for + = 90, = 90 we have
sin = sin(90 ) = cos

tan = tan(90 ) = cot
sec = sec(90 ) = csc .
For example,
sin 43 = cos(90 43) = cos 47,

cos 26 = sin 63,
tan 3 = cot 87,
sec 18 = csc 72,

3
sin = cos( ) = cos
and
5
2 5
10
cos
EXAMPLE
24
3
3
= sin(
) = sin , etc.
8
2 8
8
Evaluate each expression.

a. tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 ... tan 88 tan 89
2
b. sin
5
+[tan
tan ]+ sin 2
7
18
9
14
109
Solution
a. The angles in each pair (89, 1), (88, 2), ..., (46, 44) are complementary.
Because tangent and cotangent are cofunctions,
tan 89 = cot 1, tan 88 = cot 2, ... , tan 46 = cot 44.
So tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 ... tan 88 tan 89
= tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 ... tan 44 tan 45 cot 44 ... cot 2 cot 1
= 1 1 1 ... tan 45 ... 1 1 = 1.
5
5
since +
= .
b. The complement of is
7
14
7 14 2
Similarly, the complement of
7
7
is
since
+ = .
18
9
18 9 2
So sin
= cos and tan = cot

since these are cofunctions.
14
7
18
9
So sin 2
+ tan
tan + sin 2
= sin 2 +[cot tan ]+cos 2
7
18
9
14
7
9
9
7
= sin 2 + cos 2 + cot tan

7
7
9
9

1
=1+1
= 2.
Check Yourself 8
1. Write the cofunction of each function.
a. tan 15
d. sin
b. cos 36
12
e. cot
c. sec 77
2
5
f. tan
2
7
2. Evaluate each expression.

a. tan 5 tan 25 tan 45 tan 65 tan 85
5
b. tan tan
cos 2 27 cos 2 63
7
14
Answers
1. a. cot 75
2. a. 1 b. 0
110
b. sin 54
c. csc 13
d. cos
5
12
e. tan
10
f. cot
3
14
Algebra 10
Eratosthenes was a famous mathematician and the head of the famous library in
Alexandria, Egypt. In 240 BC he calculated the Earth's circumference using
trigonometry and his knowledge of the angle of elevation of the Sun at the summer
solstice in the Egyptian cities of Alexandria and Syene (now called Aswan).
Eratosthenes calculation was based on the assumptions that the Earth is a sphere
and that the sun is so far away that we can consider its rays to be parallel.
Eratosthenes
compared
observations
made
in
Alexandria,
where
the
noontime Sun at the summer solstice was 7 away from straight overhead (the
zenith), to observations in Syene in southern Egypt, where the Sun was exactly at
its zenith. The distance between the cities was known to be about 5000 stadia,
roughly equal to 800 km (the stadion, plural stadia, was an old unit of measurement
such that 1 stadia 160 m). Therefore, Eratosthenes calculated the entire 360
circle of the Earth to be (360/7) 5000 stadia, which is about 260,000 stadia, or
41,000 km.
a2
parallel rays from the Sun
a1
local horizon
A
a 1 a2
a1 = altitude of Sun at site 1

a2 = altitude of Sun at site 2
circumference of the Earth = arc length AB (360 / ( 1))
EXERCISES
3 .1
A. Angles and the Unit Circle

1. In which quadrant does each angle lie?
a. 275
d. 530
b. 228
28
e.
3
5. Find the primary directed angle of 1720 grads in

degrees.
c. 185
125
f.
6
6. Solve for x if x \, k ].
a. 2x 120 = 90 + (k 360)
2. Find the value of the real number which

corresponds to each angle on the unit circle. Give
your answer to three decimal places.
a. 45
3
d.
7
b. 105
26
e.
5
c. 70
b. x + = + x +( k 2 )
3 4 3 4
c. 4x = k 360
d. 3x 150 = +( k 2 )
6
C. Trigonometric Ratios
B. Primary Directed Angles
3. Find the primary directed angle of each angle,
using the same unit.
a. 1234
c. 190
9
b. 4321
90
d.
19
1
is given. Evaluate each ratio, given
17
that x is in the first quadrant.
7. tan x =
a. cot x
b. sin x
c. cos x
8. In the figure, m(A) = 90,

4. An arc lies in standard position on the unit circle.
Find the coordinates of the terminal point of the
arc if the arc has length
a. .
112
b. 5 .
4
AD = 3,
DB = 5 and
m(ADC) = 60.
Calculate BC = x.
60
B
Algebra 10
9. In the figure,
13. The figure shows a
m(DAC) = 45,
m(BAC) = 30 and
BC = 32.
45
30
right triangles,
increasing in size from
right to left. The length of
the hypotenuse of the eighth
triangle in the series is 72 units.
Calculate AO.
32
Calculate DC = x.
10.
series of 30-60-90
IV D
III
C
II
B
30
30
120
3
A
In the figure, DC || AB, m(D) = 30, m(B) = 120,

AD = 3 and AB = 8. Calculate DC.
D. Trigonometric Identities
14. Simplify the expressions.
a. csc x tan x
11. In the figure,
m(C) = 120,
m(A) = 30
and AB = 26.
Calculate the
height h.
c. tan x + cot x
30
26
e. tan x
sec x
b. sec2 x tan2 x
1 + sin x
d.
1 + csc x
f.
cot x 1
1 tan x
120
B
12. Calculate the length x in each figure.
a.
A
M
60
4
b.
x
B
b.
A
3
15
H
x
cos x
sec x + tan x
c. sin4 x cos4 x + cos2 x
a. (sec x tan x)2 (1 + sin x)
d.
sin x
csc x
1 cos x
e.
1
1
+
2
sec x csc2 x
f. (tan x + sin x)2 + (1 + cos x)2

113
I
A
16. Verify the identities.
18. Evaluate the expressions.
a. (1 cos x)(1 cos x) = sin2 x

b. cos x + sin x =1
sec x csc x
c.
(sin x + cos x) 2
sin 2 x cos 2 x
=
2
2
sin x cos x (sin x cos x) 2
d.
1 sin x
= (sec x tan x) 2
1+ sin x
tan
a.
b.
2
3
tan
sin 2
7
14
10
2
1 cos 2
5
tan 25 tan65
+2
sin2 25 + sin 2 65
e. csc x sin x = cos x cot x

f. (cot x csc x)(cos x + 1) = sin x
19. Evaluate
sin 2
5
+ sin 2
+ cos 2
+ cos 2 .
8
8
12
12
17. Verify the identities.

a. 1+ tan x = cos x+ sin x
1 tan x cos x sin x
b.
cos x
sin x cos x
=
1 sin x cos x cot x
c.
1
1
= 2 sec x tan x
1 sin x 1 + sin x
d.
tan x cot x
= sin x cos x
tan 2 x cot 2 x
e. 1+ sin x = (tan x + sec x )2

1 sin x
f.
114
1+ cos x
2
= (cot x + csc x )
1 cos x
Algebra 10
In the previous section we defined the trigonometric ratios in terms of the side lengths of a
right triangle. In this section we will study the same ratios as ratios on the unit circle and as
functions. To define a trigonometric function we must find its domain, range, graph and
inverse.
Recall that the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real x-values for which f(x) is
defined. For example, the domain of a polynomial function is . The range of function is a
set which includes at least all images of the elements in its domain. The largest possible
range of a real function is .
Recall also the definition of increasing and decreasing function: we say that f(x) is an increasing function if f(x1) < f(x2) when x1 < x2, and f(x) is a decreasing function if
f(x1) > f(x2) when x1 < x2. If f(x1) = f(x2) for every x1 < x2 then f(x) is a constant function.
With these basic definitions we are ready to look at the properties of trigonometric functions.
A. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1. The Sine Function
Consider the unit circle and an angle in
standard position on the circle, as shown at
the right.
In the figure, m(AOB) = and OB = 1. Let
us draw perpendiculars from point B to the
D
1
a
O
A
C
x- and y-axis, as shown.

BC BC
=
= BC = OD. This
OB
1
is true for any angle . So we can say that the
We know sin =
sine axis
y-axis is the sine axis. By the definition of the unit circle, we can also say 1 sin 1 and
the angle can be any real number.
We can define a function from the real numbers to the interval [1, 1] with the rule
f(x) = sin x. This function is called the sine function. This function has the following
properties:
The
sine
function
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points
on the unit circle.
1. Domain =
2. Range = [1, 1]
3. sin x > 0 in the interval (0, ).
115
4. sin x < 0 in the interval (, 2).

5. sin x is increasing in the first and fourth quadrants.
6. sin x is decreasing in the second and third quadrants.
7. sin x is a continuous function.
By using the unit circle we can form the following table:
EXAMPLE
25
Solution
degrees
radians
sin
90
2
1
180
270
3
2
1
360
2
0
Calculate sin 0 + 3 sin 90 2 sin 180 - sin 270.

We can find these values from the unit circle:
sin 0 + 3 sin 90 2 sin 180 sin 270 = 0 + (3 1) (2 0) (1) = 3 + 1 = 4.
EXAMPLE
26
Solution
Find the domain and range of f(x) = 3 sin x + 2.

We know that the domain of sin x is
The sine function is a continuous function, so we can find the range by calculating the
maximum and minimum values of f(x).
The maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 3 1 + 2 = 5.
The minimum value of sin x is 1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 3 (1) + 2 = 1.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [1, 5].
2. The Cosine Function

Look at the unit circle in the figure.
OC OC
=
= OC, and this is
OB
1
true for any angle . So we can say that the
We know cos =
B
1
x-axis is the cosine axis.

From the unit circle we have 1 cos 1
and the angle can be any real number.
The cosine function
corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points
on the unit circle.
116
a
O
A
C
cosine axis
We can define a function from the real

numbers to the interval [1, 1] with the rule
f(x) = cos x. This function is called the
cosine function. It has the following properties:
Algebra 10
1. Domain =
2. Range = [1, 1]

3. cos x > 0 in the interval ( , ).
2 2
3
4. cos x < 0 in the interval ( ,
).
2 2
5. cos x is increasing in the third and fourth quadrants.
6. cos x is decreasing in the first and second quadrants.

7. cos x is a continuous function.
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
degrees
radians
cos x
90
2
0
180
270
3
2
0
360
2
1
Calculate cos 360 2 cos 90 3 cos 180 + cos 270 cos 0.

We can use the values in the table we have just seen:
cos 360 2 cos 90 3 cos 180 + cos 270 cos 0 = 1 (2 0) [3 (1)] + 0 1
= 1 + 3 1 = 3.
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
Find the domain and range of f(x) = 4 cos x 2.

We know that the domain of cos x is
. So the domain of f(x) is also
The maximum value of cos x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 4 1 2 = 2.

The minimum value of cos x is 1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 4 (1) 2 = 6.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [6, 2].
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
Find the range of y = sin 3x cos 2x + cos 3x sin 2x + 1.

We know (sin 3x cos 2x) + (cos 3x sin 2x) = sin(3x + 2x) = sin 5x by the sum and
difference formulas. So the equation simplifies to y = sin 5x + 1.
Also, 1 sin 5x 1, so
(1 + 1) (sin 5x + 1) (1 + 1).
In conclusion, the range of y is 0 y 2.
117
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
Calculate sin + cos
13
11
+ sin17 2 cos13 + sin
.
2
2
We can find the answer by using coterminal angles and quadrantal angles for each term.
sin = 0
cos
13
= cos( + 3 2 ) = cos = 0
2
2
2
sin17 = sin( +8 2 ) = sin = 0

cos13 = cos( +6 2 ) = cos = 1
sin
11
3
3
= sin( + 2 2 ) = sin
= 1
2
2
2
Combining these results give us

sin + cos
13
11
+ sin17 2 cos13 + sin
= 0+0+0 2(1)+(1 ) =1.
2
2
3. The Tangent Function

The figure opposite shows the unit circle and
an angle . Let us draw a line through the
point A(1,0) perpendicular to the x-axis.
Then we extend OB such that OB and the
new line intersect at point D. Then
BC DA DA
=
=
= DA. We can do this
1
OC OA
3
5
for all values of x except ,
,
... .
2
2
2
We can call this new line the tangent axis.
a
O
tangent axis
D
tan =
The tangent function

corresponds to the
on the tangent axis.
We can see in the figure that the tangent axis has infinite length. So we can define a
function from { + k}, k to

such that f(x) = tan x. This function is called the
2
tangent function. It has the following properties:
1. Domain = { + k}, k
2
2. Range =
3
), ( , )
2
2
3
4. tan x < 0 on ( , ), ( , 2 )
2
2
3. tan x > 0 on (0,

Can you see why this
function is called the
tangent function?
5. tan x is always increasing.

6. tan x =
118
sin x
, cos x 0.
cos x
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
degrees
radians
tan x
90
2
undefined
180
270
3
2
undefined
360
2
0
Find the domain and the range of f(x) = tan 3x + 4.
k
+ k gives us x + , k .
2
6 3
k
So the domain is {x | x , x +
, k }.
6 3
Domain: 3x
Range: tan 3x
, so the range is (, ).
4. The Cotangent Function
The cotangent function

corresponds to the
on the cotangent axis.
The figure shows the unit circle and a line

through the point B(0, 1) parallel to the
x-axis. If we extend OC such that OC and the
new line intersect at point D, then
OF OE OE
cot =
=
=
= OE = BD.
CF DE
1
We can do this for all values of except
0, , 2... . We can call this new line the
cotangent axis.
cotangent axis
C
a
O
F A
We can see in the figure that this axis has infinite length. So we can define a function from
{k}, k to such that f(x) = cot x. This function is called the cotangent function. It
has the following properties:
1. Domain =
{k}, k
2. Range =
3
), ( ,
).
2
2
3
4. cot x < 0 on ( , ), ( , 2 )
2
2
3. cot x > 0 on (0,
5. cot x is always decreasing.

6. cot x =
cos x
, sin x 0
sin x
119

degrees
radians
cot x
undefined
90
2
0
180
undefined
270
3
2
0
360
2
undefined
5. The Secant Function

The figure shows the angle POC = and
the unit circle. Let us draw a tangent line to
the unit circle at point P and say that the
intersection point of the tangent line and the

OC OC
=
= OC.
x-axis is C. Then sec =
1
OP
a
O
C
A
We can do this for all values of except
3
5
,
,
, ... because at these points
2
2
2
the tangent line will be parallel to the x-axis.
We can see in the figure that as approaches 90, sec approaches .
{ + k}, k to (1, 1) such that f(x) = sec x. This

2
function is called the secant function. It has the following properties:
We can define a function from
1. Domain =
The secant function
corresponds to the
on the x-axis with
x (1, 1).
2. Range =
{ + k}, k
2
(1, 1)

3. sec x > 0 on ( , )
2 2
3
4. sec x < 0 on ( ,
)
2 2
1
, cos x 0.
cos x
5. sec x =
120
degrees
radians
sec x
90
2
undefined
180
270
3
2
undefined
360
2
1
Algebra 10
6. The Cosecant Function

The figure shows the angle POA = and
D
the unit circle. Let us draw the tangent to
x
P
the unit circle at point P and say that the

intersection point of the tangent line and the
OD OD
=
= OD.
y-axis is D. Then csc =
OP
1
We can do this for all values of x except 0,
a
O
, 2, 3, ... because at these points the

tangent line will be parallel to the y-axis.
We see in the figure that as approaches 0, csc approaches .
So we can define a function from
{k}, k
to
(1, 1) such that f(x) = csc x. This
function is called the cosecant function. It has the following properties:

{k}, k
1. Domain =
The cosecant function
corresponds to the
on the y-axis with
y (1, 1).
2. Range =
(1, 1)
3. csc x > 0 on (0, )

4. csc x < 0 on (, 2)
5. csc x =
1
, sin x 0.
sin x

degrees
radians
csc x
undefined
90
2
1
180
undefined
270
3
2
1
360
2
undefined
7. Mixed Examples
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
Given the function f(x) = 2sin x + cos 2x, find f ( ) .

6
1 1 3
f ( ) = 2 sin + cos(2 ) = 2 + = .
6
6
6
2 2 2
121
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
Calculate (sin
3
3
cos ) (tan cot )+ sec 2 csc .
2
2
2
3
We know that sin
= 1, cos = 1, tan = 0, cot
= 0, sec 2 = 1 and
2
2
3
csc
= 1. So
2
(sin
3
3
cos ) (tan cot )+ sec 2 csc
=1 (1) 0 0+1 ( 1) =1.
2
2
2
Note
p
2
We can summarize the signs of the functions

cos x, sin x, tan x and cot x as shown in the
figure.
cos x
tan x
O
p
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
sin x
cot x
2p
3p
2
Find the sign of each ratio.

sin 200, cos 122, tan 312, cot 300, sec 120, csc 77
We can use the figure above. 200 is in the third quadrant, so sin 200 is negative.
122 is in the second quadrant, so cos 122 is negative.
312 is in the fourth quadrant, so tan 312 is negative.
300 is in the fourth quadrant, so cot 300 is negative.
120 is in the second quadrant, so sec 120 is negative.
77 is in the first quadrant, so csc 77 is positive.
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
Write a = sin 65, b = cos 124 and c = tan 55 in ascending order.

Let us draw the given angles on the unit
circle. We know that tangent function is an
increasing function, so if 55 > 45 then
tan 55 > tan 45 = 1. So c > 1.
Also from the figure we have
a = sin 65 is positive and smaller than 1,
and b = cos 124 is negative. So b < a < c.
122
65
124
55
sin 65
cos 124
cos x
tan 55
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
Write a = sin 50, b = cos 50, c = tan 50 and d = sec 50 in ascending order.
Look at the figure. At 45, sin 45 = cos 45
and cos 45 < tan 45 = 1.
Also, if 90 > x > 45 then sin x > cos x and
tan x > 1.
So we can write cos 50 < sin 50 < tan 50.
What about sec 50?
sin50
1
tan50 =
and sec50 =
.
cos50
cos50
C
tan 50
B
sin 50
O cos 50
We know sin 50 < 1, so tan 50 < sec 50.

So b < a < c < d.
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
Find the domain and range of y =2 sin x + 3 tan 2x.

Let us find the domain and range of 2 sin x and 3 tan 2x separately:
f(x) = 2 sin x: domain =
In this type of question,

begin by finding the
domain and range of the
individual
functions.
Then the domain is the
intersection
of
the
domains and the range is
the union of the ranges.
EXAMPLE
38
Solution
and range = [2, 2].

k
g(x) = 3 tan 2x: domain = { + }, k and range =
4 2
So the domain of the function y is
The range of y is
[2, 2] =
k
{ + }, k
4 2
k
{ + }, k
4 2
Find the domain and the range of y = cos2 x + cos x.

The domain of both cos2 x and cos x is
. So we can say that the domain of y is
To find the range, we can use the fact that cos2 x and cos x are continuous functions. The
range is therefore the interval between the minimum and maximum points of y.
y = ax2 + bx + c is the
equation of a parabola.
The vertex of the
parabola is V(r, k) where
b
and
r=
2a
k =y(k).
Let us use the substitution t = cos x, then we have y = t2 + t.

1
1
b
So y is a parabola and its vertex is V(r, k) where r =
and
=
=
2a
2 1
2
1
1
1 1 1
1
k = y( ) = ( )2 = = .
2
2
2 4 2
4
1
So the minimum value of y is .
4
If we substitute the maximum value of cos x in the function we will get the maximum value
of y. The maximum value of cos x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
1
In conclusion, the range of y is [ , 2].
4
123
Check Yourself 9
a. sin 90 + cos 180 2 tan 180 cot 90
b. 3 cos 0 + 3 tan 0 2 cot 270 + sin 270
3
3
+ 2 cos cot
2
2
2
7
21
e. sin 3 + cos + tan17 + cot
2
2
c. sin
13
cot
2
2
3
5
sec17 + csc
tan6 + cot
2
2
d. sec 3 + 2 csc
f.

a. f(x) = 3 sin(5x + 2)
b. y = 4 cos 5x
c. y = 4 tan 3x 2
d. f(x) = cot(3x 5) + 2
e. f(x) = 3 csc 2x 2
f.
g. y = 2 sin 3x + cos 2x
h. y = 2 tan 3x 3 cot 5x
y = sec(2 x + )
3
3. Find the range of each function.

a. y = 3 sin 2x + 1
b. y = 5 sin (4x + 1) 3
c. f(x) = 3 sin 7x + 4
d. y = 2 cos 5x 4
e. y = 13 cos (2x 3)
f. f(x) = 5 cos x + 3
g. y = tan 3x 1
h. f(x) = 2 tan (4x 2) + 6
i. f(x) = 2 sec 3x
j. y = 4 csc 7x 3
k. y = 2 sec (x + 2)
l. y = 2 tan x + cot 2x
4. Find the sign of each ratio.

a. sin 233
b. cos 129
c. tan 448
d. cot 322
e. tan 198
f. sec 121
g. csc 167
h. sin
7
5
l.
3
4
i.
cos
17
7
j.
tan
6
5
k. cot
13
19
sec
5. Write each set of ratios in ascending order.

a. x = sin 45, y = cos 74 and z = tan 155
b. a = sin 130, b = cos 130, c = tan 130 and d = sec 130
c. m = sin 119, n = tan 244 and r = cot(12)
Answers
1. a. 0 b. 2 c. 1 d. 1 e. 0 f. 2
2. a.
f.
124
b.
c.
k
{ + }, k
6 3
k
{ + }, k
12 2
g.
h.
d.
5 k
{ + }, k
3 3
e.
k
}, k
2
k n
{ +
}, k, n
6 3
5
Algebra 10
3. a. [2, 4] b. [8, 2] c. [1, 7] d. [6, 2] e. [13, 13] f. [2, 8] g.
h.
i. (, 2] [2, ) j. (, 7] [1, ) k. (, 2] [2, ) l.

4. a. b. c. + d. e. + f. g. + h. i. + j. + k. l.
5. a. z < y < x b. d < c < b < a c. r < m < n
B. CALCULATING TRIGONOMETRIC VALUES

1. Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles
quadrantal angle
Definition
If the terminal side of an angle coincides with a

coordinate axis then the angle is called a
quarantal angle. If an angle is not quadrantal, it
is called a nonquadrantal angle.
y
B(0, 1)
p 90
2
A(1, 0) 180
p
0 A(1, 0)
360 2p
3p
2 270
B(0, 1)
the angles 0+ kp and p + kp (k )
2
are quadrantal angles
We can calculate the trigonometric values of quadrantal angles by observing at the points at
which the terminal sides of the angles intersect the unit circle.
Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles
EXAMPLE
39
Solution
q in degrees
q in radians
sin q (y)
cos q (x)
tan q (y/x)
cot q (x/y)
sec q (1/x)
csc q (1/y)
undefined
undefined
90
p
2
undefined
undefined
180
undefined
undefined
270
3p
2
undefined
undefined
360
2p
undefined
undefined

a. sin 0 + cos 270 + tan 180 cot 90
b. sin 90 tan 180 + cot 270 cos 180
We can use the table above.

a. 0 + 0 + 0 0 = 0
b. 1 0 + 0 (1) = 2
125
EXAMPLE
40
Solution
3
a. sin + cos + tan 0 cot
2
2
a. 0 + 0 + 0 0 = 0
b. sin
tan cot cos 0

2
2
b. 1 0 0 1 = 2
EXAMPLE
41
Evaluate sin 1710 cos 2520 + cot 450 tan 900.
Solution The angles are all greater than 360 so we begin by finding the primary directed angle of each
term.
sin 1710 = sin (4 360 + 270) = sin 270
cos 2520 = cos (7 360 + 0) = cos 0
cot 450 = cot (360 + 90) = cot 90
tan 900 = tan (2 360 + 180) = tan 180
Hence,
sin 1710 cos 2520 + cot 450 tan 900 = sin 270 cos 0 + cot 90 tan 180
= 1 1 + 0 0 = 2.
Check Yourself 10
Evaluate each expression by using the table of trigonometric values for quadrantal angles.
1. 2 sin 180 + tan + 5 cot 270 + 3 cos 180.
4 cos 0 10 sin
2
2.
2 sin 270 cos
Answers
1. 3
2. 6
2. Reference Angle
In this section we will learn how to find the trigonometric ratios of any angle in terms of the
trigonometric ratios of a corresponding acute angle. We will use the special trigonometric ratios
for 30, 45 and 60 angles which we studied in section 1.2.
Definition
reference angle
The positive acute angle which is formed by the terminal side of a nonquadrantal angle and
the x-axis is called the reference angle for .
126
Algebra 10
Look at the figures. They show how to find the reference angle for an angle in each
quadrant.
y
a=q
O
If 0 < q < 90 then a = q.
If 90 < q < 180 then a = 180 q.
y
q
q
a
If 180 < q < 270 then a = q 180.
If 270 < q < 360 then a = 360 q.
The trigonometric reduction formulas help us to reduce a trigonometric ratio to a ratio of

an acute angle. If the acute angle is a common angle, this technique helps us to find the ratio.
For example, imagine you need to find cot 300.
We can say that 300 = 270 + 30.
3
.
3
To derive the reduction formulas, first we need to know the signs of the trigonometric
By the reduction formula for the cotangent, cot 300 = tan 30 =

functions in each quadrant:
1.
third
quadrant
0,
2

,
2
3
fourth
quadrant
, 2
2
first
quadrant
second
quadrant
sin x
cos x
tan x
cot x
127

3
or
in the reduction formula, the formula changes sine to cosine and
2
2
tangent to cotangent. If we have or 2 in the formula, the function does not change.
2. If we have
3. Now we can combine these two pieces of information to get the reduction formulas:
sin( x) =cos x, cos( x) =sin x, tan( x) =cot x

2
2
2
sin( + x) =cos x, cos( + x) = sin x, tan( + x) = cot x

2
2
2
3
3
3
sin(
x) = cos x, cos(
x) = sin x, tan(
x) = cot x
2
2
2
3
3
3
sin(
+ x) = cos x, cos(
+ x) =sin x, tan(
+ x) = cot x
2
2
2
sin( x) =sin x, cos( x) = cos x, tan( x) = tan x
sin( + x) = sin x, cos( + x) = cos x, tan( + x) = tan x
sin( x) = sin x, cos( x) =cos x, tan( x) = tan x
EXAMPLE
42
Solution
.
2
3
c. tan( + x) d. sin(2 x) e. sin( + x) f. cos(2 + x)
2
Simplify each expression, given that 0 < x <
a. sin( + x)
2
b. cos( + x)
2
a. ( + x) is in the second quadrant, so sin( + x) = cos x.

2
2
b. ( + x) is in the second quadrant, so cos( + x) = sin x.

2
2
3
c. ( + x) is in the fourth quadrant, so tan( 3 + x) = cot x.

2
2
d. (2 x) is in the fourth quadrant, so cot(2 x) = cot x.
e. ( + x) is in the third quadrant, so sin( + x) = sin x.
f. (2 + x) is in the first quadrant, so cos(2 + x) = cos x.
EXAMPLE
43
Solution
Simplify
cos(90+x)+ sin(270 x)+ sin(180 x)

.
cos( x) cos(360 x)+ sin(90+ x)
Let us simplify each term using the reduction formulas:

cos(90 + x) = sin x, sin(270 x) = cos x,
sin(180 x) = sin x, cos(x) = cos x,
cos(360 x) = cos x and sin(90 + x) = cos x. So
cos(90 + x)+ sin(270 x)+ sin(180 x) sin x cos x+ sin x
cos x
=
= 1.
=
cos( x) cos(360 x)+ sin(90 + x)
cos x cos x+ cos x
cos x
128
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
44
Solution
Find the reference angle for each angle.

a. 30
b. 150
c. 215
d. 317
a. Since 0 < 30 < 90, the reference angle for 30 is 30.

b. Since 90 < 150 < 180, the reference angle for 150 is 180 150 = 30.
c. Since 180 < 215 < 270, the reference angle for 270 is 270 215 = 55.
d. Since 270 < 137 < 360, the reference angle for 317 is 360 317 = 43.
Now that we can calculate reference angles we are ready to calculate the trigonometric value
of a nonquadrantal angle. To do this, follow the steps:
1. Find the primary directed angle of the nonquadrantal angle and determine its quadrant.
2. Determine the sign of the function in this quadrant.
3. Calculate the reference angle for the given angle.
4. Find the trigonometric value of the reference angle and use it with the sign from step 2.
EXAMPLE
45
Solution
Find each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.

a. cos 135
b. sin 330
c. sec 240
d. csc 120
e. sin 510
f. cos 945
g. tan (930)
h. cot (675)
a. 1. 135 is already a primary directed angle and it is in the second quadrant.

2. In the second quadrant, the cosine function is negative.
y
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
(+)
()
()
()
()
(+)
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
O
()
()
(+)
(+)
()
()
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
x
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
()
(+)
()
()
(+)
()
3. The reference angle is = 180 135 = 45.

1
4. cos 135 = cos 45 =
2
b. 1. 330 is already a primary directed angle and it is in the fourth quadrant.
2. In the fourth quadrant, the sine function is negative.
1
2
c. 1. 240 is a primary directed angle, third quadrant
4. sin 330 = sin 30 =
2. In the third quadrant, the secant function is negative.

4. sec 240 = sec 60 = 2
129
d. 1. 120: primary directed angle, second quadrant

2. In the second quadrant, the cosecant function is positive.
3. = 180 120 = 60
4. csc 120 = csc 60 =
2
3
e. 1. 510 = 360 + 150. So the primary directed angle of 510 is 150 and it is in the
second quadrant.
2. In the second quadrant, the sine function is positive.
3. = 180 150 = 30
4. sin 510 = sin 1 50 = sin 30 =
1
2
f. 1. 945 = (2 360) + 225. So the primary directed angle is 225 and it is in the third quadrant.
2. In the third quadrant, the cosine function is negative.
3. = 225 180 = 45
4. cos 945 = cos 225 = cos 45 =
1
2
g. 1. 930 = (3 360) + 150. So the primary directed angle is 150 and it is in the
second quadrant.
2. In the second quadrant, the tangent function is negative.
3. = 180 150 = 30
4. tan ( 930 ) = tan 1 50
= tan 30
=
1
3
h. 1. 675 = (2 360) + 45.

So the primary directed angle is 45 and it
is in the first quadrant.
2. In the first quadrant, the cotangent function is positive.
3. = 45 0 = 45
4. cot (675) = cot 45 = 1
130
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
46
Find the each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.

a. cot
Solution
a. 1.
7
6
b. tan
31
4
25
c. sin
47
d. cos
7
7
7
< 2 so
= + so the
< 2 . So this is a primary directed angle. Moreover,
6
6
6
6
angle is in the third quadrant.
2. In the third quadrant, the cotangent function is positive.

3. = 7 =
6
6
4.
cot
= cot = 3
6
6
31
> 2, we need to write the angle as a primary directed angle:
4
7
31
7
and it is in the fourth quadrant.
= (3 2 )+ . So the primary directed angle is
4
4
4
2. In the fourth quadrant, the tangent function is negative.
b. 1. Since
3.
4.
7
=
4
4
31
7
tan
= tan
= tan = 1
4
4
4
= 2
25
< 2, we need to write the angle as a primary directed angle.
3
25
5
= ( 5 2 )+ . So the primary directed angle is 5 and it is in the fourth

3
3
3
quadrant.
c. 1. Since
2. In the fourth quadrant, the sine function is negative.

5
=
3
3
3.
= 2
4.
5
3
25
sin
= sin =
= sin
3
3
2
3
d. 1.
47
47
= 6 (2 )+ .
< 2 so we need to find the primary directed angle:
4
4
4
The angle is in the first quadrant.
2. In the first quadrant, the cosine function is positive.
3. = 0 =
4
4
4.
1
47
cos
= cos =
4
2
4
131
Check Yourself 11
1. Find the reference angle for each angle.
a. 890
b. 5000
c. 850
d. 2500
50
32
103
11
e.
f.
g.
h.
11
7
6
5
2. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.
a. sin 570
b. tan 405
19
27
f. cos
3
4
Answers
1. a. 10
b. 40
c. 50
e. cot
2. a.
1
2
b. 1
c.
3
2
c. cos (2550)
d. cot (7950)
g. sin 45
4
25
h. tan
d. 20
d. 3
3
7
3
e.
3
e.
f.
f.
2
2
g.
5
11
h.
g.
2
2
h.
3
3
3. Calculating Ratios from a Given Ratio

In this section we will learn how to find all the trigonometric ratios of an angle from a single
given ratio. In solving such problems we will use our knowledge of trigonometric ratios in
right triangles, the sign of a trigonometric function and the fundamental trigonometric
identities. Let us look at an example.
EXAMPLE
47
Solution
For each trigonometric ratio in the given quadrant, find the five other trigonometric ratios
for same angle.
1
2
a. sin = , (0 , 90 )
b. cos = , (90 , 180 )
3
5
3
c. tan = 7 , , 3
d. cot = 6, , 2
4
2
2
We will use the abbreviations opp, adj and hyp to mean the opposite side, adjacent side and
hypotenuse of a triangle with respect to the angle .
a. The angle is in the first quadrant. In this quadrant, both axes are positive and so the sine
and cosine values will be positive. By the Pythagorean Theorem,
(+)
hyp2 = adj2 + 22
2
2
2
5 = adj + 2
5
adj2 = 25 4
+2
q
q
adj = 21.
(+)
+x
We choose the positive value for the first quadrant:

adj = 21.
As a result, cos =
132
21
2
21
5
5
, tan =
, cot =
, sec =
, csc = .
5
2
2
21
21
Algebra 10
b. The angle is in the second quadrant. In this quadrant
(+)
the x-axis is negative and the y-axis is positive. The

q
cosine function is related to the x-axis, and so

cos =
+y
qq
1
(+)
1
adj
1
can be taken as cos =
= .
3
hyp +3
By the Pythagorean Theorem, opp = 8 = 22.

As a result,
sin =
3
3
2 2
2 2
1
= 3, csc =
.
, tan =
= 2 2, cot =
, sec =
1
2 2
3
1
2 2
opp 7 7
using the signs of
= =
adj 4 4
the axes in the third quadrant. By the Pythagorean
c. Similarly, tan =
Theorem, hyp = 65. As a result,

sin =
sec =
7
65
, cos =
4
65
, cot =
4
()
(+)
4 4
= ,
7 7
()
65
65
, csc =
.
4
7
adj
6
= 6 =
using the signs of the
opp
1
axes in the fourth quadrant.
d. Finally, cot =
By the Pythagorean Theorem, hyp = 37.

As a result, sin =
tan =
1
6
, cos =
,
37
37
(+)
q
+6
1
r
()
37 csc = 37 = 37.
1
,
, sec =
1
6
6
133
Check Yourself 12
1. Find the sine, cosine and tangent ratios of each angle without using a trigonometric table
or calculator.
2
3
2. a. tan = 5, (180, 270) are given.
a. = 315
c. = 900
b. =
d. =
63
2
Find sin and cos .

b. sec = 10, , are given.
2
Find sin and tan .
Answers
1. a. sin 315 =
b. sin
2
3
=
,
3
2
c. sin 900 = 0,
d. sin
63
= 1,
2
2. a. sin =
b. sin =
5
26
3 11
10
cos 315 =
cos
1
2
2
1
= ,
3
2
cos 900 = 1,
cos
63
= 0,
2
cos =
tan 315 = 1
tan
2
= 3
3
tan 900 = 0
tan
63
is undefined
2
1
26
tan = 311
C. PERIODS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. Periodic Functions
The values of some mathematical functions repeat with the same pattern to infinity. A
function with this property is called a periodic function.
Definition
periodic function, period, fundamental period

A function f: A B is a periodic function if it satisfies the rule
f(x + T) = f(x) for all values of x in A.
The number T is called the period of the function.
The smallest possible positive value of T is called the fundamental period of the function.
134
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
48
Solution
f : is a function such that f(x) = {the remainder when x is divided by 4}. Draw the
graph of f and find its period.
Let us find some values of f(x) to draw the graph.
x
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
f(x)
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
y = f(x)
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
As we can see in the table, the values 0, 1, 2 and 3 repeat. So we can write
f(x) = f(x + 4) = f(x + 8) = .
We can say that T = 4, 8, 12, ... are all periods of f(x).
The smallest positive period of f(x) is 4, so the fundamental period of f(x) is 4.
EXAMPLE
49
The figure below shows the graph of the function y = f(x).

a. Find the fundamental period of f(x).
b. Find f(133), f(85) and f(202).
y = f(x)
2
5 4
5
3 2
1 2 3 4
10
6 7 8 9
12
11
15
13 14
135
Solution
a. From the graph we can see

f(5)= f(0) = f(5) = ... = 2
f(4)= f(1) = f(6) = ... = 0
f(3)= f(2) = f(7) = ... = 2
f(2)= f(3) = f(8) = ... = 2
So the periods are 5, 10, 15, ... and the fundamental period is T = 5.
b. If T = 5 then we can write f(x) = f(x + kT) = f(x + 5k), k . So
f(133) = f(3 + 26 5) = f(3) = 2
f(85) = f(0 + 17 5) = f(0) = 2
f(202) = f(2 + 40 5) = f(2) = 2.
2. Periods of Trigonometric Functions

We know that the tangent
and cotangent values of
angles in the first and
third quadrants and in
the second and fourth
quadrants are the same,
so we only add k for the
tangent and cotangent
functions.
EXAMPLE
50
Solution
Recall the definition of coterminal angles on the unit circle: for any angle x we can write
x = x + 2k, k . If we apply this fact to trigonometric functions, we get
sin x = sin(x + 2k)
cos x = cos(x + 2k)
tan x = tan(x + k)
cot x = cot(x + k).
This means that trigonometric functions are also periodic functions. Moreover, 2k is a
period for sin x and cos x and k is a period for tan x and cot x, where k is an integer.
Find the fundamental period of f(x) = 2cos 3x.

If f is a periodic function then by definition, f(x) = f(x + T) . So
2 cos 3x = 2 cos [3(x + T)]. Simplifying gives us cos 3x = cos [3(x + T)].
If cosx = cosy then

x = y + 2k. When we
write y + 2k, we can
simplify 3x from both
sides. For this reason,
we will take only the
positive value of y.
136
Let us use the coterminal angles of 3x, i.e 3x + 2k:

cos(3x + 2k) = cos [3(x + T)].
Removing the cosine function from both sides gives 3x + 2k = 3(x + T) = 3x + 3T, so
2k
is the period of f(x).
3
2
The smallest possible positive value of k is 1, and so the fundamental period of f(x) is
.
3
2k = 3T and therefore T =
Algebra 10
Rule
Let n be an integer, let a and b be real numbers and let T stand for the fundamental period
of a trigonometric function.
1. For y = sin n( ax + b), y = cos n( ax+ b), y = sec n( ax+ b)and y = csc n( ax+ b).
i. if n is even then T =
ii. if n is odd then T =
.
| a|
2
.
| a|
2. For y = tan n( ax + b) and y = cot n( ax+ b), T =
.
| a|
Note
If f(x) is a periodic function then af(x) and f(x) + b are also periodic functions and the
periods of all these functions are the same. Can you see why?
EXAMPLE
51
Find the fundamental period of each function.

a. y = sin7 8x.
b. y = 2cos5 (4x + 2).
c. f(x) = 3 sin2 (3x + 5) 2.
d. f(x) = 7 sec3 (5 2x) + 4.
e. f(x) = csc4 (4x + 1) 1.

Solution
We will use the rule we have just seen.

a. n = 7 is odd, so T =
2 2
=
= .
| a| 8
4
b. n = 5 is odd, so T =
2 2
=
= .
| a| 4
2
c. n = 2 is even, so T =
= .
| a| 3
d. n = 3 is odd and a = 2, so T =
e. n = 4 is even, so T =
EXAMPLE
52
2
2
2
=
=
=.
| a | | 2| 2
= .
| a| 4
Find the fundamental period of each function.

a. y = 5 cot3 (2x 1).
b. f(x) = tan4 5x.
c. y = 2 cot3 (2 6x) + 1.
137
Solution
a. We know that the period of y = 5 cot3(2x 1) is the same as the period of
y = cot3(2x 1). So T =
= .
| a| 2
b. T =
=
| a| 5
c. a = 6, so T =
EXAMPLE
53
Solution
=
= .
| a | | 6| 6
Find the fundamental period of y = sin( x).

3
n = 1 is odd and a =
T=
, so
3
2 2
3
=
= 2 = 6 .
| a|
Rule
least
LCM
means
common multiple: the
smallest quantity that is
divisible by two or more
given quantities without
a remainder.
GCD is the greatest
common divisor: the
greatest quantity that
can divide two or more
given quantities.
To find the period of the sum or difference of two or more periodic functions, first we find
the fundamental period of each separate function, and then we take the least common
multiple of these periods. This is the fundamental period of given function. For example, if
f(x) = g(x) + h(x) and the fundamental periods of g(x) and h(x) are T1 and T2 respectively
then the fundamental period of f(x) is T = LCM(T1, T2).
For example:
LCM (4,6) = 12,
GCD (4,6) = 2.
Rule
For any two quantities
a
c
and ,
b
d
a c
LCM( a, c)
LCM( , ) =
b d
GCD( b, d)
a c
p
LCM( a, c, ..., p, ...)
By extension, LCM( , , ..., , ...) =
.
b d
q
GCD( b, d, ..., q, ...)
EXAMPLE
138
42
Find the fundamental period of y = sin3x + cos33x.

Algebra 10
Solution
For g(x) = sin3x we have T1 = 2.

For h(x) = cos33x we have T2 =
2
.
3
So the fundamental period is T = LCM(2 ,

EXAMPLE
54
Solution
Find the fundamental period of y = 3 cos5 3x 2 cot3 5x.

2
.
3
For h( x) = 2 cot 3 5 x we have T2 = .

5
For g(x) = 3 cos5 3x we have T1 =
So the period is T = LCM(
EXAMPLE
55
Solution
2
2 2
LCM(2 , 2 ) 2
) = LCM( ,
)=
=
= 2 .
3
1
3
GCD(1, 3)
1
2
LCM(2 , ) 2
, )=
=
= 2 .
3 5
GCD(3, 5)
1
Find the fundamental period of y = cos2 3x cot2 2x + sin3(5x + 1).
For g( x) = cos 2 3 x we have T1 = ,

3
for h( x) = cot 2 2 x we have T2 = ,

2
and for r( x) = sin 3(5 x+1) we have T3 =
2
.
5
2
LCM( , , 2 ) 2
So T = LCM( , ,
)=
=
= 2 .
3 2 5
GCD(3, 2, 5)
1
Note
If f(x) is a product or quotient of two periodic functions then LCM(T1, T2) gives us a period
of f(x) but this may not be the fundamental period. To find the fundamental period we must
change the product or quotient to a sum or difference of functions.
EXAMPLE
56
Solution
Find the fundamental period of y = cos 5x cos 3x.

First rewrite the product as a sum or difference:
y = cos 5x cos 3x =
No
ow for g( x) =
1
1
1
[cos(5x + 3x)+ cos(5x 3x)] = cos 8 x + cos 2 x.
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos 8 x we get T1 =
= , and for h( x) = cos 2 x we get T2 =
= , so
2
8
4
2
2

LCM( , )
= = .
T = LCM( , ) = LCM( , ) =
4
4 1
GCD( 4, 1) 1
139
Check Yourself 13
1. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin3 4x
b. y = 2 sin2(4 3x)
c. y = 3 cos3(5x 2)
d. y = 2 sec2(2 4x) + 1
e. y = csc7(2x + 3) 4
f. y = 2 cos 5x

a. y = cot6(3x + 2)
b. y = tan 3x
c. y = 2 cot 3(3
3. Find the fundamental period of y = sin( x) .

5
2x
)
5
d. y = tan
x
4

a. y = sin3 2x + cos3 5x
b. y = cos2 4x 2 cot5 3x
c. y = cos3 8x cot 2x + sin3(6x + 1) d. y = cos x cos 3x

e. y = 6 sin 2x cos 2x
f. y = sin x sin 3x
Answers
1. a.
b.
c.
2
5
d.
4. a. 2 b. c. d. e.
e. f.
2
5
2. a.
b.
c.
5
2
d. 4
3. 10
f.
D. GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We have already seen that trigonometric functions are periodic. We can use this fact to sketch
or draw the graphs of trigonometric functions.
To draw the graph of a trigonometric function, follow the steps:
1. Find the period of the function.
2. Choose a suitable interval for the graph. Generally [0, 2] is a good interval for sin x and

cos x, (0, ) is good for cot x and ( , ) is good for tan x.
2 2
3. Investigate the behavior of the function in the given interval. For this we will check the
values of the function for common angles such as 0, 30, 45, 60, 90, ... . This will show
us when the function is increasing and when it is decreasing. We write
to show that a
function is increasing on an interval. We write
to show that it is decreasing.
For sin x and cos x functions we can divide the interval [0, 2] into four equal parts and
take the endpoints of the intervals as the angles to inspect.
4. Draw the graph of the function in the given interval and copy it any number of times to
get the general graph of the function.
Now we are ready to look at the graph of the basic trigonometric functions.
140
Algebra 10
1. Graph of the Sine Function

[1, 1]. Follow the steps described above:
For f(x) = sin x we have f:

1. The period of sin x is 2.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval [0, 2].

3. We can use the quadrantal angles 0,
x
sin x
3
, ,
and 2 and make a table:
2
2
p
2
3p
2
2p
4. Now we can draw the graph with the information.

y
1
p
p
2
3p
2
3p
2p
1
2p
Remember that the period of y = sin x is 2, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = sin x.
2. Graph of the Cosine Function

For f(x) = cos x we have f:
[1, 1].
1. The period of cos x is 2.

2. We will draw the graph on the interval [0, 2].
3. We can use the quadrantal angles
3
0, , ,
and 2 and make a table:
2
2
x
cos x
p
2
3p
2
2p
4. Now we can draw the graph:

y
1
3p
2
p
2
y = cos x
p
2
3p
2
2p
2p
141
The period of y = cos x is 2, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2] we can copy the curve
any number of times to get the general graph of y = cos x.
3. Graph of the Tangent Function

f(x) = tan x means f :
{ + k}
2
1. The period of tan x is .

2. We will draw the graph on the interval ( , ) .
2 2
3. Use the special angles , , 0, and

to make a table:
2
4
4
2
x
p
2
tan x
p
4
p
4
p
2
4. Draw the graph:
3p
2
p
p
2
p
2
p
3p
2

The period of y = tan x is , so after drawing the graph on the interval ( , ) we can
2 2
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = tan x.
4. Graph of the Cotangent Function

f(x) = cot x means f :
{k}
1. The period of cot x is .

2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, ).
3
3. Use the special angles 0, , ,

to make a table:
and
4 2 4
2
x
cot x
142
p
4
p
2
3p
4
Algebra 10
4. Draw the graph:
p
2
3p
2
p
2
p
2p
The period of y = cot x is , so after drawing the graph in (0, ) we can copy the curve any
number of times to get the general graph of y = cot x.
5. Graph of the Secant Function

1
. So f(x) = sec x is undefined when cos x = 0, which means
cos x
the function is f : { + k} (1, 1).

2
1. The period of sec x is 2.
We know that sec x =
2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, 2).

3. We can use the quadrantal angles and the cosine function to make the table:
x
sec x
p
2
3p
2
2p
4. Draw the graph:
y
y = sec x
1
-3p/2
-2p
p/2
-p/2
-p
-1
3p/2
p
2p
x
y = cos x
Remember that the period of y = sec x is 2, so we can copy the curve any number of times
to get the general graph of y = sec x.
143
6. Graph of the Cosecant Function

We know that f(x) = csc x and csc x =
sin x = 0, i.e. the function is f :
1
, so we can say that csc x is undefined when
sin x
{k}
(1, 1).
1. The period of csc x is 2.

2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, 2).
3. We can use the quadrantal angles and the sine function to make table:
csc x +
p
2
3p
2
2p
4. Draw the graph:

y
y = csc x
1
-p
-p/2
-3p/2
O
-1
p/2
3p/2
2p
5p/2
y = sin x
Remember that the period of y = csc x is 2, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = csc x.
7. Graph Translations
Recall the basic effects that different changes in a function can have on a graph:
1. The graph of y = f(x r) is the graph of f(x) shifted r units right along the x-axis.
2. The graph of y = f(x) + k is the graph of f(x) shifted k units up along the y-axis.
3. The graph of y = f(x) is the reflection of the graph of f(x) with respect to the x-axis.
144
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
57
Solution
Draw the graph of y = sin( x ) .

3
, so we will shift the graph of f(x)= sin x to the right by

units along the x-axis. So
3
3
the graph of y = sin( x ) is as follows:

3
r=
y
y = sin x
1
p
3
y = sin (x
2p
p
)
3
x
EXAMPLE
58
Solution
Draw the graph of y = 3cos(2x + 1).

Let us draw the graph of y = 3cos 2x first, then we will shift the graph one unit to the left.
2
1. The period of y = cos 2x is T =
=.
2
2. We will draw the graph in [0, ].
3
and to
3. Use the special angles 0, , ,
4 2 4
make the table:
p
4
p
2
3p
4
cos 2x
3cos 2x
4. Now we can draw y = cos 2x and then y = 3cos (2x + 1):

y
y = 3cos (2x + 1)
y = 3cos 2x
p
4
p
2
3p
4
3p
2
2p
145
EXAMPLE
59
Solution
Draw the graph of y = 2 sin 3x + 4.

Begin with the graph of y = 2 sin 3x:
1. The period of y = 2 sin 3x is T =
2
.
3
2
].
3

2
3. Use the angles 0, , , , and
to draw the table:
6 3 2
3
2. We will draw the graph in [0,
p
6
p
3
p
2
2p
3
sin 3x
2sin 3x
2sin 3x + 4
4. Finally, draw the graph:
y
6
4
2
p p p 2p
6 3 2 3
2p
3
EXAMPLE
60
Solution
x
3 in the interval [6, 6].
3
x
2
1. The period of y = cos
is T =
= 6 .
1
3
3
Draw the graph of y = 2 cos
3
9
2. Let us divide the interval [0, 6] into four equal parts, then the angles will be 0,
, 3,
,
2
2
6.
3. Make the table:

x
p
cos
1
3
p
2cos 3 1
3
146
3p
2
3p
9p
2
6p
Algebra 10
4. Finally, draw the graph:

y
6p
9p
2
3p
3p
2
3p
2
3p
9p
2
6p
x
1
3
5
EXAMPLE
61
Solution
x
in [3 , 3 ].
3
Draw the graph of y = tan

1. The period of y = tan
6p
x
is T = = 3 .
1
3
3
2. We need to draw the graph in [3, 3].

3. Let us use the angles
x
tan
3p
2
3p
2
x
3
3
3
and draw the table:
, 0,
2
2
4. Now we can draw the graph and repeat the curve on the interval [3, 3]:
y
3p
2
3p
2
3p
3p
3p
147
Check Yourself 14
1. Draw the graph of each function in the interval [0, ].
a. y = 3 sin 4x 1
b. y = 5 cos 2x
c. y = tan 2x
b.
c.
Answers
1. a.
2
p
8
p 3p p
4 8 2
3p
4
5p
8
6
5
4
7p
8
p
4
p
4
p
2
3p
4
p
2
3p
4
E. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Remember!
If f: D R is a
one-to-one and onto
function then
: R D is its
inverse.
one function if for every x1 x2, f(x1) f(x2). Also,

Recall that a function f: S T is a one-tto-o
f is an onto function if every element in T is an image of an element in S.
If a function is both one-to-one and onto then it has an inverse. It is easy to show that
trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, since they repeat themselves. Therefore, if we
want to define the inverse of a trigonometric function, we must choose a suitable smaller
domain and range in which the function is both one-to-one and onto.
We use the prefix arc to name the inverse of a trigonometric function. For example,
arcsin x is the inverse of sin x,
arccos x is the inverse of cos x,
arctan x is the inverse of tan x,
arccot x is the inverse of cot x, and so on.
Note
Be careful!
sin 1 x
1
sin x
cos 1 x
1
cos x
Some books use sin1 x, cos1 x, tan1 x, cot1 x or Asin x, Acos x, Atan x, Acot x to show the
inverses of trigonometric functions. Some book also use Arcsin x to mean the inverse
function of sin x, and arcsin x to mean the inverse relation of sin x. We know that a relation
does not need to be one-to-one to have inverse, but a function must be one-to-one and onto
to have its inverse.
In this book we will use arcsin x, arccos x, arctan x and arccot x to mean the inverses of the
trigonometric functions.
148
Algebra 10
1. The Arcsine Function

If f : , [1, 1] then f(x) = sin x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
2 2
inverse on this interval. The inverse of f(x) = sin x on this interval is f 1(x) = arcsin x

with f 1 : [ 1, 1] ,
.
2 2

x = arcsin y y = sin x, x [ , ]
2 2
Graph of y = arcsin x

For arcsin : [ 1, 1] , we can find the following values:
2 2
Remember!
The graph of an inverse
function f 1(x) is the
reflection of the graph of
the function f(x) with
respect to the line y = x.
arcsin x p
2
2
2
p
4
2
2
p
4
p
2
The values give us the graph y = arcsin x:

y
p y = arcsin x
2
1
y = sin x
p
2
1
0
y=x
EXAMPLE
62
Solution
p
2
1
p
1
Find the value of arcsin .
2
By the definition of inverse trigonometric functions we have

1
1
x = arcsin = sin x .
2
2
1
We know that sin 30 = sin 150 = sin 390 = = , but arcsin is only defined on the
2

interval , , so we will take x = 30 = .
6
2 2
149
EXAMPLE
63
Solution
EXAMPLE
64
Find arcsin(
3
).
2

The arcsine function is defined on the interval , ,
2 2
so x = arcsin(
3
3
)
= sin x, i.e. x= 60 = .
2
2
3
Find sin(arcsin
2
).
2
Let arcsin
2
2
= x . Then we can write sin(arcsin
) = sin x .
2
2
Remember!
By the property of
inverse functions,
x = arcsin
2
2
= sin x, so x = 45 .
2
2
f(f 1(x)) = x and
So sin(arcsin
Solution 1
f (f (x)) = x.
Solution 2
EXAMPLE
65
Solution
sin(arcsin
2
2
) = sin x = sin 45 =
.
2
2
2
2
by the property of inverse functions (since f(f 1(x))=x).
)=
2
2
Find cos (arcsin 1).

Let arcsin 1 = x, then we must find cos x.
If arcsin 1 = x then sin x = 1 and so x = 90.
So cos (arcsin 1) = cos x = cos 90 = 0.
EXAMPLE
66
Solution
150
Find arcsin (tan 45).
tan 45 = 1, so we need to find arcsin1= 90 = .

2
Algebra 10
2. The Arccosine Function

If f: [0, ] [1, 1] then f(x) = cos x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
inverse. The inverse of f(x) = cos x on this interval is f 1(x) = arccos x with
f 1: [1, 1] [0, ].
x = arccos y y = cos x, x [0, ]
Graph of y = arccos x
For arccos : [1, 1] [0, ] we can find the following values:
x
arccos x
1
p
2
2
2
2
3p
4
p
2
p
4
1
0
The values give us the graph of the function y = arccos x:

y
y = arccos x
Notice that the graph is a reflection of
y=x
y = cos x in the line y = x.
p
2
1
1
1
EXAMPLE
67
Solution
1 p
2
p
x
y = cos x
1
Find arccos .
2
By the definition of inverse trigonometric functions we have

1
1
1
1
x = arccos = cos x and x [0, ] = cos x means x = 60 = = arccos .
2
2
2
3
2
151
EXAMPLE
68
Solution
Find arccos
3
2
+ arccos
.
2
2
Let us evaluate each term separately.

a = arccos
3
3
means cos a =
, so a= 30 = .
2
2
6
b = arccos
2
2
means cos b =
, so b= 45 = .
2
2
4
5
Combining these results gives us a+ b= + = .
6 4 12
EXAMPLE
69
Solution
Find arccos (cos (30)).

Since cos x and arccos x are inverse functions, the answer seems to be 30.
But we know arccos: [1, 1] [0, ], so the result cannot be 30.
Instead, we must find the answer in [0, ].
If cos (30) = a then we must find arccos a. Since cos (x) = cosx, we have
a = cos(30 ) = cos 30 =
3
.
2
So arccos(cos(30)) = arccos a= arccos
EXAMPLE
70
Solution
Find sin(arcsin
Let a = arcsin
2
3
+ arccos
).
2
2
2
3
and b = arccos
.
2
2
a = arcsin
2
2
means sin a =
and so a= 45 = .
2
2
4
b = arccos
3
3
means cos b =
and so b= 30 = .
2
2
6
So sin(arcsin
2
3
+ arccos
) = sin(45 + 30) = (sin45 cos30) + (cos45 sin30)
2
2
=(
152
3
= 30 = . This is the answer.
2
6
2 3
2 1
6+ 2
)=
)+(
.
2 2
2 2
4
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
71
Solution
3
Find cos(arcsin ).
5
3
3
Let a = arcsin , then sin a =
and we
5
5
3
need to find cos a. However, sin a =
is not
5
a ratio we know, so we can draw a right
triangle to find the other trigonometric ratios

for the angle a. In the figure, the Pythagorean
2
Theorem gives us BC + AB = AC , i.e.
a
4
BC2 = 52 32 = 25 9 = 16, so BC = 4.
BC 4
3
So cos a =
= = cos(arcsin ).
AC 5
5
EXAMPLE
72
Solution
1
Find cos( arcsin ).
2
2
1
Let arcsin = a, then we need to find
2
cos(
Reduction formula:
cos( x) = sin x
2
EXAMPLE
73
Solution
1
1
a) = sin a = sin(arcsin ) = .
2
2
2
2
Find sin(2 arccos ).
3
2
2
= a, then cos a = .
3
3
Then we have
2
sin(2 arccos ) = sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a.
3
2
Given that cos a =
we can draw a right
3
triangle to find sin a.
Let arccos
The Pythagorean Theorem gives us AC = 5, so sin a =
a
B
5
. So
3
2
sin(2 arccos ) = sin 2 a = 2 sin a cos a
3
5 2 4 5
=
=2
.
3 3
9
153
EXAMPLE
74
Solution
Find the domain of y = arccos(2x + 1).

arccos: [1, 1] [0, ], so 1 (2x + 1) 1, and subtracting 1 from all parts of the
inequality gives us 2 2x 0. Finally, dividing all parts by 2 gives us 1 x 0.
So x [1, 0], i.e. the domain is [1, 0].
3. The Arctangent Function

If f : ,
2 2
then f ( x) = tan x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
inverse. The inverse of f(x) = tan x is f 1(x) = arctan x with f 1 :

, .
2 2

x = arctan y y = tan x, x ,
2 2
Graph of y = arctan x

For arctan : ,
2 2
x
1
p
arctan x p
2
we can find the following values:

0
p
4
p
2
The values give us the graph of the function y = arctan x:

y
y = tan x
y=x
y = arctan x
0
p
2
EXAMPLE
75
Solution
154
p
2
Find arctan 3.
If x = arctan 3 then tan x = 3 and so x = 60 =
= arctan 3.
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
76
Solution
Find arctan1+ 2 arctan
3
arctan( 3).
3
If arctan 1 = a then tan a = 1 and so a = 45 =

If arctan
.
4
3
3
= b then tan b =
and so b= 30 = .
3
3
6
If arctan( 3) = c then tan c= 3 and so c= 60 = .

3
So arctan 1 + 2 arctan
EXAMPLE
77
Solution
11
3
.
arctan (3 ) = + 2 ( ) =
4
6
3
12
3
1
Find sin(arctan ).
2
1
1
1
If arctan = x then tan x =
and we need to find sin x. However, tan x = is not a
2
2
2
ratio we know, so we can draw a right triangle to find other trigonometric ratios of x.
In the figure, the Pythagorean Theorem gives

us BC2 + AC2 = AB2, i.e.
A
5
AB2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5 and so AB = 5.
So sin x =
EXAMPLE
78
Solution
1
5
AC
=
=
.
5
AB
5
Find arctan(tan
x
B
1
C
5
).
4
By the properties of inverse functions the answer seems to be
5
, but remember that
4
5

cannot be the answer.
arctan a , and so
4
2 2
5
However, tan
=1 and so arctan 1= 45 = is the correct answer.
4
4
4. The Arccotangent Function

If f: (0, ) then f(x) = cot x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its inverse.
The inverse of f(x) = cot x is f 1(x) = arccot x with f 1: (0, ).
x = arccot y y = cot x, x (0, )
155
Graph of y = arccot x
For arccot: (0, )
x
p
arccot x
we have the following values:
3p
4
p
2
p
4
The values give us the graph of arccot x:

y
y=x
y = arccot x
p
2
p
2
y = cot x
EXAMPLE
79
Solution
EXAMPLE
80
Solution
Find arccot
x = arccot
3
.
3
3
3
means cot x =
, so x= 60 = .
3
3
3
Find tan(arccot 3) + cos (arccot 1) sin (arccot 0).

If a = arccot 3 then cot a = 3 and so a = 30.
If b = arccot 1 then cot b = 1 and so b = 45.
If c = arccot 0 then cot c = 0 and so c = 90.
So tan (arccot 3) + cos (arccot 1) sin (arccot 0) = tan 30 + cos 45 sin 90
=
156
3
2
2 3+3 2 6
+
1 =
.
3
2
6
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 15
1. Find each value in radians.
1
b. arcsin( )
2
a. arcsin 1
2
)
2
d. arccos(
1
c. arccos( )
2
f. arctan( 3 )
3
e. arctan 0
g. arccot 3
h. arccot (1)

2
)
2
a. cos(arcsin
3
)
2
b. sin (arccos 1)
c. tan(arcsin
e. arccot (tan 60)
f. arccos (cot 45)
2
a. sin(arcsin )
5
3
b. cos(arcsin )
4
2
c. tan(arcsin )
3
d. cot(arctan 3)
e. sin (arctan 2)
f. cos (arcsin(cos 60))
d. sin(arctan(
3
))
3

3
3
+ arctan )
2
4
3
a. sin( arcsin )
5
b. tan(
2
d. cos(2 arcsin )
7
1
e. tan(arccot )
4
3
c. cot( arcsin
)
2
2
f.
1
tan(2 arcsin )
2
5. State the domain of each function.

a. f(x) = arcsin(3x 1)
b. f(x) = arccos(4x + 2)
Answers
1. a.
2. a.
2
2
2
b.
c. 2
3
b. 0 c. 3 d.
7
4
3. a.
2
5
b.
4. a.
3
5
b.
2
5. a. 0,
3
4
3
c.
2 5
5
c. 3 d.
d. 3
4
e. 0
f. 0
1
2
d.
41
49
e.
1
3
e.
2 5
5
f.
f.
g.
6
h.
3
4
3
2
e. 4 f. 3
1
3
b. ,
4
4
157
MATHEMATICS AND MUSIC

Many people today think that mathematics is a science, made up only of theorems, numbers
and formulas. However, we can also think of mathematics as an art, just like painting or
music. If you study the history of music or art, you will find that in ancient times
mathematics and geometry were used to produce beautiful creative works. Also,
mathematicians look for the simplest or most elegant proofs of a theorem, just as musicians
try to produce the most beautiful or pleasing music.
In ancient Greece the study of mathematics had four main parts: arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and music. The famous philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC) investigated the
effects of musical notes and rhythms on humans, and Plato (428-348 BC) accepted music
as an important part of education. Even in the Middle Ages (around 400 to 1500 AD),
mathematics, astronomy and music were all taught together. Many famous mathematicians
in history have also studied the relationships between
mathematics and music.
Music, Rhythm and Ratio
One very basic relationship between math and music is rhythm. A
musical rhythm can be defined as a mathematical ratio such as
4:4 or 3:4. With only a little practice, you can hear this rhythm
ratio in different pieces of music.
Ratios also define musical notes. Pythagoras (580-520 BC) and
his followers studied the relationship between the length of a
piece of wire and the sound (or musical note) it makes, and saw
that the relationships were ratios. For example, imagine that a piece of
wire makes the note C (do) when you pluck it. Pythagoras found that
if you divide the string into the ratio 2:3 and pluck the longer part, the
note is A (la). If you divide the longer part into two-thirds again, the
next note is F (fa) in the next octave. Each time you divide the string,
it produces a note which is five notes ahead in the musical scale.
Other important mathematical ratios in the Pythagorean musical scale
are 6:5, 3:2 and 16:9.
You can find another link between music and math in the shapes of
instruments. Many instruments have curves that are designed to give
the best sound, and some of these curves correspond to the graph of
y= 2x.
Sound Waves
Each sound that you hear, such as a musical note, can
be represented as a sound wave with a particular
frequency and amplitude. Higher sounds have higher
frequencies, and louder sounds have bigger amplitude.
You may remember that a famous ratio in mathematics
is the golden ratio, which is equal to 1+ 5 1.618 .
2
Musicians have found that if the frequencies of two
notes are in this ratio then they produce a pleasing harmony when they are played together.
Sound waves are connected to trigonometry by the sine function: every sound can be
represented as a wave which has the equation y = a sin(b c). In this equation, a is the
amplitude, b is the product of the frequency and 2, and c is a real number called the phase
difference. As an example, consider a sound with frequency 55 Hz and amplitude 3. The graph
of this sound wave is given by y = a sin(b c) with a = 3, b = 2 55 = 110 and c = 0, i.e.
y = 3sin (110).
Math and Music

We can see that mathematics provides one way for us to
understand music and harmony. If a musician uses
mathematical ratios in his music, the music will sound
pleasing to more people. However, a musician does not need
to know math to write music, and the
people who listen to the music do not
usually need any special education to enjoy it. This is one difference
between music and most of mathematics. Can you think of any others?
Activity
Try looking for pictures of sound waves in an encyclopedia or on the
Internet. Can you see the similarity between sound waves and the graph
of the sine function?
EXERCISES
3 .2
A. Trigonometric Functions and Their

Properties
4. Find the sign of each ratio.

a. sin 133
b. cos 224
c. tan 245
d. cot 22
a. sin 0 + 3 cos 270 + 4 tan 180 cot 270
e. tan (298)
f. sec 552
b. 3 cos 90 + tan 540 + 2 cot 270 sin 180

7
3
c. sin + 3 cos
2 cot
2
2
2
3
3
7
d. sec5 3 csc + 2 cot
sin
2
2
2
17
11
e. sin7 + 2 cos
+ 3 tan7 cot
2
2
g. csc (467)
h. sin
8
7
4
k. cot( )
7
i.
cos
21
5
j.
tan(
l.
sec
26
)
15
23
5

a. f(x) = 2sin(3x 2) + 1
b. f(x) = 2cos3x 2
5. In which equations is x undefined?
c. y = 4tan(4x 2)
d. y = 2cot(x + 1) + 3
a. sin x = 0.2
b. cos x = 0.9
e. y = csc(3x 2)
c. tan x = 3
d. cot x = 0.5
f. y = sec(3x 60)
e. sec x = 0.3
f. cos x = 3
g. y = 3sin 2x 5 cos (7x 2)
g. csc x = 2
h. tan x = 3
h. y = tan 2x 3 cot 5x
i. sec x = 34
j. csc x = 0

a. y = sin 3x
b. y = 5 sin 4x
c. y = 3 sin 2x 4
d. y = 4cos (x 4) + 2
k. cos x = 2
e. y = 3 sin (x 2) + 3
f. y = 2 cos 3x 2
g. y = 2tan (2x + 1)
6. Find the maximum and minimum values of each
h. y = tan (4x 2)
function.
i. f(x) = sec 2x + 1
a. y = 3sin x + 4
b. y = 2cos(2x 1)
j. f(x) = 2 csc 3x 1
c. y = 5sin 3x 1
d. y = 2sec x + 1
k. f(x) = tan 2x + cot 3x
e. y = 3csc x
f. y = tan 4x
160
Algebra 10
7. Find the biggest ratio in each set.
11. Given that 0 < x <
, which of the following

4
a. cos 67, cos 78, cos 127, cos 299
statements are true?
b. sin 45, sin 66, sin 233, sin 300
a. sin x < cos x
b. cot x > cos x
c. tan 2, tan 88, tan 92, tan 358
c. tan x > cot x
d. cot x > sec x
d. sin 70, cos 50, tan 40, cot 30
e. sin x > cos x
f. sec x > csc x
B. Calculating Trigonometric Values

8. Write each set of ratios in ascending order.
12. Complete the table.
a. x = sin 35, y = cos 84, z = tan 255.

b. a = sin 30, b = cos 230, c = tan 70,
d = sec 80.
c. m = sin 30, n = tan 40, r = cot (20).
d. x = sin 80, y = cos 80, z = tan 80,
k = sec 80.
e. a = tan 20, b = cot (40), c = sec 60
Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles

q in
q in
sin q
Degree Radian (y)
0
cos q
(x)
tan q
(y/x)
cot q
(x/y)
sec q
(1/x)
csc q
(1/y)
1
p
2
1
0
180
270
2p
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
13. Evaluate each expression without using a

9. Which of the following statements are true?
a. (sin 20 sin 40) < sin 20
b. cos 50 > (cos 50 tan 33)
c. (sin 50 cos 20) < sin 50
d. (tan 60 cos 40) < tan 60
trigonometric table or calculator.

a. sin 180 + cos 270 + tan 360 + cot 90
b. sin 90 cos 270 (tan 180 cot 270)
e. (tan 250 sin 40) > tan 250
a. 12
b. 112
c. 212
d. 312
f. (cos 100 sin 80) > cos 100
e. 50
f. 150
g. 250
h. 350
< x < y < , which of the following

2
statements are true?
10. Given that
a. sin x > cos x
b. tan x > tan y
c. sin x < sin y
d. cos x > cos y
e. sin x > sin y
f. cot x > cot y
a. 25
b. 140
c. 245
d. 305
e. 5
f. 95
g. 260
h. 320

a. 1000
b. 3456
c. 3000
d. 7890
e. 2000
f. 6789
g. 1000
h. 2345
161

a.
e.
11
b.
2
13
f.
7
12
c.
9
15
g.
18
13
d.
22
17
h.
22. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference

25
14
36
19
angle.
a.
c.
e.
g.
sin (225)
tan (300)
sin (1590)
tan (9045)
b. cos (150)
d. cot (30)
f. cos (675)
h. cot (600)

a.
e.
6
b.
7
10
c.
8
f.
9
13
12
17
g.
12
d.
23
14
28
h.
15

2019
9
a.
73
6
b.
e.
57
7
f. 1007
73
c.
101
13
g. 602
98
d.
1001
15
h. 1009
99
Signs of the Trigonometric Values of Nonquadrantal Angles

sin =
y
x
y
r
x
r
cos = tan = cot = sec = csc =
y
y
r
r
x
x
x>0
y>0
II
x<0
y>0
III
x<0
y<0
IV
x>0
y<0
+
+
+
angle.
a. sin
5
6
b. cos
c. tan
5
4
d. cot
11
6

e. sin
4
2
f. cos
3
g. tan 5
4
7
h. cot
6
20. Complete the table with + and signs.

Quadrant,
axis
angle.
67
6
55
c. tan
4
100
3
607
d. cot
6
a. sin
b. cos
83
e. sin
202
f. cos
g. tan 151
4
89
h. cot

angle.
a.
c.
e.
g.
162
sin 120
tan 315
sin 855
tan 2025

b. cos 240
d. cot 135
f. cos 3660
h. cot 1410
a. cos 45 + cos 330 + cos 150 + cos 315

b. cot 5 sin 5 + tan cos 7
6
4
3
4
c. sec 300 + tan 585 + cot 765 + csc 1230
Algebra 10
26. Evaluate each expression given that is an acute

angle.
a. sin(180 + ) cos(270 + ) +
tan(360 + ) + cot(900 + )
b. sin ( )+sin ( + )+cot ( )+cot ( + )

2
2
27. For each trigonometric ratio in the given

quadrant, find the other trigonometric ratios for .
3
a. sin =
, (0 , 90 )
2
b. cos =
2
, (90 , 180 )
2
5
c. tan = , (180 , 270 )
4
2
d. cot = , (270 , 360 )
3
28 . For each trigonometric ratio in the given

quadrant, find the other trigonometric ratios for .
2
3
a. sin =
, , 2
2
2
b. cos =
24
3
, ,
25
2
30. Each equation contains a trigonometric function.
Find the value of the cofunction of this function

in the given quadrant.
a. (0, 90), 3(tan 4) = 2tan 9
b. (90, 180), 7(sin 1) =
c. (270, 360),
29. is an acute angle.
a. If
3 sin +1 2
= , what is sin ?
4 5 sin 5
b. If
cos 2
1
= , what is cos ?
7 cos +11
6
tan +5
tan 4
c. If
=
, what is tan ?
6
2
d. (tan 45 cot ) + (sec 60 cot ) = 12 is
given. Calculate cot .

22+ csc
= 4
3+ 4csc
31. In the figure,
m(ABC) = 150,
AB = 6 and
BC = 3.
Calculate
150
B
b. the area of ABC.
a. AC = x.
32. Find the perimeter
P and area A of the
120
trapezoid ABCD in
the figure.

c. tan = 4, ,
2
d. cot = 7, 0,
2
sin 10
2
10
33. Write each angle in degree-minute form. Give

your answer rounded to two decimal places in the
minutes place.
a. 48.5
b. 136.2
c. 213.75
d. 313.79
34. Write each angle in decimal degrees. Give your

answer rounded to two decimal places.
a. 121 15
b. 346 50
c. 198 19
d. 23 56 12
163
35. Find each trigonometric value rounded to four

decimal places.

a. y = sin2 2x cos2 2x
a. sin 23.4
b. cos 54.25
b. y = cos3 5x 3 cot 2x
c. tan 71.1
d. cot 63.55
c. y = cos4 2x cot 3x + sin5 (3x 1)

d. y = 2 sin x cos 4x
e. y = 4 cos 5x sin 3x
36. Find each trigonometric value rounded to four

decimal places.
f. y = sin x sin 3x
g. y = cos 3x cos 4x
a. sin 121 15
h. y = sin2 3x + cos3 3x tan 2x + cot 3x
b. cos 346 50
i. y = tan2 x + cot5 4x sin2 4x
c. tan 131 27
j.
d. cot 89 49
C. Periods of Trigonometric Functions
x
3
y = tan x +5 sin 4( )
3
41. Find the fundamental period of y = arctan (tan x).

42. Find the fundamental period of y = sin (x).
a. y = sin2 3x
b. y = 3 sin3 (2 5x)
c. y = cos4 (x + 3)
D. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
d. y = 3 sec5 (7 3x) 5
43. Sketch the graph of each function.
e. y = csc12 (5x + 1) 2
f. y = cos 3x
a. y = 2 sin 3x + 1
b. y = 3 2 cos x
c. y = 2 tan 3x
d. y = 2cos 2x 2
e. y = 5sin 4x + 1

44. Draw the graph of each function in the interval
a. y = tan3 (2x 1)
[0, ].
b. y = 4 tan 5x
x
c. y = cot 2 (3 )
5
d. y = 3 cot (5x + 1)
a. y = sin 3x
b. y = tan 2x 1
c. y = cot x + 2
39. Find the fundamental period of y = cos( ) .

164
d. y = 2 sin
x
2
e. y = 3cos
x
3
Algebra 10
45. The graph of the function f(x) = cos x is given.

Which of the following transformations should be
combined to obtain the graph of
f(x) = cos (3x + 2) 1?
I.
III. move the graph 1 unit down
V.
47. Write each value in degrees.
move the graph 2 units right

move the graph 2 units left
2
)
2
a. arcsin 0
b. arcsin(
c. arcsin (1)
d. arcsin
e. arccos 1
f.
g. arccos 0
h. arccos (1)
move the graph 1 unit left
II. move the graph 1 unit up
IV.
E. Inverse Trigonometric Functions
2
2
arccos(
3
)
2
VI. divide all values on the xaxis by 3
48. Write each value in radians.
VII. multiply all values on the xaxis by 3
46. Find the equation which corresponds to each

graph.
a.
2
a. arctan 1
b. arctan (1)
c. arccot 1
d. arccot 0
e. arccot (3)
f.
arctan(
3
)
3
g. arctan (3)
h. arccot(
3
)
3
3p/2
p p/2
O p/2
2p

a. cos (arcsin 0)
b.
c. sin(arctan
e. tan (arccos 1)
3
)
3
y = sin x
2p
1
b. sin(arccos )
2
d. cos(arcsin
f.
5
)
13
4
cot(arcsin )
5
c.
a. tan(arctan
3
2
1
p
p
2p
y = sin x
2p x
3
)
2
b. sin (arctan 1)
c. cos (arccot 3)
d. arccot (tan 30)
e. arctan (cot 135)
f. arctan (sin 270)
165

7
)
25
3
b. sin(arccos )
5
54. Find arcsin(sin
15
).
4
a. cos(arcsin
5
b = arcsin( )?
6
1
c. cot( arcsin )
3
d. tan (arccot (3))

e. cos (arctan 4)
5
6
55. What is a + b if a = arcsin( ) and
56. Find arccos(sin
29
).
3
f. cot (arccos (sin 60))

4
5
2
3
57. Find cos(arcsin arctan ) .

4
a. sin( arccos )
2
7
5
b. tan( + arc cot )
2
2
c. cot(
58. Find arcsin (cos(arctan(cot 60))).
59. Given that x ( ,
3
1
arcsin )
2
2
4
d. tan(2 arcsin )
5
sin x.
3
5
sin(2 arcsin
12
)
13
1
2
60. Find tan(arcsin + arccos ) .
3
e. cot(arccos )
4
f.
3
4
) and x = arctan , find
2
3
61. Find cos (arcsin(tan(arccot 1))).
62. Find tan(arccot(sin(arccos 0)))
a. y = 3 arcsin (2x + 4)
b. y = 2 arccos (3x + 2)
c. y = 5 2 arccos (x 3)
63. Find arctan(cos +sin
2
).
3
d. y = arcsin (3 5x)
e. y = arctan 3x
f. y = arccot (5x + 1)
166
64. Evaluate
3
3
3
[arccos
+ arcsin
+ arctan 3].
2
2
Algebra 10
A. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS
We now know how to calculate one or more angles
or side lengths in a right triangle from given
information about the triangle. However, there are
also relations between the angles and sides of any
triangle (not just right triangles). In this section
we will study these general relations and use them
to solve triangle problems.
1. The Law of Cosines

law of cosines
Theorem
In a triangle ABC with side lengths a, b and c,
a = b + c 2bc cos A
2
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C.
Proof
In a triangle ABC, a is
the side opposite A, b is
the side opposite B and
c is the side opposite c.
A
q
c
First we draw CH as an altitude of the

triangle. Point H now divides AB into two segments
such that AH = x and HB = c x. Consequently
there exist two right triangles: CAH and CHB.
a, b and c can also mean

the lengths of sides a, b
and c respectively.
We also write A to mean
the angle at A, B to
mean the angle at B and
C to mean the angle at
C: in the figure, m(A) = .
x
b
cx
We can subtract these side by side:
(1)
h2 + x2 = b2. (2)
C
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to each

right triangle gives us
h2 + (c x)2 = a2
h2 + (c x)2 = a2
h2 + x2 = b2
h2 + (c x)2 h2 x2 = a2 b2
c2 2cx + x2 x2 = a2 b2.
So a2 = b2 + c2 2cx.
(3)
167
In the right triangle CAH,
x
cos A = , i.e. x = b cos A.
b
Substituting this value of x in (3) gives us

a2 = b2 + c2 2cb cos A.
We can rewrite this as

a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A,
which is the required result.
The proofs of the other two identities are similar.

They are left as an exercise for you.
Notice that by rewriting the three parts of the law of cosines we obtain the relations
cos A =
b2 + c2 a2
2bc
cos B =
a2 + c2 b 2
2ac
cos C =
a2 + b 2 c2
.
2ab
Note
By the law of cosines:
1. If two sides of a triangle and the angle between them are known, it is possible to calculate
the length of the third side of the triangle.
2. If the three sides of a triangle are known, it is possible to calculate the trigonometric
values of the angles in the triangle.
EXAMPLE
81
In the figure, ABC is a triangle with
AC = 4, BC = 6 and m(ACB) = 60.
Find AB.
Solution
By the law of cosines,

c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
c2 = 62 + 42 2 6 4 cos 60
1
c2 = 36 + 16 2 6 4
2
c2 = 28
60
6
B
c = 28 = 27.
168
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
82
Solution
In the figure, ABC is a triangle with

AB = 2, BC = 3 and m(ABC) = 150.
Find b.
A
b
2
150
3
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
3
b2 = (3)2 + 22 2 3 2
2
2
b =3+4+6
3
cos 150 =
b2 = 13
b = 13.
EXAMPLE
83
The figure shows a triangle ABC with
AC = 3, AB = 7 and m(ACB) = 120. Find a.

3
Solution

1
7 2 = a2 + 32 2 a 3
2
1
(cos 120 = )
2
49 = a2 +9+ 3 a;
( a 5)( a+8) = 0;
a2 + 3a 40 = 0;
a = 5 , a = 8.
(5)
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
120
(8)
Since the length of a side cannot be negative, a = 5.
EXAMPLE
84
Solution
Find cos A in the triangle in the figure.

b2 + c2 a2
cos A =
2bc
=
52 + 42 2 2
2 5 4
25+16 4
40
37
.
40
169
EXAMPLE
85
Solution
Find the measure of angle B in the figure.

cos B =
a +c b
2ac
3 +6 (3 3)
2 36
9+ 36 27
36
18 1
= .
36 2
So cos B =
A
2
33
1
1
. We know that m(B) < 90 and cos 60 = . Therefore m(B) = 60.
2
2
Check Yourself 16
1. The side lengths of a triangle are 4, 5 and 6 units respectively. Find the cosine of the
smallest angle in the triangle.
Inscribed and
circumscribed:
Theorem
BC = 61 and m(BAC) = 120. Find AC.
1. 0.75
120
Answers
The black line shows an
inscribed triangle.
The red line shows a
circumscribed circle.
2. ABC is a triangle with AB = 4,
61
2. 5
2. The Law of Sines

law of sines
Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b and c
which is inscribed in a circle with radius R.

Then
a
b
c
=
=
= 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C
a
R
B
OB = R
170
Algebra 10
Proof
Look at the figure.
In the right triangle CDA,

sin A =
hC
, i.e. hC = b sin A.
b
(1)
In the right triangle CDB,

sin B =
hC
, i.e. hC = a sin B.
a
ha
(2)
A
From (1) and (2)
hb
hc
D
B
c
we obtain b sin A = a sin B, i.e.

a
b
=
.
sin A sin B
(I)
Similarly, in the right triangle BFA we have sin A =

Finally, in the right triangle BFC, sin C =
hb
, i.e. hb = c sin A.
c
hb
which gives hb = a sin C.
a
From (3) and (4) we obtain c sin A = a sin C, i.e.

From (I) and (II) we obtain
(3)
a
b
c
=
=
.
sin A sin B sin C
(4)
a
c
=
.
sin A sin C
(II)
(Result 1)
To show the relation with the radius R of

the circumscribed circle, we can use the figure
opposite.
A
M
M is a point on the circle such that MC is the
diameter of the circumscribed circle and

m(MBC) = 90. Since BAC and BMC are
circumscribed angles having the same arc BC

on the circle, m(BAC) = m(BMC).
Since m(M) = m(A) we have sin M = sin A.
In the right triangle MBC,
sin M =
So
a
a
a
=
, i.e. sin A =
.
2R
MC 2 R
a
= 2 R.
sin A
(Result 2)
Combining Result 1 and Result 2 gives us

a
b
c
=
=
= 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C
171
Note
Let ABC be an inscribed triangle. By the law of sines:
1. If the measures of the three angles and the radius
of circumscribed circle are known, it is possible to
find the side lengths of the triangle.
2. If the radius of the circumscribed circle and the
side lengths of the triangle are known, it is possible
to calculate the trigonometric values of the
angles of the triangle.
EXAMPLE
86
Solution
In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 30 and the length of side a is 8 cm. Find the area of the
circumscribed circle of ABC.
By the law of sines,
A
30
a
8
= 2 R so
= 2 R.
sin A
sin 30
8
= 2 R, i.e. R = 8 cm.
1
2
We can calculate the area A of a circle with
So
a=
the formula A = R2.

So the area is 82 = 64 cm2.
EXAMPLE
87
Solution
In a triangle ABC, m(B) = 45, m(C) = 30 and the length of side c is 4 cm. Find the
length of side b.
4
b
c
b
=
.
=
, i.e.
sin 30 sin 45
sin C sin B
So
172
b
4
=
1
2
2
2
A
4
and b = 42 cm.
45
B
b
30
C
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
88
Solution
In a triangle ABC, the measures of the interior angles are 30, 60 and 90 respectively. The
radius of the triangles circumscribed circle is 6 cm. Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC.
a
b
c
=
=
= 2 6 =12. This gives
sin 30 sin 60 sin 90
a = sin 30 12 =
1
12 = 6 cm,
2
3
12 = 6 3 cm and
2
c = sin 90 12 = 12 cm.
60
b = sin 60 12 =
30
Since the perimeter P(ABC) = a + b + c we

can write
P(ABC) = 6 + 63 + 12 = 18 + 63 cm.
Check Yourself 17
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 5 cm and the radius of the circumscribed circle is 5 cm. Find m(A).
2. In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 30, m(B) = 135 and b = 42 cm. Find the length of side a.
Answers
1. 30 or 150
2. 4 cm
3. Formulas for the Area of a Triangle

Theorem
In a triangle ABC with sides a, b and c, the following properties hold:

A( ABC ) =
1
a b sin C
2
A( ABC ) =
1
a c sin B
2
A( ABC ) =
1
b c sin A.
2
173
Proof
Look at the figure. By the general rule for the

1
area of a triangle, A( ABC ) = b hb.
(1)
2
Moreover, in the triangle ABH, sin A =
hb
c
whic gives hb = c sin A.
c
hb
(2)
If we substitute (2) into (1) we obtain

1
A( ABC ) = b c sin A which is one of the
2
results to be proven.
The other proofs are similar and are left as an exercise for you.
EXAMPLE
89
Solution
In a triangle ABC, A(ABC) = 33 cm2, b = 3 cm and c = 4 cm. Find all the possible measures
of angle A.
A( ABC ) =
3 3=
1
b c sin A
2
1
3
3 4 sin A, i.e. sin A =
2
2
We know sin 60 = sin 120 =
EXAMPLE
90
3
. So m(A) = 60 or m(A) = 120.
2
In the figure, A(ABC) = 5 cm2. Find A(ADE).
3
D
Solution
1
A( ABC ) = AB AC sin A
2
1
2
5 7 sin A, i.e. sin A =
2
7
Since angle A is common to both triangles we
5=
can use the value of sin A for both triangles:
174
A( ADE) =
1
AD AE sin A
2
A( ADE) =
1
2
4 7 = 4 cm 2.
2
7
Algebra 10
Theorem
Herons Formula
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c and perimeter a + b + c = 2u. Then
A( ABC ) = u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
Proof
sin2 A + cos2 A =1 so sin2 A = 1 cos2 A.

By the law of cosines, cos A =
(1)
b2 + c2 a2
. Substituting this in (1) gives
2bc
b2 + c2 a2
(2bc )2 ( b2 + c2 a2 )2
sin A =1
=
2bc
4b2 c2
(2 bc b 2 c2 + a2 )(2bc + b 2 + c 2 a 2 )
4b2 c2
a2 ( b2 2 bc + c2 ) ( b2 + 2 bc + c 2 ) a 2
=
4b2 c2
a2 ( b c)2 ( b + c)2 a2
=
4b 2 c2
=
( a + c b)( a + b c)( b + c a)( a + b + c)

.
4b2 c2
Let us write each factor of the numerator in terms of u as follows:

a + b + c = 2u
+
2a = 2a
b + c a = 2(u a)
Now we have sin 2 A =
a + b + c = 2u
+
2c = 2c
a + b c = 2(u a)
a + b + c = 2u
+
2b = 2b
a + c b = 2(u b).
2( u a) 2( u c) 2( u b) 2 u
, i.e.
4b2 c2
4u( u a)( u b )( u c)
b2 c2
2
u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
bc
If we use substitute this result in the area equation A( ABC ) =

A( ABC ) =
1
b c sin A we get
2
1
2
b c
u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
2
bc
So A( ABC ) = u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
175
91
EXAMPLE
Solution
In a triangle ABC, a = 9 cm, b = 10 cm and c = 11 cm. Find A(ABC).

By Herons Formula, let 2u=a + b + c so u =
9+10+11
=15.
2
Then A( ABC) = u( u a)( u b)( u c)

= 15(15 9)(15 10)(15 11)
= 15 6 5 4 = 30 2 cm 2.
92
EXAMPLE
Solution
In the figure, AB = 6 cm, AC = 10 cm and
BC =12 cm. Find AD = x.

From Herons Formula,
12+10+6
2u = a + b + c so u =
=14.
2
So A( ABC ) = u( u a)( u b)( u c)
10
D
1555555555552555555555553
12
= 14(14 12)(14 10)(14 6)

= 14 2 4 8 = 8 14 cm 2.
But A( ABC ) =
Theorem
4 14
1
1
cm.
AD BC, which gives us 8 14 = x 12, i.e. AD = x =
3
2
2
area of an inscribed triangle

Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b, c which is inscribed in a circle with radius R. Then
A( ABC ) =
abc
.
4R
C
Proof
1
A( ABC ) = b c sin A. By the law of sines,
2
a
a
.
= 2 R which gives us sin A =
2R
sin A
If we substitute
R
for sin A in the equation for
2R
a
R
B
OB = R
the area, we obtain

A( ABC ) =
176
1
a
abc
b c
=
.
2
2R
4R
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
93
Solution
The side lengths of a triangle are 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm. Find the radius of the triangles
C
From Herons Formula,

2u=a + b + c so u =
5+6+7
= 9 and
2
A( ABC ) = u( u a)( u b )( u c)
O
A
= 9(9 5)(9 6)(9 7)
= 9 4 3 2 = 6 6 cm 2.
However, since A( ABC ) =

Solving for R gives R =
abc
5 6 7 210
we have 6 6 =
=
.
4R
4R
4R
35
cm.
4 6
Check Yourself 18
1. In a triangle ABC, AB = 8 cm, BC = 12 cm and m(ABC) = 30. Find the area of the
triangle.
2. A triangle has side lengths of 14 units, 16 units and 20 units respectively. Find its area.
3. In a triangle ABC, A(ABC) = 18 cm2 and a b c = 72. Find the radius of circumscribed
circle.
Answers
1. 24 cm2
2. 1555 square units
3. 1 cm
4. Further Theorems (Optional)

Theorem
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c such that A(ABC) = S. Then
a=
2S sin A
,
sin B sin C
b=
2 S sin B
,
sin A sin C
c=
2 S sin C
.
sin A sin B
177
EXAMPLE
94
Solution
The interior angles of a triangle ABC measure 30, 60 and 90 respectively. Given that
A(ABC) = S = 23 cm2, find the length of each side.
Let us use the theorem.
22 3
2S sin A
2 2 3 sin 30
=
=
a=
sin B sin C
sin 60 sin 90
3
1
2
22 3
2S sin B
2 2 3 sin 60
=
=
b=
sin A sin C
sin 30 sin 90
c=
1
1
2
1
2 = 2 cm
3
2 = 2 3 cm
2S sin C
2 2 3 sin 90
2 2 3 1
=
=
= 4 cm
sin A sin B
sin 30 sin 60
1 3
2 2
law of tangents
Theorem
In a triangle ABC with sides a, b and c,

a+ b
=
ab
EXAMPLE
95
Solution
A+ B
tan
2 ,
A B
tan
a+c
=
ac
A+C
tan
2 ,
AC
tan
In the figure, m(B) = 105, m(C) = 15 and

b + c = 3 +3. Find the lengths of sides b and c.
b+c
=
bc
15
A
105
By the law of tangents,
b+ c
=
bc
B+ C
tan
2
B C
tan
2
B+ C
105 +15
tan
tan
3+
3
2
2
. So
=
bc
B C
105 15
tan
tan
2
2
tan (60 )
3
=
tan (45 )
1
= 3
b c=
3+ 3
3
3 3
3
3 3+3
3
= 3 +1.
b + c = 3+ 3
If we solve the system
, we find b = 23 and c = 1.
b c = 3 +1
178
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 19
1
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 8 cm, A(ABC) = 16 cm2 and sin B sin C = . Find m(A).
4
2. In a triangle ABC, b = 11 cm, c = 5 cm, m(B) = 78 and m(C) = 42. Find the value
of tan 18.
Answers
1. 30 or 150
2.
3 3
8
B. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
1. Sum and Difference Formulas
In this section we will learn the relations between the sum or difference of two angles and
their trigonometric ratios. We will prove these relations using the trigonometric identities we
have studied.
a. sin(xy)
In the figure,
A(ABC) = A(ABH) + A(ACH). By the
formula for the area of a triangle,
1
1
1
b c sin A = c h sin x + b h sin y,
2
2
2
which we can rewrite as
(b c sin A) = (c h sin x) + (b h sin y).
If we divide both sides by b c we get
h
h
sin A = sin x + sin y.
b
c
y
b
c
h
(1)
In the triangle, m(A) = x + y, cos y =

If we substitute these in (1) we obtain
h
h
and cos x = .
c
b
sin (x + y) = [sin x cos y] + [cos x sin y] .

If we replace y with y in this equation we get
sin (x + (y)) = [sin x cos (y)] + [cos x sin (y)].
Since cos (y) = cos y and sin (y) = sin y we have
sin (x y) = [sin x cos y] [cos x sin y]
EXAMPLE
96
Solution
Calculate sin 75.

We can write 75 as the sum or difference of two easier angles.
179
For example, we know the values of the trigonometric

functions of 45 and 30, so we can write 75 = 45+ 30.
So sin 75 = sin (45 + 30).
By the sine of the sum of two angles,
sin(45 + 30) = (sin 45 cos 30) + (cos 45 sin 30)
EXAMPLE
97
Solution
2 3
2 1
+
2 2
2 2
6+ 2
6+ 2
. So sin75 =
.
4
4
Calculate sin 15.

We can write 15 as 45 30, 60 45 or any other suitable combination.
Let us choose 60 45.
sin 15 = sin (60 45)
= (sin 60 cos 45) (cos 60 sin 45)
=(
3 2
1 2
)(
)
2 2
2 2
6 2
4
b. cos(xy)
To find cos (x + y) we will use the formula for

the sine of the difference of two angles
obtained in the previous section.
cos = sin(90 )
y
b
cos (x + y) = sin (90 (x + y))

= sin (90 x y)
= sin ((90 x) y) (regrouping)
C
H
155555555525555555553
= sin ((90 x) y)
= sin [(90 x) cos y] [cos (90 x) sin y].

Since sin (90 x) = cos x and cos (90 x) = sin x,
cos (x + y) = [cos x cos y] [sin x sin y] .
If we replace y with y in this equation we get
cos (x + (y)) = [cos x cos (y)] [sin x sin (y)].
Since cos (y) = cos y and sin (y) = sin y we have
cos (x y) = [cos x cos y] + [sin x sin y] .
180
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
98
Solution
Calculate cos 105.

We can write 105 as the sum or difference of two
easier angles. Let us choose 105 = 60 + 45.
cos 105 = cos (60 + 45)
= (cos 60 cos 45) (sin 60 sin 45)
=
=
EXAMPLE
99
Solution 1
1 2
3 2
2 2
2 2
2 6
4
Show that cos (60 + 30) cos 60 + cos 30.

We have 60 + 30 = 90 and we know cos 90 = 0. On the other hand,
1
3
0. Therefore, cos (60 + 30) cos 60 + cos 30.
cos 60 + cos 30 = +
2
2
Solution 2
We know that cos (x+ y) = (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y).

So cos (60 + 30) = (cos 60 cos 30) (sin 60 sin 30), i.e.
cos (60 + 30 ) =
1 3
3 1
= 0.
2 2
2 2
However, cos 60 + cos 30 =
1
3
+
0. So cos (60 + 30) cos 60 + cos 30.
2 2
c. tan(xy)
We know that tan =
sin
sin ( x + y) (sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)
. So tan ( x+ y) =
=
by
cos
cos ( x+ y) (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
our previous results.

If we divide the numerator and denominator by cos x cos y and simplify, we get
181
(sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)

cos x cos y
tan ( x + y) =
(cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
cos x cos y
sin x cos y cos x sin y
+
cos x cos y cos x cos y
=
cos x cos y sin x sin y
cos x cos y cos x cos y

sin x sin y
+
cos x cos y
. This gives us
=
sin x sin y
1
cos x cos y
tan ( x+ y) =
tan x+ tan y
1 (tan x tan y)
If we replace y with y in this equation we get tan ( x + ( y)) =

Since tan (y) = tan y we have
tan ( x y) =
EXAMPLE
100 Verify that tan 210 =
Solution
tan x tan y
1+ (tan x tan y )
tan x + tan ( y)
.
1 (tan x tan ( y))
3
.
3
210 = 180 + 30
tan 210 = tan (180 + 30 )=
tan 180 + tan 30

1 (tan 180 tan 30 )
(by the formula above)
3
3 = 3
=
3
3
1 0
3
0+
EXAMPLE
101 Find tan (x y) using tan x = 52
Solution
5 1
tan x tan y
tan ( x y) =
= 2 4 =
1+(tan x tan y) 1+ 5 1
2 4
=
182
1
and tan y = .
4
9
4
13
8
18
13
Algebra 10
d. cot(xy)
cot ( x + y) =
1
cos ( x + y) (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
=
=
tan( x + y) sin ( x + y) (sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)
Let us divide the numerator and denominator by sin x sin y and simplify:
sin x sin y
cot ( x + y) =
(sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)
sin x sin y
cos x cos y sin x sin y
sin x sin y sin x sin y

=
sin x cos y cos x sin y
+
sin x sin y sin x sin y
cos x cos y
1
sin x sin y
. So
=
cos y cos x
+
sin y sin x
cot ( x+ y) =
(cot x cot y) 1
cot y+ cot x
If we replace y with y in this equation we get cot ( x + ( y)) =

Since cot (y) = cot y we have cot ( x y) =
cot ( x y) =
Note
.
cot x cot ( y) 1
.
cot ( y)+ cot x
(cot x cot y) 1
, i.e.
cot y + cot x
(cot x cot y) +1
cot y cot x
We can also calculate these results by using the corresponding results for the tangent and the
1
1
).
fact that cot =
(so cot ( x y) =
tan ( x y)
tan
EXAMPLE
102 Calculate cot 75.
Solution
cos 75 = cot(45 + 30)

=
=
(cot 45 cot 30) 1 (1 3) 1

31
( 3 1)( 3 1)
=
=
=
cot 45 + cot 30
1+ 3
1+ 3 ( 3 +1)( 3 1)
( 3 1)2
( 3)2 ( 1)2
3 2 3+1 4 2 3
=
=2 3
2
2
183
Check Yourself 20
1. Calculate cos 15 and sin 105.
2. Calculate tan 195 and cot 285.
3. Verify the results.
1
2
b. cos 300 =
2
2
4. Calculate tan 15 + cot 15.
4
5. cot x = 1 and cot y = are given. Find cot (x y).
3
Answers
2+ 6
1. cos 15 = sin 105 =
2. tan 195 = 2 3, cot 285 = 3 2
4
a. sin 135 =
4. 4
5. 7
2. Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas

We now know formulas to calculate trigonometric ratios such as sin(x + y), cos(x + y),
tan(x + y) and cot(x + y). In this section we will consider the special case x = y and find
formulas for the trigonometric ratios sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x and cot 2x. These formulas are called
the double-aangle formulas.
a. sin 2x
We know that sin (x + y) = (sin x cos y) + (cos x sin y).
If x = y this formula becomes
sin (x + x) = (sin x cos x) + (cos x sin x), i.e.
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x
We can also rewrite this as sin x cos x =
EXAMPLE
sin 2 x
.
2
103 Calculate sin 120 using the double-angle formula for sine.
Solution
sin 120 = sin (2 60)

= 2 sin 60 cos 60
=2
=
184
(double-angle formula)
3 1
2 2
3
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
104 Evaluate the expressions.
a. sin 22.5 cos 22.5 cos 45
Solution
a. Using sin x cos x =
b. 6 sin
cos
8
8
sin 2 x
gives us
2
1
sin (2 22.5) cos 45
2
1
= sin 45 cos 45
2
sin 22.5 cos 22.5 cos 45 =
b. 6sin
1 1
sin (2 45)
2 2
1
1
sin 90 = .
4
4
cos = 3 (2sin cos ) = 3 sin(2 ) = 3 sin

= 3
8
8
8
8
8
4
2
EXAMPLE
3 2
2
6 x sin 6 x
.
105 Simplify cos
cos 2 x sin 2 x
Solution
cos 6 x sin 6 x (cos 6 x sin 2 x) (cos 2 x sin 6 x) (sin 2 x cos6x) (sin6 x cos 2 x)
=
=
.
cos 2 x sin 2 x
cos 2 x sin 2 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
Using the double-angle formula gives us

double-angle formula again gives us
EXAMPLE
106 Simplify
Solution
sin(2 x 6 x)
sin (4 x)
=
, and using the
sin 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x
sin 4 x
= 2.
1
sin 4 x
2
4 cos 50 sin 50 cos 100

.
sin 200
We can rewrite this as
2 (2 cos 50 sin 50 ) cos 100

and use sin 100 = 2 sin 50 cos 50.
sin 200
2 sin 100 cos 100

by the double-angle formula.
sin 200
sin 200
Using the double-angle formula again gives us
=1 .
sin 200
This gives us
185
EXAMPLE
107 Evaluate sin 20 cos 40 cos 80.
Solution
sin 20 cos 40 cos 80 =
(sin 20 cos 20 ) cos 40 cos 80

cos 20
1
(sin 40 cos 40 ) cos 80
=2
cos 20
sin 160 = sin 20

sin a
1
sin 80 cos 80
=4
=
cos 20
160
20
1
sin 160
8
=
cos 20
1
sin 20
1
8
= tan 20
cos 20 8
b. cos 2x
We know that cos (x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y.
cos (x + x) = (cos x cos x) (sin x sin x), i.e.
cos 2 x = cos2 x sin2 x
We can also use the identities sin2 x = 1 cos2 x and cos2 x = 1 sin2 x to obtain two
additional formulas:
cos 2 x = 2cos2 x 1
cos 2 x = 1 2sin2 x
EXAMPLE
108 Calculate cos 2x given cos x =
Solution
cos 2 x = 2 cos 2 x 1= 2 (
=
EXAMPLE
and 0 < x < .

4
2
7 2
7
1
) 1= 2
4
16
1
8
1 cos 2 x
109 Simplify the expression 1+ cos 2 x .
Solution
1 cos 2 x 1 (1 2 sin 2 x) 1 1+ 2 sin 2 x 2 sin 2 x

=
=
=
1+ cos 2 x 1+(2 cos 2 x 1) 1+ 2 cos 2 x 1 2 cos 2 x
= tan 2 x
186
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
110 Given cos 11 = t, write sin 68 in terms of t.
Solution
sin 68 = cos 22
(cofunctions)
cos 22 = cos (2 11) = 2 cos 11 1

2
(double-angle formula)
= sin 68 = 2t 1
c. tan 2x
We know that tan ( x + y) =
tan x + tan y
.
1 tan x tan y

tan ( x + x) =
tan x + tan x
, i.e.
1 tan x tan x
tan 2 x =
EXAMPLE
111
Solution
2tan x
1 tan 2 x
4
tan x = . Find tan 2x.
3
tan 2 x =
2 tan x
1 tan 2 x
4
8
8
3 = 3 = 3
=
2
16
7
4
1
1
9
9
3
2
24
7
d. cot 2x
We know that cot ( x + y) =
cot x cot y 1
.
cot x + cot y

cot ( x + x) =
cot x cot x 1
, i.e.
cot x + cot x
cot 2 x =
cot 2 x 1
2cot x
.
187
EXAMPLE
112 Given that x is an acute angle, calculate cot 2x using tan x cot x = 2.
Solution
Since tan x =
1
1
we have
cot x = 2, i.e.
cot x
cot x
1 cot 2 x 2
= .
cot x
1
This gives us 1 cot2 x = 2cot x, i.e. cot2 x + 2cot x 1 = 0.

If we apply the quadratic formula we get cot x =
2+ 6
2 6
.
or cot x =
2
2
Since x is an acute angle, the cotangent value must be positive. Since 6 > 2, 2 + 6 is
positive and so cot x =
2+ 6
.
2
e. Half-angle formulas
We have just seen that sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x, and cot 2x can be expressed in terms of sin x,
cos x, tan x and cot x respectively. In addition, we can apply the procedure in reverse order to
express sin x, cos x, tan x, and cot x in terms of sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x and cot 2x
respectively. For this reason, the double-angle formulas are also called half-angle formulas.
By using the double-angle formula for the cosine function, we can obtain the half-angle
formulas for the sine, tangent and cotangent functions as follows.
x
We know that cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1. If we replace x with , then
2
x
x
cos 2 = 2 cos 2 1,
2
2
cos x = 2 cos 2
1+ cos x
x
x
1 i.e. cos =
.
2
2
2
(1)
Similarly, cos 2x = 1 2sin2 x. If we replace x with

cos x = 1 sin 2
1 cos x
x
x
i.e. sin =
.
2
2
2
x
x
x
then cos 2 =1 sin 2 ,
2
2
2
(2)
Using (1) and (2) we can write

1 cos x
x
sin
x
2
2=
tan =
, i.e. tan x = 1 cos x .
2 cos x
1+ cos x
2
1+ cos x
2
2
188
Algebra 10
Similarly,
1+ cos x
x
cos
x
2
2=
cot =
, i.e.
2 sin x
1 cos x
2
2
cot
EXAMPLE
113 cos 2 x = 51
1+ cos x
x
=
2
1 cos x
is given. Find cos x if x is in the first
quadrant.
Solution
cos 2x = 2cos2 x 1 so cos x =
1 + cos 2 x
.
2
Since x is in the first quadrant, the cosine is positive.

1
1+
5
So cos x =
2
=
EXAMPLE
2
.
5
114 Calculate sin 22.5 using half-angle formulas.
Solution
cos 2x = 1 2sin2 x so sin x =
So sin (22.5 ) =
=
2
2
1
2
1 cos 2 x
. Since x is an acute angle, the sine is positive.
2
(cos 45 =
2
)
2
2 2
.
2
189
EXAMPLE
115
Solution
cos x =
3 is given. Find tan x if x is in the fourth quadrant.

2
5
Since x is in the fourth quadrant, 270 < x < 360.

x
x
is in the second quadrant, where the tangent function
< 180 . This means that
2
2
is negative.
So 135 <
EXAMPLE
By the half-angle formula, tan
1 cos x
x
=
and we take the negative value.
2
1+ cos x
3
1
x
5
Hence, tan =
=
3
2
1+
5
2
5 , i.e. tan x = 1 = 1 .
8
2
4
2
5
116 Find the values of sin 105 and cos 15 using half-angle formulas.
Solution
sin 105 = sin
210
1 cos 210
=
2
2
(cos 210 =
3
)
2
Notice that we take the positive value in the half-angle formula because the sine function is
positive in the second quadrant. So we have
sin 105 =
3
)
2 = 2+ 3 = 2+ 3 .
2
4
2
1 (
Similarly,
cos 15 = cos
30
1+ cos 30
=
.
2
2
(cos 30 =
3
)
2
We take the positive value because the cosine function is positive in the first quadrant. So
cos 15 =
=
190
3
2 = 2+ 3
2
4
1+
2+ 3
.
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
117 Given cot 2x = t, find sin x in terms of t.
Solution
We can show cot

shown opposite.
x t
= in a right triangle, as
2 1
t2 + 1
From the double-angle formula for the sine we

x
x
have sin x = 2 sin cos .
2
2
1
t
So sin x = 2
2
2
t +1 t +1
2t
= 2
.
t +1
EXAMPLE
118 Given
sin x =
angle.
Solution
x
2
3
x
, find cos
if x is an acute
5
2
We can solve this problem using the previous

formulas. However, let us look at an alternative
geometric solution.
C
x
2
5
x
2
D
x
A
Step 1: We sketch the triangle ABC as in the

figure. We calculate AB = 4 using the Pythagorean Theorem.
Step 2: We extend side AB to create DB such that AD = AC = 5.
Step 3: We construct the right triangle DBC.
Since AD = AC, the triangle DAC is an isosceles triangle.
Hence, m(CDA) = m(ACD) and m(CAB) = m(CDA) + m(ACD).
x
Therefore, m( CDB) = . Moreover, BD = AD + AB = 5 + 4 = 9.
2
By using the Pythagorean Theorem with the triangle CDB,

DC 2 = BC 2 + BD 2
= 32 +9 2
DC = 9+81 = 90
= 3 10.
So cos
9
x DB
=
=
2 DC 3 10
=
3 10
.
10
191
Check Yourself 21
1. is an acute angle such that sin
3
= . Find sin .
2 5
2. is an acute angle such that cos =

3. cos 2 x cos x cos
2
. Find cos 2.
5
x
x
1
is given. Find cos 8x.
sin =
2
2 24
4. If tan 84 = t, find cot 78 in terms of t.

5. Calculate tan 15.
Answers
1.
24
25
2.
17
25
3. 7
9
4.
2t
t2 1
5. 23
4. Sum to Product Formulas

In this section we will study formulas which allow us to rewrite the sum of two trigonometric
functions as a product of two trigonometric functions. We will use the sum and difference
formulas in our working.
a. sin a sin b
To obtain a formula for sin a + sin b we add the formulas for the sine of a sum and the sine
of a difference:
sin ( x+ y) =
(sin x cos y)+(co s x sin y)
+sin ( x y) =+ (sin x cos y) (cos x sin y)

sin ( x + y)+ sin ( x y) = 2 sin x cos y.
(1)
a = x + y
If we write a = x + y and b = x y we obtain the system
.
b = x y
Solving this system for x and y gives x =
a+ b
ab
and y =
, which we can substitute in (1):
2
2
sin a +sin b= 2 sin

192
a+b
a b
.
cos
2
2
(2)
Algebra 10
If we subtract the two formulas instead of adding them, we get

sin ( x+ y) = (sin x cos y)+(co s x sin y)
sin ( x y) = (sin x cos y) (cos x s in y)
sin ( x + y) sin ( x y) = 2 cos x sin y.
(3)

a = x + y
a+ b
ab
and y =
, which we can substitute in (3) :
. Solving this gives x =
2
2
b = x y
sin a sin b= 2 cos
EXAMPLE
a+b
a b
sin
2
2 .
(4)
119 Evaluate the expressions.

a. sin 105 + sin 15
b. sin 70 sin 10
Solution
We could evaluate each term separately and then combine them. Howewer, the sum to
product formulas give us an easier way.
105 +15
105 15
a.
sin 105 + sin 15 = 2 sin
cos
2
2
= 2 sin 60 cos 45
3 2
2 2
=2
=
b.
6
2
70 10
70 +10
sin 70 sin 10 = 2 cos
sin
2
2
= 2 cos 30 sin 40
=2
3
sin 40
2
= 3 sin 40
193
b. cos a cos b
Now let us add the formulas for the cosine of a sum and the cosine of a difference:
cos (x + y) =
+ cos (x y)
= +(cos x cos y) + (sin x sin y)
cos (x + y) + cos (x y) = 2 cos x cos y.
(5)
If we write a = x + y and b = x y then we obtain the system

a = x + y
a+ b
ab
and y =
, which we can substitute in (5):
. Solving this gives x =
2
2
b = x y
a+b
a b
.
cos
2
2
If we subtract the formulas instead of adding them, we get
cos ( x+ y) = ( cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
cos a +cos b= 2 cos
(6)
cos ( x y) = ( cos x cos y)+(si n x sin y)

cos ( x + y) cos ( x y) = 2 sin x sin y.
(7)

a = x + y
a+ b
ab
and y =
which we can substitute in (7):
. Solving gives x =
2
2
b = x y
cos a cos b= 2 sin
EXAMPLE
120 Simplify
Solution
a+b
a b
sin
.
2
2
(8)
cos 105 + cos 15

.
sin 105 + sin 15
cos 105 + cos 15

=
sin 105 + sin 15
=
105 +15
105 15
cos
2
2
105 +15
105 15
cos
2 sin
2
2
2 cos
(sum to product formulas)
cos 60 cos 45
sin 60 cos 45
1
1
2
=
=
.
3
3
2
194
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
121 Evaluate
Solution
sin a sin b
given that a + b = .
3
cos a cos b
a+b
ab
2 cos
sin
sin a sin b
2
2
=
cos a cos b 2 sin a + b sin a b
2
2
a+ b
2 = cot a + b
=
a+b
2
sin
2
cos
a+ b
= cot
= cot 3
2
2
= cot
EXAMPLE
= 3
6
122 Find the simplest form of the expression
Solution
sin 3 x + sin 5 x+ sin 7 x

.
cos 3 x + cos 5 x+ cos 7 x
We can use the first and last terms of both the numerator and the denominator in the sum
to product formulas.
7 x + 3x
7 x 3x
2 sin
cos
+ sin 5 x
sin 3 x + sin 5 x+ sin 7 x
2
2
=
cos 3 x + cos 5 x+ cos 7 x 2 cos 7 x + 3x cos 7 x 3x + cos 5 x
2
2
2 sin 5 x cos 2 x+ sin 5 x

2 cos 5 x cos 2 x+ cos 5 x
sin 5 x (2 cos 2 x+1)

cos 5 x (2 cos 2 x+1)
sin 5 x
= tan 5 x
cos 5 x
195
c. tan a tan b
For two real numbers a and b not equal to
k +
(k ] ), we know that
2
tan a + tan b =
sin a sin b
+
. Multiplying gives us
cos a cos b
tan a + tan b =
(sin a cos b)+(cos a sin b)

, i.e.
cos a cos b
sin ( a + b)
.
cos a cos b
tan a +tan b=
(9)
If we write b instead of b in this equation, we get

tan a + tan ( b) =
sin ( a + ( b))
, i.e.
cos a cos ( b)
tan a tan b=
EXAMPLE
(10)
123 Evaluate tan 75 + tan 15.
Solution
We can use the sum to product formula for the tangent.

tan 75 + tan 15 =
sin (75 +15 )

cos 75 cos 15
sin (90 )
sin 15 cos 15
196
sin ( a b)
.
cos a cos b
1
sin 30
2
1
=4
1 1
2 2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
124 Given sin 10 = t, evaluate tan 70 + tan 10 in terms of t.
Solution
tan 70 + tan 10 =
sin (70 + 10 )
cos 70 cos 10
sin (80 )
cos 70 cos 10
cos 10
1
=
sin 20 cos 10 sin 20
1
1
=
2 sin 10 cos 10 2 t 1 t 2
d. cot a cot b
For two real numbers a and b not equal to k +
cot a + cot b =
(k ]), we know that

2
cos a cos b
+
.
sin a sin b
Multiplying gives us cot a+ cot b=
cos a sin b + cos b sin a

, i.e.
sin a sin b
cot a +cot b=
sin ( a + b)
sin a sin b
(11)
sin ( a b)
.
sin a sin b
(12)
If we write b instead of b in this equation, we get

cot a + cot ( b) =
sin ( a +( b))
, i.e.
sin a sin ( b)
cot a cot b=
EXAMPLE
125 18x = is given. Find the simplest form of the expression
Solution
cot 9 x + cot x
.
cot 9 x cot x
sin (9 x + x)
cot 9 x + cot x
sin
9 x sin x = sin 10 x
=
sin (9 x x)
cot 9 x cot x
sin 8 x
sin 9 x sin x
=
sin(18 x 8 x)
sin8 x
sin ( 8 x)
sin 8 x
sin 8 x
= 1
sin 8 x
197
Check Yourself 22
Simplify each expression.
1. sin 75 sin 15
2. cos 105 cos 75
3. tan 165 + tan 15
4. cot 75 cot 195
Answers
2
1.
2. 2sin 15 =
2
2 6
2
3. 0
4. 23
5. Product to Sum Formulas

If we need to convert a product of two trigonometric expressions to a sum or difference we
use the product to sum formulas. These formulas are derived from the sum and difference
formulas.
a. sin x sin y
For any real numbers x and y,
cos ( x + y) = (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
cos ( x y) = (cos x cos y)+(sin x sin y)
cos ( x + y) cos ( x y) = 2 sin x sin y
sin x sin y =
EXAMPLE
1
. y) cos (x y)] .
[cos (x +
2
(13)
126 Write sin 5 sin 3 as the difference of two trigonometric ratios.
Solution
Let us use the product to sum formula for sine:

1
sin 5 sin 3 = [cos (5 + 3 ) cos (5 3 )]
2
1
= [cos (8 ) cos (2 )].
2
198
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
127 Evaluate sin 75 sin 15.
Solution
We could evaluate the two terms separately. However,

let us use the product to sum formula for sine:
sin 75 sin 15 =
1
[cos (75 + 15) cos (75 15)]
2
1
= [cos 90 cos 60 ]
2
=
1
1 1
0 = .
2
2 4
b. cos x cos y
cos ( x+ y) =
(cos x cos y) ( sin x sin y)
+cos ( x y) =+ ( cos x cos y)+(sin x sin y)

cos ( x + y)+ cos ( x y) = 2 cos x cos y
cos x cos y =
EXAMPLE
1
[cos (x + y) + cos (x y)] .
2
(14)
128 Write cos 7 . cos 4 as the sum of two trigonometric ratios.
Solution
By the product to sum formula for cosine,

cos 7 cos 4 =
1
[cos (7 + 4) + cos (7 4)]
2
1
= [cos (11 )+ cos (3 )].
2
EXAMPLE
129 Evaluate cos 105 cos 15.
Solution
cos 105 cos 15 =
1
[cos (105 + 15) + cos (105 15)]
2
1
= [cos 120 + cos 90 ]
2
=
1 1
1
+0 =
2 2
4
199
c. sin x cos y
sin ( x+ y) =
(sin x cos y)+( cos x sin y)
+ sin ( x y) =+ ( sin x cos y) (cos x s in y )

sin ( x + y)+ sin ( x y) = 2 sin x cos y
sin x cos y =
EXAMPLE
1
[sin (x + y) + sin (x y)] .
2
(15)
130 Evaluate sin 8 cos 8 .
Solution
By the product to sum formula,

sin
3
1
3
3
cos = sin + + sin
8
8 2
8 8
8 8
=
sin + sin
2
2
4
1
2 2+ 2
.
1+
=
2
2
4
d. cos x sin y
sin ( x+ y) =
( sin x cos y)+(co s x sin y )
sin ( x y) = ( sin x cos y) (cos x sin y)

sin ( x + y) sin ( x y) = 2 cos x sin y
cos x sin y =
200
1
[sin (x + y) sin (x y)]
2
(16)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
131 Evaluate cos 8 sin 38.
Solution
cos
3 1
3
sin
= sin +
sin
8
8
2
8 8
8 8
1
sin sin = sin + sin
2
2
2
4
4 2
1
2 2+ 2
1+
=
2
2
4
Note
Example 101 and Example 102 are actually the same question. The cosine and sine
functions were simply in a different order, so the result does not change due to the
commutative property of multiplication. Although we applied a different formula in each
question, the results are the same. Therefore we can say that formulas (15) and (16) are
different forms of the same identity.
EXAMPLE
132 Evaluate cos 15 sin 75.
Solution
cos 15 sin 75 =
1
[sin(15 + 75) sin(15 75)]
2
1
1
= [sin 90 sin (60 )]= [sin 90 + sin 60]
2
2
=
(sin(60) = sin 60)
1
3 2+ 3
1+
=
2
2
4
Check Yourself 23
1. sin 105 sin 15
2. cos 75 cos 15
3. sin 75 cos 15
Answers
1
1
1.
2.
4
4
3.
2+ 3
4
201
APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry has many applications in the modern world, in fields as diverse as engineering, architectural
design, acoustics, astronomy, physics, biology, map-making, computer graphics, optics and statistics. People
working in these fields often use trigonometry without knowing it, because the math is hidden in modern
instruments and computer programs. However, the trigonometric formulas are still there, and without these
formulas, science and technology would be very different. Here are just three examples of how trigonometry
applies to the real world.
Trigonometry and Optics
Light travels at different speeds through different objects, and we can use trigonometry to calculate how fast
light will travel through a transparent object such as air, water or glass. The relative speed of light is controlled
by a number called the refraction index: the refraction index of air is very close to 1, the index for water is 1.33,
and the index for glass is 1.5.
The figure at the right shows a pyramid with light passing through it at an angle . The

sin( + )
2
2 .
refraction index n for this pyramid is given by n =
sin
2
For example, if = 60 then the refraction index is

3
1
sin( + ) sin cos 30 +cos sin30 sin +cos
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 = 3 + 1 cot .
n=
=
=
2
2
2
sin
sin
sin
2
2
2
Trigonometry and the Climate

If you measure the temperature of a pan of water at intervals as you heat it up and leave
it to cool, you will find that the temperatures do not rise and fall in a straight line. In fact,
the changes in temperature follow a curve defined by y = A cos a(t + b) + B. In this
equation, A is called the amplitude of the function, a is the period, b is called the phase difference and B is a
constant number.
As an example, imagine you want to show a graph of the temperature T in a city during a particular period. At
15:00 the temperature is 30 C and at 03:00 the next morning it is 10 C. Assuming that the temperature always
falls, how can we draw its graph?
We calculate the amplitude A as the average of the maximum and minimum values of the function:
2
30 C 10 C
= , and so the equation for the temperature is
=10. The period is a =
A=
24 12
2
T = A cos a(t + b) + B =10 cos ( t + b)+ B.

12
t is the time. If we say t = 3 at 03:00 and t = 15 at 15:00 then we have T = 10 C at t = 3 and T = 30 C at
t = 15. Using these values, we can find b = 9 and B = 20.
In conclusion, the graph of the temperature in the city is given by
T =10 cos ( t +9)+ 20.

12
North Pole
Plane of a
parallel
How can we measure the shortest distance between any two points on
Earth? This question is important for airline companies and ships all over
the world, and we can use trigonometry to find the answer.
Navigators divide the Earth using lines of latitude and longitude. To
Equator
Prime Meridian
Half of a great circle
Trigonometry and Navigation
Plane of
equator
Plane of a
parallel
understand what this means, imagine the intersection of the earth with a
South Pole
plane passing through the North and South Poles. The intersection is a
complete circle, and half of this circle (from pole to pole) is called a
meridian of longitude, or simply a meridian. The meridian which passes
through the city of Greenwich in England is called the prime meridian.
meridian. This plane also creates a circle. The biggest such circle around the
Earth is called the equator.
To find the shortest distance between two points on Earth, a navigator needs
to know two things:
1. The latitude of each point, which is its angular distance north or south of
the equator.
P1
B
Meridian
Now imagine a plane intersecting with the Earth perpendicular to the prime
North Pole
O
b1
K
P1 and 1 represents its latitude. If 1 = 60.5 and 1 = 48.2, we can say that
point P1 has coordinates 60.5 N 48.2 W (i.e. 60.5 north of the equator and
48.2 west of the prime meridian).
The distance (or arc measure) in radians between any two points north of
the equator is given by the trigonometric formula
= arccos(sin 1sin 2 + cos 1cos 2cos )
where
1 = the longitude of point P1

2 = the longitude of point P2,
= the change in latitude from P1 to P2, and
Although must be in radians, 1, 2 and may be expressed in degrees.
P2 C
a1 O
b1
Equator
A
Prime
meridian
South Pole
2. The longitude of each point, which is its angular distance east or west of the prime meridian.
As an example, look at the figure above right. 1 represents the longitude of
Parallel
3 .3
EXERCISES
3. A triangle ABC has sides a, b and c such that
A. Trigonometric Theorems
a2 b2 c2 (b c) = 0. Find m(A) = .
1. Find the length of side x in each triangle.

a.
b.
4. A triangle ABC has sides a, b and c such that
30
2
3
B
c2 b2 = a2 + 2 b a. Find m(C) = .
120
5. Find the length x in each figure.

a. A
x
C
c.
d.
30
A
8
2. Find the length x in each figure.

b.
c.
e.
204
1 D
10
120
30
d.
E
A
4
x
30
A
6
D
1
C
b.
c.
a.
6
f.
A
2
A
x
6. Calculate sin in each figure.
d.
A
3
x
C
D
A(DABC) = A(DDBC)
30
x
60
75
c.
a.
A
3
60
B
45
150
b.
30
B
D
2BD = DC
ABCD is a square
CE = BE
Algebra 10
7. The side lengths of a triangle ABC are 3, 7 and 8

units respectively. What is the circumference of
the circumscribed circle of the triangle?
B. Trigonometric Formulas
13. Calculate the values without using a trigonometric
table or a calculator.
8. In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 75, m(B) = 60 and
a. sin 105
b. cos 15
c. tan 75
d. cos 105
e. tan 165
f. cot 255
g. sin 195
h. cot 345
AB = c = 10 cm.
a. Find the length of the side b.
b. Find the radius of the circumscribed circle of

the triangle.
9. In a triangle ABC,
2
1
and cos y =
3
4
value of each expression.
14. sin x =
m(ACB) = 120,
m(ABC) = 30
and AB = 63 cm.
Find AC.
63 cm
30
B
are given. Find the
a. sin (x + y)
b. sin (x y)
c. cos (x + y)
d. cos (x y)
e. tan (x + y)
f. cot (x y)
x
120
C
15. x and y are acute angles such that tan x =
3
. Evaluate the expressions.
5
b. cos (2x + y)
a. tan (x + y)
1
and
4
tan y =
10. A triangle ABC has side lengths a = 3, b = 33

and c = 6. Its circumscribed circle has radius R = 3.
Find the measure of each interior angle of the
triangle.
c. sin (x + y)
d. cos (x 2y)
e. cot (2x + 2y)
f. sin (x + 2y)
a. sin (x + 30) + cos (x + 60)
b. cos (x + y) + cos (x y)
11. A triangle ABC has sides a = 7 cm, b = 24 cm and
c. sin (x + 30) + sin (x 30)
c = 25 cm. Find A(ABC).
d. sin (x + y) sin (x y)
12. A triangle ABC has sides of length 8, 15 and 17

units respectively. Find the radius of its
17. Express cos 3 in terms of cos and tan 3 in
terms of tan .
205
18. Calculate sin 2x, cos 2x and tan 2x from the
21. Express each sum or difference as a product of
information given in each question.
trigonometric functions.
and x 0,
5
2
5
b. cos x =
and csc x < 0
13
7

and x ,
c. tan x =
24
2
a. sin x =
a. sin 5x + sin 3x
b. sin x sin 4x
c. cos 4x cos 6x
d. cos 9x + cos 2x
e. sin 2x sin 7x
f. sin 3x + sin 4x
g. sin 11x + sin 9x
h. cos
5x
x
cos
2
2
d. csc x = 4 and tan x < 0

e. cot x =
2
and sin x > 0
3
x
x
x
and tan
from the
2
2
2
information given in each question.
19. Calculate sin , cos
a. sin x =
and x 0,
5
2
b. cos x =
(Hint: 1 + cos x = cos 0 + cos x)

x
2
x
b. 1 cos x = 2sin2
2
2
c. 1+ sin x = 2 sin + x
4 2
c. csc x = 3 and x ,
3
3
and x , 2
2
2
2 sin x
4
f. 1 tan x =
cos x
g.
20. Simplify each expression.
a. sin 105 sin 15
b. cos 75 + cos 15
c. cos 105 cos 15
d. sin 165 + sin 15
e. sin 75 + sin 195
f. sin 105 + sin 255
g. cos cos 5
h. sin 3 sin
206
12
2 sin + x
4
e. 1+ tan x =
cos x
f. cot x = 5 and csc x < 0
12
d. 1 sin x = 2 cos 2 +
4 2
d. tan x = 1 and x 0,
2
e. sec x =
a. 1 + cos x = 2cos2
3
3
and x ,
5
2
22. Verify each identity.
1 tan x
= tan + x
1+ tan x
4
2 sin + x
4
h. 1+ cot x =
sin x
2 sin x
4
i. 1+ cot x =
sin x
Algebra 10
23. Prove each statement.
26. In the figure, ABCD
cot .
a. sin x + sin 5 x = tan 3 x

cos x + cos 5 x
3
a
E
1
b. sin 3 x + sin 7 x = cot 2 x
cos 3 x cos 7 x
c.
is a rectangle. Find
sin 10 x
cos 5 x
=
sin 9 x + sin x cos 4 x
d. sin x + sin 3 x+ sin 5 x = tan 3 x

cos x + cos 3 x+ cos 5 x
e. sin x + sin y = tan x + y

cos x + cos y
and BEFH are squares

and AB = 2BE.
f.
sin ( x + y) sin ( x y)
= tan y
cos ( x + y)+ cos ( x y)
g.
sin ( x + y) sin ( x y)
= cot x
cos ( x y)+ cos ( x+ y)
24. In the figure, ABCD is
Find sin(AHE).
A
a square with
3DE = 2EC and
m(AEB) = .
Find tan .
28. Find tan in the

E
A
a
figure.
1
B
25. In the figure, CB BA
and BC = 12.
Find cos(OAC).
29. In the figure opposite,
ABC is an isosceles
triangle. AB = AC,
m(ABC) = ,
m(BAC) = and
12
B(0, 4)
tan = 3.
0
x
A(3, 0)
Find tan .
q
B
207
30. In the figure,

AD = 5 cm,
BD = 13 cm,
DF = 12 cm,
DE = 4 cm and
m(FDE) = . Find
cot .
A
5
D
13
36. Evaluate
E
a
1
1
+
.
sin 15 cos 15
12
37. Evaluate sin 10 sin 30 sin 50 sin 70.
31. sin 20 = x is given. Write sin 40 in terms of x.
38. cos 76 = x is given. Find sin 37 cos 23 in terms

of x.
3
32. tan x cot x =
is given with 0 < x < .
2
4
Find tan 2x cot 2x.
39. x =
33. cos 2 = 0.125 is given with < <
sin .
is given. Evaluate cos 8x cos 2x.

12
3
. Find
2
40. = 8 is given. Evaluate cos 5 sin 3.

34. Evaluate 3cos2 105 + sin2 15.
4
is given and < < .
2
3
Evaluate (sin cos ) cos2 .
35. tan 2 =
208
is given. Evaluate
6
tan (2a b) tan (a 2b).
41. a b =
Algebra 10
In the previous section we looked at trigonometric identities. Recall that an identity in x is

an expression which is true for all values of x. If an expression is only true for some values
of x then it is called an equation.
For example, sin2x + cos2x = 1 is true for all values of x, and so it is an identity.
1
is only true for x = 30, x = 150 and their coterminal angles. So
2
1
sin x = is an equation.
2
In this section we will learn how to solve trigonometric equations.
However, sin x =
A. TYPES OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

1. Basic Equations
a. sin x = a
Remember!
The y-axis is the sine
axis.
Given the equation sin x = a, how can we

find x?
Look at the figure. For any number on the
sine axis there are two corresponding values
on the unit circle. One value is x1 = arcsin a
and the other is x2 = arcsin a.
y
a
p arc sin a
arc sin a
x
x
O
We should also consider the coterminal

angles of x1 and x2, for example
arcsin a + 2, arcsin a + 4,
arcsin a + 6, ... .
We can write
sin x = a { x = arcsin a + 2k, k } or {x = arcsin a + 2n, n }
where 1 a 1.
Alternatively, by studying this result carefully we can rewrite it in a shorter form:
sin x = a x = (1)k arcsin a + k, k
for 1 a 1.
209
Special Results:
When x = 0, x = 1 or x = 1 we can write the answer in a shorter way without using the
formula.
sin x = 0 x = k, k .
sin x = 1 x = + 2k, k .
2
sin x = 1 x = + 2 k, k .
2
EXAMPLE
133 Solve sin x =
Solution 1
3
.
2
From the longer formula we have

sin x =
3
3
3
+ 2n, n }.
{x1=arcsin
+2 k , k } and { x2 = arcsin
2
2
2
We know arcsin
3
= 60 = . So x1 = + 2 k , k .
2
3
3
2
Also x2 = ( ) + 2 n =
+ 2 n, n .
3
3
(1)
(2)
+ 2 n}, k, n .
Combining (1) and (2) gives us x = { + 2 k,
3
3
Solution 2
From the shorter formula we have sin x = a x =( 1) k arcsin a + k, k .
So x = (1) k + k, k .
3
Note
Notice that both solutions give the same answer. However, the second, shorter form is more
practical, since we can get the solutions by substituting only values of k.
EXAMPLE
134 Solve 4 sin 5x 2 = 0.
Solution
210
2 1
= .
4 2
1
k
arcsin = 30 = , so the solution is 5 x= (1) k + k , i.e. x = (1) k
+ , k .
2
6
6
30 5
Rearranging the equation gives us sin5 x =
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
135 Solve sin x =
Solution
1. xn xm = xn + m
2. x = (1) x
arcsin(
2
.
2
2
)= 45 = , so we have
2
2
x =(1)k(
)+k = (1)k(1) +k, i.e. x = (1)k+1

+k, k
4
4
4
b. cos x = a
If cos x = a, what is x?
Remember!
The x-axis is the cosine
axis.
x1 = arc cos a

cosine axis there are two corresponding
values on the unit circle. One value is
x1 = arccos a and the other is
x2 = 2 arccos a or x2 = arccos a.
x
O
x2 = arc cos a
We should also consider the coterminal

angles of x1 and x2, for example
arccos a + 2, arccos a + 4, .... .
We can write
cos x = a x = arccos a + 2k, k
where 1 a 1.
Special Results:
cos x = 0 x = + k, k .
2
cos x = 1 x = 2k, k .
cos x = 1 x = + 2k, k .
Note
The points on the graph below show the solutions to the equation cos x = a.
y
arc cos a 2p
arc cos a + 2p
arc cos a 2p
arc cos a
arc cos a
arc cos a + 4p
arc cos a + 2p
211
EXAMPLE
136 Solve cos x = 2 .
Solution
We have cos x = a x = arccos a + 2 k , k .

Also, arccos
= 60 = .
2
3
So x = arccos + 2 k = + 2 k , k .
2
3
EXAMPLE
137 Solve 2cos x 3 = 0.
Solution
Let us rewrite the equation in terms of cos x. Then we get

cos x =
EXAMPLE
138 Solve cos x =
Solution
EXAMPLE
3
3
, and we know arccos

= 30 = . So x = + 2 k, k .
2
2
6
6
arccos(
2
3
3
) =135 =
, so by the formula, x= + 2 k , k .
2
4
4
139 Solve 2 cos 5x + 1 = 0.
Solution
Rewriting the equation gives us cos5 x=

So 5 x =
212
2
.
2
1
1
2
, and arccos( ) =120 =
.
2
2
3
2
2 2k
+ 2 k, i.e. x = +
, k .
3
15
5
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
140 Solve cos (3x) 2 = 0.
Solution
EXAMPLE
Rewriting the equation gives us cos 3x = 2, but we know 1 cos 3x 1. So cos 3x = 2 is

impossible. Therefore the equation has no solution.
141 Solve cos(3x 4 ) = 0.
Solution
We know cos x = 0 x =
So 3 x
EXAMPLE
+ k, i.e. arccos 0 = .
2
2
3

k
= + k, which gives us 3 x= + + k = + k , i.e. x= + , k .
4 2
2 4
4
4 3
142 Solve sin( 2 3x) =1.
Solution
We know that sin( 3 x) = cos 3x, so we can solve cos 3x = 1 instead.

2
2k
cos = 1 is a special result, so 3x = 2k and x =
, k .
3
c. tan x = a
Remember!
The red line in the
figure is the tangent
axis.
y
If tan x = a, what is x?
y
a

tangent axis there are two corresponding
x1 = arctan a and the other is
the symmetry of x1 with respect to the origin,
i.e. x2 = + arctan a.
arc tan a
x
O
(arc tan a) + p
By also considering the coterminal angles we

can write
tan x = a x = arctan a + k, k
for a .
213
EXAMPLE
143 Solve tan 3x = 3.
Solution
By the formula, 3 x = arctan 3 + k, k . We know
k
arctan 3 = 60 = , so 3 x = + k , i.e. x= + , k .
3
3
9 3
EXAMPLE
144 Solve 4tan(5x+ 3)+ 4 = 0.
Solution
Rearranging the equation gives us tan(5 x + ) = 1.

3
arctan(1) = 45 = , so by the formula we have 5x + = + k, i.e.

3
4
4
5x =
EXAMPLE
7
7 k

+ k = + k and x =
+ , k .
4 3
12
60 5
145 Solve tan (2x 13) =
Solution
Remember!
3
and write the answer in degrees.
3
3
= 30 . Also, writing the solution formula in degree form gives us
3
2x 13 = 30 + 180 k, i.e. 2x = 13 + 30 + 180 k = 43 + 180 k, so
We know arctan
43 +180 k
= 21.5 +90 k, k .
2
We know that 1 = 60
minutes (60').
x=
So 0.5 = 30 minutes.
If we write 21.5 as 2130' then the answer is
Instead of 21.5 we can

write 2130'.
x = 2130' + 90 k, k .
d. cot x = a
If cot x = a, what is x?
Remember!
The red line in the figure
is the cotangent axis.
By also considering the coterminal angles we

can write
a
arc cot a
x
O
(arc cot a) + p
cot x = a x = arccot a + k, k
for a
214

cotangent axis there are two corresponding
x1 = arccot a and the other is the symmetry
of x1 with respect to the origin,
i.e. x2 = + arccot a.
.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
146 Solve 3 cot 2x = 3.
Solution
Rearranging the equation gives us cot 2 x =

We know arccot
EXAMPLE
3
.
3
= 60 = , so by the formula, 2x = + k and x = + , k .

3
6 2
3
3
147 Solve cot( 2x) = 1.
Solution
x 3
3
3
+ k and x =
2 k , k .
, so by the formula, =
2
4
2
4
Note that since k is any integer it can be negative or positive, so we can also write
arccot(1) =135 =
x=
3
3
2 k =
+ 2 k , k .
2
2
Check Yourself 24
a. (2 sin x) 1 = 0
b. 7 sin x = 0
2
x
d. sin( )
=0
2 4
2
e. cos8 x =
x
c. (2 sin )+ 3 = 0
2
3
2
f.
1
cos( x + ) =
6
2

a. (2 tan 4x) + 2 = 0
x
b. tan( + ) = 3
4 2
x
c. cot( ) =1
2
3
b. sin( + 3 x) =
2
2
c. tan ( + 4x) = 0
d. cot 4x = 3
3 x
1
)=
2 2
2
3
d. cot( 2 x) =1
2
a. cos(
215
4. Find the solutions of sin x =

5. Solve
1
in the interval 500 < x < 1000 .
2
sin5 x
=1 .
3
Answers
2
b. k, k
c. (1)k+1
+ k, k
+ 2 k, k
6
3

5 k
2
d. (1)k + + 2 k, k
e.
f. + 2 k, k
+
, k
48
4
3
6
2 2
1. a. (1)k
2. a.

+ n, n
16 4
b.
3. a. (1)n+1 + 2 n, n
3
+ 2 k, k
6
b.
c. + 2k, k
2
2k
+
, k
18
3
c.
k
, k
4
d.
k
+ , k
24 4
d.
k
+ , k
8 2
4. 510, 750, 870

5. no solution
2. Factorizing Equations
We have seen how to solve simple trigonometric equations such as 7sin x = 0 and
tan(4x + ) = 1. But how can we solve more complicated equations which contain a power of a
ratio, or mixed ratios?
One approach is to use factorization. If we can rewrite an equation in the factorized form
a b = 0 where a and b are trigonometric ratios, then we can solve a = 0 and b = 0 and find the
union of the solution set. This union is the solution of the original equation. We can factorize an
equation by using substitution and trigonometric identities and formulas.
EXAMPLE
148 Solve 2cos x 3cosx + 1 = 0.
Solution
Let us factorize the expression. Let cos x = a, then the equation becomes 2a2 3a + 1 = 0,
which we can factorize.
2a2 3a + 1 = (2a 1) (a 1) = 0, which has solutions a =
If a =
1
1
then cos x = and so x = + 2k, k .

3
2
2
If a = 1 then cos x = 1 and so x = 2n, n .
(1)
(2)
The union of (1) and (2) gives us x { + 2 k, 2 n}, k, n

3
equation.
216
1
and a = 1.
2
. This is the solution of the
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
149 Solve sin x + sin x = 0.

2
Solution
Factorize the expression:

sin x(sin x + 1) = 0 has solutions sin x = 0 and
sin x = 1.
If sin x = 0 then x = k, k .
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 n, n .
2
Combining the two solutions gives us x {k, + 2 n}, k, n .

2
EXAMPLE
150 Solve 3 tan x + 2 tan x = 1.

2
Solution
Making the right side zero gives us 3 tan2 x + 2 tan x 1 = 0.
1
We can factorize this as (3 tan x 1) (tan x + 1) = 0, which has solution tan x =
or
3
tan x = 1.
1
1
1
then x = arctan + k, k . ( arctan is not a special angle, so we will leave
3
3
3
it in this form.)
If tan x =
If tan x = 1 then x = arctan(1)+ n = + n, n .

4
1
In summary, the solution is x {arctan + k, + n }, k, n .

3
4
EXAMPLE
151 Solve sin 2x + sin x = 0.
Solution
Using the identity sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x we can write

2 sin x cos x + sin x = sin x (2cos x + 1) = 0, which means
1
sin x = 0 or 2cosx + 1 = 0 cos x = .
2
If sin x = 0 then x =k, k .

1
2
2
1
then arccos( ) =120 =
, so x= + 2 n , n .
2
3
3
2
2
+ 2 n}, k, n .
In summary, the solution is the union: x {k,
3
If cos x =
217
EXAMPLE
152 Solve 2 sin x + 2 sin x = 2 + 2 sin x.

2
Solution
Let us factorize both sides separately:

2 sin2 x + 2 sin x = 2 sin x (sin x + 1), and 2 + 2 sin x = 2(1 + sin x).
So we can rewrite the original equation as
2 sin x (sin x + 1) 2(sin x + 1) = 0. Factorizing this gives
(sin x + 1) (2 sin x 2) = 0, i.e. sin x = 1 or sin x =
2
.
2
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 k, k .
2
2
If sin x =
then x = (1)n + n, n .
4
2
n
So the solution is x { + 2 k, (1) + n }, k, n .
2
4
EXAMPLE
153 Solve cos 4x + cos 2x = 0.
Solution
We can factorize the left-hand side using the sum to product formulas:
cos 4 x + cos 2 x = 2 cos(
4x + 2 x
4x 2 x
) cos(
) = 2 cos 3 x cos x= 0.
2
2
So we have cos 3x = 0 or cos x = 0.
k
If cos 3x = 0 then 3x = + k and so x = + , k .
2
6
3
If cos x = 0 then x = + n, n .
2
k
So the solution is x { + , + n }, k, n .
6 3 2
EXAMPLE
154 Solve
Solution
tan 3 x + tan 4 x
3
=
.
1 tan 3 x tan 4 x
3
tan x + tan y
tan 3 x + tan 4 x
, so
is equivalent to
1 tan x tan y
1 tan 3 x tan 4 x
3
tan (3x + 4x). So we can rewrite the equation as tan7 x =
.
3
We know the sum formula tan( x + y) =
Since arctan(
218
k
3
) = 30 = , we have 7 x = + k. i.e. x = + , k .
3
6
6
42 7
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
155 Solve sin (x + 20) sin (x 20) = 0.
Solution
By using the sum to product formulas we can write

x + 20 + x 20
x + 20 x+ 20
) sin(
)
2
2
= 2 cos x sin 20 .
So the equation is 2cos x sin 20 = 0 and so cos x = 0, i.e. x = + k, k .

2
sin( x + 20 ) sin( x 20 ) = 2 cos(
EXAMPLE
156 Solve 2 cos x = 3 sin x.

2
Solution
One side of the equation contains the sine function and the other side contains the cosine
function. We can change these to the same trigonometric ratio. Since cos2x = 1 sin2x, we
can rewrite the equation as 2 cos2x = 3 sin x, i.e.
2 (1 sin2 x) = 3 sin x 2 2 sin2x = 3 sin x 2sin2x + 3 sin x 2 = 0.
Factorizing this gives us (2 sin x 1 ) (sin x + 2) = 0. So either
1
x = (1) k + k , k , or sin x = 2 which has no solution since 1 sin x 1.
2
6
In conclusion, the solution is x = (1)k + k, k .

6
sin x =
EXAMPLE
157 Find the sum of the roots of sin x+ cos
Solution
x=
7
in the interval [, ].
8
Let us use the identity x2 + y2 = (x + y)2 2xy. Then we have

7
sin 4 x + cos 4 x = (sin 2 x+ cos 2 x) 2 2 sin 2 x cos 2 x= .
8
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and (2 sin x cos x)2 = sin2 2x we can write
12
7 1 sin 2 2 x
sin 2 2 x 7
, i.e.
= , which we can rearrange as 1 = =
2
8
8 8
2
1
1
1
. So either sin 2 x= or sin 2 x= .
4
2
2
k
1
If sin 2 x = then 2 x = (1) k + k and so x= (1) k + , k .
2
6
12 2
n
1
If sin 2 x = then 2 x = (1) n+1 + n and so x= (1) n+1 +
, n .
2
6
12
2
n
k
+ , (1) n +1 + }, k, n .
In summary, the solution is x {( 1) k
12
2
12 2
sin 2 2 x =
219
Practical Notation
So far we have written the solution to a trigonometric equation as the union of other
solution sets. However, this union might not be the shortest form of the answer. For
example, one solution set may contain the other set. In this case, we only need to give the
larger set as the answer.
Alternatively, in a multiple-choice question we may find two or more answers but these may
not be in the given choices. In this case it is helpful to draw all the answers on the unit
circle. If the angles between the answers are the same then we will take the first
non-negative answer and add the common angle multiplied by k . This will give us the
answer.
y
a
2p
3
p
x
2p
one answer:
two answers:
x = a + 2k
x = a + k
2p
3
a
x
2p
3
three answers:
x = a+
2
k
3
a
a
four answers:
x = a+ k
2
220
...
n answers:
x = a+
2
k
n
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
158 Solve sin x cos x = cos x.
Solution
Rearranging and then factorizing the equation gives cos x(sin x 1) = 0, i.e.
cos x = 0 or sin x = 1.
If cos x = 0 then x = + k, k Z.
2
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 n, n Z.
2
Inspect the answers:
3
5
+ k = { , , , ...}.
2
2
2
2
3 5
7 9
+ 2 n = { ,
,
,
,
, ...}.
2
2
2
2
2
2
We can see that the first set includes the second one, so we can write the final answer as
x = + k, k Z.
2
EXAMPLE
159 Solve 2 cos x 1 = 0.
Solution
1
Rearranging the expression gives us cos 2 x = .
2
So either cos x =
If cos x =
2
1
2
or cos x =
=
.
2
2
2
2
= 45 = then x = + 2 k, k .
and arccos
4
2
4
2
If cos x =
then x =
2
3
2
) =135 =
and arccos(
2
4
2
p
4
p
4
3
+ 2 n, n .
4
3
+ 2 n } where k, n .
So x { + 2 k ,
4
4
Now sketch the answers on the unit circle, as
x
5p
4
p
4
shown at the right. We can see that a shorter

form of the answer is x = + k, k Z.
4 2
221
3. Equations with a Common Ratio

Sometimes a trigonometric equation includes the same ratio on each side of the equation,
for example cos x = cos 30. We can use the following solution formulas in this case.
1. If cos x = cos a then x = a + 2k or x = a + 2k, k .
2. If sin x = sin a then
x = a + 2k or x = ( a) +2k, k
x = (1)ka + k, k .
3. If tan x = tan a then x = a + k, k .

4. If cot x = cot a then x = a + k, k .
Note that we may need to use trigonometric identities, factorization or substitution to bring
an equation to one of these simple forms.
EXAMPLE
160 Solve cos x = cos 30.
Solution 1
From the formula above, x = 30 + 360k or x = 30 + 360k, k .
We can also write the answer in radians as x = + 2k , k .

6
Solution 2
Let us try to solve the equation without using the formula.

We can write cos x cos 30 = 0.
Using the sum to product formulas gives us
x + 30
x 30
) sin(
) = 0, i.e.
2
2
x + 30
x 30
sin(
) = 0 or sin(
) = 0.
2
2
x + 30
x + 30
If sin(
) = 0 then
= k, so x= 30 + 360 k, k .
2
2
x 30
x 30
If sin(
) = 0 then
= n, so x= 30 + 360 n, n .
2
2
So the final ans wer is x {30 + 360 k, 30 + 360 n}, k, n .
cos x cos 30 = 2 sin(
EXAMPLE
161 Solve sin 2x = sin 20.
Solution 1
By the solution formula, 2x = 20 + 360k or 2x = (180 20) + 360n. So

x = {10 + 180k, 80 + 180k}, k .
Solution 2
By the second formula for sin x = sin a, 2x = (1)k 20 + 180k and so

x = (1)k 10 + 90k, k .
222
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
cos x
cos 2 x
162 Solve cos5x = cos6 x .
Solution
Cross multiplying gives us cos x cos 6x = cos 5x cos 2x.

By the product to sum formulas on each side of the equation we get
1
1
[cos( x +6 x)+ cos( x 6 x) ]= [cos(5 x+ 2 x)+ cos(5 x 2 x) ]. This simplifies to
2
2
cos 7x + cos (5x) = cos 7x + cos 3x. Rearranging the terms gives us
cos( x) = cos x
cos 5x cos 3x = 0, i.e.

2 sin(
5 x + 3x
5x 3x
)sin(
)= 0
2
2
2 sin 4x sin x = 0. So
sin 4x = 0 or sin x = 0.
If sin 4x = 0 then 4x = k and so x =
k
, kZ .
4
If sin x = 0 then x = n, n .
We know that {n , n } {
x{
EXAMPLE
163 Solve tan(4x+ 3 ) = cot(2 x 5).
Solution
cot x = tan (
k
}, k Z.
4
k
, k } . So the final solution is
4
One side contains a tangent but the other side is a cotangent. We need to rewrite one ratio
in terms of the other to get a simpler equation.
7
On the right-hand side we can write cot(2 x ) = tan( 2 x+ ) = tan( 2 x).
5
2
5
10
x)
7
So the equation becomes tan(4 x + ) = tan( 2 x). By the solution formula for tan x,
3
10
4x +
7
2 x + k . Rearranging the terms gives us
=
3 10
6x =
7
11
11 k
+ k =
+ k , i.e. x {
+ }, k Z.
10 3
30
180 6
223
EXAMPLE
164 Solve sin 5x + sin 4x = sin 3x + sin 2x.
Solution
We cannot factorize the equation directly, but we can rewrite it as sin2 5x sin2 2x = sin2 3x
sin2 4x. Now we can factorize:
(sin 5x sin 2x)(sin 5x + sin 2x) = (sin 3x sin 4x)(sin 3x + sin 4x).
By the sum to product formulas on both sides we get
2 cos(
5x + 2 x
5x 2 x
5x + 2 x
5x 2 x
) sin(
) 2 sin(
) cos(
)=
2
2
2
2
3x + 4 x
3x 4 x
3x + 4 x
3x 4 x
2 cos(
) sin(
) 2 sin(
) cos(
).
2
2
2
2
This simplifies to
2 cos
7x
3x
7x
3x
7x
7x
x
x
sin
2 sin
cos
sin( ) 2 sin
cos( ).
= 2 cos
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
By using the identity 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x we can simplify this further to
sin 7x sin 3x = sin 7x sin (x) = sin 7x sin x.
So sin 7x sin 3x + sin 7x sin x = 0, i.e.
sin 7x (sin 3x + sin x) = 0 sin 7x = 0 or sin 3x + sin x = 0.
If sin 7x = 0 then 7x = k x =
k
, k Z.
7
(1)
If sin 3x + sin x = 0 then sin 3x = sin x = sin (x). By the solution formula for sine we
have
n
a. 3x = x + 2n, i.e. 4x = 2n x =
, n Z.
2
(2)
b. 3x = ( (x)) + 2m = + x + 2m, i.e. 2x = + 2m x =
+ m , m Z. (3)
2
As we can easily see, (3) is a subset of (2), so (2) is a sufficient answer. Finally, combining
k n
}, k, n Z.
(1) and (2) gives us x { ,
7
2
Check Yourself 25
224
a. cos2x + cos x = 2
b. 4 cos2x 3 cos x = 0
d. sin 2x = sin x
e.
2 tan 3 x
3
=
3
1 tan 2 3 x
c. 3 cos 2x 2 cosx + 3 = 0
f. cot2x 3 cot x + 2 = 0
Algebra 10
2. Write the solution to each equation in its shortest form.

a. tan2x 1 = 0
b. 2cos2x + cos x 1 = 0
x
5x
5x
3. Find the sum of the roots of 2 sin sin
sin
= 0 in the interval [0, 2].
2
2
2
4. Solve each equation.

a. sin 5x = sin 3x
b. cos 3x cos x = 0
d. cos 3x = sin x
2
e. sin(2 x + ) = sin( x
)
3
3
c. tan 2x + tan 3x = 0
Answers
3
b. { + k, arccos + 2 n}, k, n Z
2
4
1. a. 2k, k
2
c. { + k, arccos + 2 n }, k, n Z
2
3
e.
2. a.
+
, kZ
36
6
k
+ , kZ
4 2
d. {k, + 2 n}, k, n Z
3
f. { + k, arccot2+ n}, k, n Z
4
b.
2 k
+
, kZ
3
3
3. 8
4. a. {k,
n
+ }, k, n Z
8
4
k
d. { + , + n}, k, n Z
8 2
4
b. {k,
n
}, k, n Z
2
e. { + 2 k,
c.
k
, kZ
5
4 2 n
+
}, k, n Z
9
3
4. Linear Equations in sin x and cos x

Recall that ax + by = c is a linear equation in the two variables x and y. If we replace x and
y with sin x and cos x then we obtain a linear equation in sin x and cos x. In other words,
the equation a sin x + b cos x = c is a linear equation in sin x and cos x.
a
b
or cot = . Then
b
a
we can use the sum and difference formulas to simplify the given expression. Finally, we can
To solve a linear equation like this, we can use the substitution tan =
use the methods we have already seen to solve the question.

225
First let us try to get
b
from the given equation. For this we will divide both sides of the equaa
tion by a:
a cos x + b sin x = c
a cos x + b sin x c
= , i.e.
a
a
b
c
cos x + sin x =
a
a
cos x +
sin
c
sin x =
cos
a
(use tan =
cos x cos + sin sin x c

=
cos
a
sin b
b
and we know that tan =
= )
a
cos a
(equalize the denominators)
cos( x ) c
c
= , i.e. cos( x ) = cos .
a
cos
a
(by the difference formula for cosine)

A
Now draw a right triangle and let

2
a
b
. So
tan = , so cos =
2
a
a + b2
cos( x ) =
c
c
a
cos =
=
2
a
a a + b2
c
2
a + b2
+b
a
B
In conclusion, to solve a linear equation of the

form asin x + bcos x = c we can compare the values of c2 and a2 + b2.
1. If c2 > a2 + b2 then cos( x ) =
equation.
c
2
a + b2
> 1 and so there is no solution for the linear
2. If c2 = a2 + b2 then cos (x ) = 1 and so x = + 2k, k .

3. If c2 < a2 + b2 then we can solve the equation by using the methods that we have learned
for equations with a common ratio.
EXAMPLE
165 Solve 2 sin x + 3 cos x = 4.
Solution
We have a sin x + b cos x = c with a = 3, b = 2 and c = 4.

Let us compare c2 and a2 + b2. We get 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13 < 42 = 16.
Since c2 > a2+ b2, by the above result we can say that the equation has no solution.
EXAMPLE
166 Solve cos x + 3 sin x = 2.
Solution
We have a = 1, b = 3 and c = 2. Let us compare c2 and a2 + b2. We get

a2 + b2 = 12 + 32 = 1 + 3 = 4 = c2. Then by the above result we can find the solution.
First find : tan =
226
b
3
=
= tan , i.e. = so the solution is x = + 2k, k .
a
1
3
3
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
167 Solve 3 cos x + sin x = 1.
Solution 1
We have a = 3, b = 1 and c = 1.
a2 + b2 = 32 + 12= 3 + 1 = 4 > 1 = c2, so we will use the equations with a common ratio.
tan =
b
1
3
=
=
= tan
= . So by the above result we have
a
3
6
6
3
cos( x ) =
1
3 1
c
cos =
= .
cos and cos( x ) =
6
6
2
2
a
3
3
1
So the equation becomes cos( x ) = .
6
2
1

Since arccos = 60 = , we have x = + 2 k and so x = + 2 k, k Z.
6
3
6 3
2
3
Solution 2
a
b
we can use cot = .
a
b
The equation is 3cosx + sinx = 1, and dividing both sides by a = 3 gives us
In this type of question, instead of using the substitution tan =
3
3
3
cos
3
, i.e.
=
.
sin x =
. Now let us use the substitution cot =
3
3
3
sin
3
cos x +
By using the sum formula for sin(x + ) we get sin( x + ) =

cot =
arcsin
EXAMPLE
3
sin .
3
3 3 1
, i.e. = . So sin( x + ) =
= .
3
3
3
3 2
2

= , so the answer is x + = ( 1)k + k or x = ( 1) k + k, k .
2 6
3
6
6 3
168 Solve 3 sin x + 3 cos x = 3.
Solution
We have a=3 , b= 3 and c = 3. We get a2 + b2 = 32 + 32= 3 + 9 = 12 > 9 = c2, so we

will use the equations with a common ratio.
tan =
3
b
=
= 3 = tan so = .
3
3
a
3
3
3 1
3
=
cos( x ) =
cos =
.
3
3
2
3
3 2
Since arccos

3
= , we have x = +2 k x = +2 k , k .
2
6
3
6
3 6
227
EXAMPLE
169 Solve cos x + sin x = 1.
Solution
We have a= 1 , b= 1 and c = 1.
We get a2 + b2 = 12 + 12= 2 > 1 = c2, so a2 + b2 > c2 and we will use equations with a
common ratio.
b 1
= .
tan= = = 1 = tan
4
4
a 1
1
2
c
cos( x ) = cos , i.e. cos( x ) = cos =
.
4
1
4
2
a

2
= , we have x = + 2 k, i.e. x = +2 k , k .
Since arccos
2
4
4
4
4 4
We can also write these answers separately:
x1 = 2k, k and x2 = + 2 n , n .
2
5. Homogeneous Equations in sin x and cos x

Recall that the degree in a term in an equation is its power: 2x3 has power 3.
Definition
homogeneous equation
If the degrees of all the terms in an equation are the same, the equation is called a
homogeneous equation. For example,
ax + by = 0 is a first-order homogeneous equation,
ax2 + bxy + cy2 = 0 is a second-order homogeneous equation, and so on.
If we substitute sin x and cos x for x and y in a homogeneous equation, the equation
becomes a homogeneous equation in sin x and cos x.
In this section we will look at the solutions of homogeneous equations in sin x and cos x.
a. First-order homogeneous equations

Let a cos x + b sin x = 0 be a given equation. Dividing both sides by cos x gives us
a cos x + b sin x
0
=
(cos x 0). This simplifies to
cos x
cos x
a
a
sin x
x = arctan( ) + k , k .
a+ b
= 0 , i.e. a + b tan x = 0 tan x =
b
b
cos x
228
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
170 Solve sin x + cos x = 0.
Solution
Dividing both sides by cos x (cos x 0) gives us
sin x
+1= 0 .
cos x
We can rewrite this as tan x = 1.

Since arctan(1) = 45 =
EXAMPLE
, we have x = + k, k .
4
4
171 Solve 3 cos x 3 sin x = 0.
Solution
Let us divide both sides by cos x (cos x 0). Then we have

33
sin x
3
= 0, i.e 3 3tan x = 0 tan x=
.
cos x
3
Since arctan
= 30 = , the solution is x= + k, k Z.
3
6
6
b. Second-order homogeneous equations

Let a cos2 x + (b cos x sin x) + c sin2 x = 0 be a given equation. Dividing both sides by
cos2 x gives us
0
a cos 2 x + b cos x sin x + c sin 2 x
=
(cos x 0), which simplifies to
2
cos x
cos 2 x
sin x
sin 2 x
+c
= 0, i.e. a + b tan x+ c tan 2 x = 0.
a+ b
cos x
cos 2 x
This is a quadratic equation in tan x. We can now find the solution using factorization.
229
EXAMPLE
172 Solve cos x (3 cos x sin x) 4 sin x = 0.
Solution
Let us divide both sides by cos2 x (cos x 0). Then we have

cos 2 x 3cos x sin x 4sin 2 x
0
sin x
sin 2 x
=
,
i.e
1
4
= 0. We can rewrite this as
cos x
cos 2 x
cos 2 x
cos 2 x
1 3 tan x 4 tan2 x = 0.
Factorizing this equation gives us

(1 4 tan x) (1 + tan x) = 0. There are two cases:
1
1
a. If 1 4 tan x = 0 then tan x = and so x = arctan + k, k Z.
(1)
4
4
b. If 1 + tan x = 0 then tan x = 1 and so x = + n, n Z . (2)

4
1
Combining (1) and (2) gives us the final answer: x = {arctan + k, + n}, k, n Z.
4
4
6. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Trigonometric

Function
A
Let f(x) = a cos x + b sin x for a, b . How
can
we
find
the
maximum
and
b
minimum values of f(x)?
a+
b sin
b
Let tan = =
.
a cos
Let us draw a right triangle with an acute
a
angle . We can write
a
B
C
f(x) = a cos x + b sin x
(take out of the paranthesis)
b
= a(cos x + sin x)
sin
a
(use the substitution tan =
)
cos
sin
= a(cos x +
sin x)
cos
cos x cos + sin x sin (eqalize the denominators and use the sum formulas)
a
= a(
)
(from the right triangle we have cos =
)
cos
2
a + b2
a cos( x )
=
a
2
a2 + b 2
= a2 + b2 cos( x ).
We know 1 cos(x ) 1. Multiplying both sides by
a2 + b2 gives us
a2 + b2 a2 + b 2 cos( x ) a 2 + b 2 . In summary,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 .
minimum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 .
230
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
173 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = 3 cos x 4 sin x.
Solution
We are given a = 3 and b = 4.

By the formula we have just seen,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 32 +(4)2 = 9+16 = 25 = 5
minimum value of f ( x) = a2 + b2 = 32 +(4)2 = 9+16 = 25 = 5.
EXAMPLE
174 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = sin x + cos x.
Solution
We have a = 1 and b = 1.
By the previous formula:
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 12 +12 = 1+1 = 2
minimum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 12 +12 = 1+1 = 2.
EXAMPLE
175 Find the range of the function f(x) = sin x + 3 cos x.
Solution
We know that sin x and cos x are continuous functions, so the range will be an interval
between the maximum and minimum values of f(x).
By using the previous formula with a = 3 and b = 1 we have
2
2
maximum value of f ( x) = a + b =
2
2
minimum value of f ( x) = a + b =
3 +12 = 3+1 = 4 = 2
2
3 +12 = 3+1 = 4 = 2.
So the range is [2, 2].

231
EXAMPLE
176 Find the value of x that gives A = (sin x + 3) (1 sin x) its maximum value.
Solution 1
First we will find the maximum value of A, then we will find the value of x at this point.
A = (sin x + 3) (1 sin x)
= 3 2 sin x sin2 x
= 4 (1 + 2 sin x + sin2 x)
= 4 (1 + sin x)2.
We know (1 + sin x)2 0, so A = 4 (1 + sin x)2 4.
So the maximum value of A is 4. Now we need to solve the equation
(sin x + 3) (1 sin x) = 4 for x:
3 2 sin x sin2 x = 4 sin2 x + 2 sin x + 1 = 0.
This factorizes to (sin x + 1)2 = 0, i.e. sin x = 1. So the answer is
x = + 2 k , k Z.
2
Solution 2
We can get the maximum value of a function f(x) = a b when a = b.

So A = (sin x + 3) (1 sin x) is at its maximum when sin x + 3 = 1 sin x. This gives us
2 sin x = 1 3 = 2, i.e. sin x = 1. So the answer is
x = + 2 k , k Z.
2
Check Yourself 26
a. 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 6
b. 3 sin x + cos x = 1
c. 2sin x + 5 cos x = 3
b. sin x 3 cos x = 1
c. sin x cos x = 1

a. 3cos x + 3 sin x = 3
3. Solve the first-order homogeneous equations.

a. sin x + 3 cos x = 0
b. sin x + 2 cos x = 0
c. 3 sin x cos x =0
4. Solve 3 cos2 x (1 + 3)sin x cos x + sin2 x = 0.

5. Find the maximum and minimum values of each trigonometric function.
a. 2 sin x + 3 cos x
b. 5 sin x 12 cos x
c. 3 cos x 4 sin x
6. Find the range of f(x) = 4 sin x + 3 cos x + 2.

232
Algebra 10
Answers
1. a. no solution
b. {
2
+ 2 k,2 n}, k, n Z
3
c. arctan
2 5
+ 2 k, k Z
5
2. a. { + 2 k, 2 n}, k, n Z
3
b. { + 2 k, + 2 n}, k, n Z
2
6
c. { + 2 k, + 2 n}, k, n Z
2
3. a. + k, k Z
3
1
c. (arctan )+ k, k Z
3
b. ( arctan 2)+ k, k Z
4. { + k, + n}, k, n Z
4
3
5. a. 13, 13
b . 13, 13
c . 5, 5
6. [3, 7]
B. FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

1. Equations with an Absolute Value
If a trigonometric equation includes an absolute value, we can solve it by considering the
possible values of the absolute expression.
EXAMPLE
177 Solve |3 cos 5x + 2| 3 = 0.
Solution
Rearranging the equation gives us |3 cos 5x + 2| = 3.

So either 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 or 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3.
1. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 then 3 cos 5x = 1, i.e. cos5 x =
So x =
1
1 2 k
arccos +
, k Z.
5
3
5
1
1
and 5x = arccos + 2 k .
3
3
5
2. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 then 3 cos 5x = 5, i.e. cos 5x = < 1 . This equation has no
3
solution.
In conclusion, x = {
1
1 2 k
arccos +
}, k Z is theonly solution.
5
3
5
233
EXAMPLE
178 Solve |sin x + cos x| = sin x cos x.
Solution
Consider the two possibilities for the absolute value:

1. If sin x + cos x = sin x cos x then 2 cos x = 0, i.e. cos x = 0. So
x = + 2k, k Z.
2
2. If sin x + cos x = (sin x cos x) = sin x + cos x then 2 sin x = 0, i.e. sin x = 0. So
x = n, n .
So the solution is x { + 2k, n}, k, n Z.

2
2. Parametric Equations
If an equation includes one or more variables which may affect the result of the equation, the
equation is called a parametric equation.
EXAMPLE
179 How many solutions does the equation sin x + sin x = m have in [0, 2], depending on m?
Solution
Let us begin by finding the maximum and minimum values of sin2 x + sin x.
If we substitute t = sin x then the expression is equivalent to the function y = t2 + t.
1
b
The vertex of y is V(r, k) where r =
= and
2a
2
y = ax2 + bx + c is the
form of a parabola. The
vertex of a parabola is
V(r, k), where
b
and
r=
2a
k =y(k).
234
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
k = y( ) = ( )2 + ( ) = = . So is the minimum value of y.
2
2
2
4 2
4
4
To find the maximum value of y we will substitute the maximum value of sin x into y. The
maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
1
1
This means y 2, and when y < and y > 2 there is no solution.
4
4
We can rewrite the equation t2 + t = m as t2 + t m = 0. Let us find the discriminant of
this quadratic equation: = b2 4ac = 12 4 1 (m) = 1 + 4m.
1
1. If < 0, i.e. m < , there is no real solution.
4
1
2. If = 0, i.e. m = , there is one root for the quadratic equation:
4
1
1
1
1
t2 + t + = 0 = ( t + )2 = 0 and t = . So sin x= and x [0, 2 ].
4
2
2
2
1
So for sin x = we have two answers: x = 210 and x = 330.
2
1
3. If >0, i.e. 2 m > there are two roots, and for every root there are two values of sin x.
4
1
In summary, the equation has no solution when m < and m > 2. It has two solutions if
4
1
1
m = , and it has a pair of solutions for each value of m in ( ; 2] .
4
4
Algebra 10
3. Equations with Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If an equation includes inverse trigonometric functions such as arcsin, arccos, arctan, etc.,
we can solve it by using the rules of inverse trigonometric functions, i.e. if arcsin x = y then
sin y = x, if arctan x = y then tan y = x, etc.
EXAMPLE
180 Solve arctan x+ arctan(1 x) = arctan 3.
Solution
In this type of problem, first we try to convert inverse trigonometric functions to regular
trigonometric functions so that the equation is easier to solve. We can work on each term
separately:
If arctan x = then tan = x.
If arctan (1 x) = then tan = 1 x.
4
4
If arctan = y then tan y = .
3
3
4
Now we can write arctan x + arctan (1 x) = arctan as + = y.
3
Let us take the tangent of both sides, then tan ( + ) = tan y. We can rewrite this as
tan + tan
x +1 x
1
4
= tan y, i.e.
=
= , i.e.
2
1 tan tan
1 x (1 x) 1 x + x
3
3 = 4 4 x + 4 x2 or 4 x2 4 x+1= 0. This is the square of (2x 1). So
1
(2 x 1)2 = 0 2 x 1= 0, i.e. x = . This is the solution of the equation.
2
4. Systems of Trigonometric Equations

A system of trigonometric equations includes two or more trigonometric equations. To solve
a system of equations we either eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios by adding or
subtracting, or we find one ratio in terms of the other and then use substitution.
EXAMPLE
x sin a + 3sin b = cos a
181 Solve the system of equations x cos a + 3cos b = sin a .
Solution
We want to eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios. For this the coefficients must be the
same. So let us multiply the first equation by cos b and the second equation by sin b,
respectively. Then
x sin a cos b + 3sin b cos b = cos a cos b
x cos a sin b 3 sin b cos b = sin a sin b
x(sin a cos b cos a sin b) = cos acos b+ sin asin b
x sin( a b) = cos( a b)
x=
(add the two equations)

(by the sum and difference formulas)
cos( a b)
= cot( a b ).
sin( a b)
235
EXAMPLE
182 Solve the system of equations sin x cos y = 2
Solution
.
cos x sin y = 1
2 us
Adding and subtracting the two expressions gives
1 1
sin x cos y + cos x sin y = = 0 , i.e. sin (x + y) = 0 x + y = k, and
2 2
1 1
sin x cos y cos x sin y = + =1 , i.e. sin (x y) = 1 x y = + 2 n.

2
2 2
(1)
x + y = k
Now we have another system of equations:
(2)
x y = 2 + 2n.
k
Adding these equations gives us 2 x = + 2 n + k, i.e. x = + n +

, k, n Z.
2
4
2
k
k
= n + , k, n Z.
n
4
2
4
2
k
k
In summary, the solution is ( x, y) = ( + n + , n + ), k, n Z.
4
4
2
2
From (1) we can write y = k x = k
EXAMPLE
183 Solve the system of equations sin x+ sin y =
Solution
.
x + y =
2
From the second equation we get y = x . Let us use this in the first equation:
2
sin x + sin( x) = 2 , i.e.

2
sin x + cos x = 2 cos x + 1 sin x = 2.
Substitute 1= tan =
4
(1)
4 then (1) becomes
cos
4
sin
cos x cos + sin xsin

4 sin x =
4
4 = 2, i.e. cos( x ) = 2 cos = 2 2 = 1.
cos x +
4
4
2
cos
cos
4
4
We know arccos( 1) = , s o
5
+ 2 k, k Z.
x = x = + 2k and x = + + 2 k =
4
4
4
4
3
5
2 k =
2 k, k Z.
y= x=
2
2 4
4
3
5
2 k ), k Z.
In summary, ( x, y) = ( + 2 k ,
4
4
sin
236
Algebra 10
5. Mixed Examples
We have now seen several different techniques which we can use to solve trigonometric
equations:
1. We can factorize the terms.
sin
.
cos
3. We can use trigonometric identities and formulas.
2. We can use a substitution such as tan =
4. We can consider different parts of an equation separately, and combine individual

results to get the final solution.
There are no strong rules about which technique is appropriate for which problem. Often we
may try different approaches before we find the answer. The best way to improve your
problem-solving skills is to practise on many different types of problem. In this section we will
look at some mixed problems and their solutions.
EXAMPLE
184 Solve cos 2x = cos x sin x.
Solution
The equation contains both sin x and cos x, so it is not clear what we should write instead
of cos 2x. Let us try using the identity cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x. Then the equation becomes
cos2 x sin2 x = cos x sin x. Factorizing the left side gives
(cos x sin x) (cos x + sin x) (cos x sin x) = 0, i.e.
(cos x sin x) (cos x + sin x 1) = 0.
There are two cases:
cos x
1. If cos x sin x = 0 then cos x = sin x and so 1=
= tan x.
sin x
So x = + k , k Z.
4
sin
4
2. If cos x + sin x = 1 then we can use the substitution 1= tan =
4
cos
4
sin
4 sin x =1, i.e. cos x cos + sin x sin = cos = 2.
to get cos x +
4
4
4
2
cos
4
2
This simplifies to cos( x ) =
.
4
2

From the solution formula for cosine, x = + 2 n and so x = + 2 n , n Z.
4
4
4 4

In summary, x { + k , + 2 n }, k, n Z.
4
4 4
EXAMPLE
185 Find the sum of all the roots of sin1 3x + cos1 3x = 163 in [0, 2 ].
237
Solution
Equalize the denominators on the left-hand side:
1
1
cos 2 3 x +sin 2 3 x
+
=
sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x
1
4
4
=
=
. So the equation becomes
2
2
2
sin 3x cos 3 x 4sin 3 x cos 3 x sin 2 6 x
4
16
3
3
3
=
, i.e. sin 2 6 x = and so sin6 x =
or sin6 x =
.
2
4
2
2
sin 6 x 3
k
3
1. If sin6 x =
+ , k .
then 6 x = (1) k + k and so x =(1) k
2
3
18 6
7
4
k = 0 gives x =
, k = 1 gives x = , k = 2 gives x =
, k = 3 gives x =
.
18
9
18
9
3
k
nk
then 6 x = (1) k+1 + n and so x= ( 1) k+1 +
, n Z.
2
3
18
6
5
2
k = 1 gives x =
, k = 2 gives x =
.
18
9
7 4 2 5 3
+ +
+
+
+
=
.
In conclusion, the sum of the roots is
18 9 18 9
9 18
2
2. If sin6 x =
EXAMPLE
186 Solve 1 sin x = sin ( 2x 4).
Solution
Let us use the sum and difference formulas to expand the right side:
x
x
x 2
x 2
sin 2 ( ) = (sin cos cos sin ) 2 = (sin
cos ) 2
2 4
2
4
2
4
2 2
2 2
=(
2 2
1
x
x
x
x
) (sin cos ) 2 = (sin cos ) 2.
2
2
2
2
2
2
Now consider the left side. We can see that on the right side we have half angles, so let us
use half angles on the left side too.
x
x
x
x
We can use the identities sin x = 2 sin cos and 1= sin 2 + cos 2 to get
2
2
2
2
x
x
x
x 2
2 x
2 x
1 sin x = sin + cos
2 sin cos = (sin cos ) .
2
2
2
2
2
2
So the original equation becomes
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(sin cos ) 2 = (sin cos ) 2,, i.e. 2(sin cos ) 2 (sin cos ) 2 = 0.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
x 2
x
x
x
x
If (sin cos ) = 0 then sin cos = 0, i.e. sin = cos .
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
sin
x
2 = tan x =1.
Dividing both sides by cos gives
x
2
2
cos
2
We know arctan 1= , so the solution is = + k, i.e. x = + 2 k, k Z.

4
2 4
2
238
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
187 Solve cos 2x + sin 2x = cos x + sin x.
Solution
Let us change the sine functions to cosine functions by using the reduction formula
cos( x) = sin x . So sin 2 x = cos( 2 x) and sin x = cos( x).

2
2
2
Then the equation becomes cos 2 x + cos( 2 x) = cos x+ cos( x).

2
2
Using the sum to product formulas gives

2cos(
2x +
x+ x
x + x
2x
2x + 2x
2
2
2
2
) cos(
) = 2cos(
) cos(
), i.e.
2
2
2
2
cos(2 x ) = 2 cos cos( x ) .

4
4
4
4
Dividing by 2 cos on both sides ( cos 0 ) gives cos(2 x ) = cos( x ).

4
4
4
4
2 cos
There are two possible cases:

1. If 2 x
= x + 2 k then x = 2k, k .
4
4
2n
= ( x )+ 2 n then 3 x = + 2 n and so x= +
, n Z.
4
4
2
6
3
2 n
}, k, n Z.
In summary, the answer is x {2 k, +
6
3
2. If 2 x
Check Yourself 27
1. Solve |cos(45 x)| =
2
.
2
2. For which values of m does the equation 2
3. Solve arccos x arcsin x = .

6
4. Solve each system of equations.
3
sin x =
a.
2
cos x > 0

a. cos2 3x + cos2 x = 1
c. cos(cot x) = sin (cot x)
e. 43tan x 3 = 1
m
= 2 cot x have a solution?
sin x
1
2
2
sin x + sin y = 2
b.
x y = 4
b. sin4 x + cos4 x = sin x cos x

x
d. cos x +1= cot
2
239
Answers
1.
k
, k Z
2
2. m [22, 22]
4. a. + 2k, k Z
3
1
2
7
b. { + k,
+ k}, k Z
6
6
k n
5. a. { + , + }, k, n Z
8 4 4 2
d. { + 2k,
3.
b. + k, k Z
4
+ 2 n}, k, n Z
2
1
c. {arccot + k}, k Z
4
e.
+ k, k Z
6
C. TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES
1. Basic Trigonometric Inequalities
We can solve trigonometric inequalities by looking at the graphs of the basic trigonometric
functions on the unit circle. By using the following steps we can find the solution of any
simple trigonometric inequality:
1. Find the region which satisfies the given inequality on the unit circle.
2. Write the boundaries of the selected region. We calculate the boundaries by
moving in an anticlockwise direction. Remember that the smaller bound (for
example, a negative bound) must always be the first bound.
3. For sin x and cos x add 2k, and for tan x and cot x add k.
To understand why step 3 is necessary, look at the figure. We know that trigonometric
functions are periodic, and so a trigonometric equation or inequality has infinitely many
solutions. To include all these answers we add k or 2k to the solution of any trigonometric
inequality.
y
sin x >
1
1
2
1
2
x
240
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
188 Solve the inequality sin x > 21 .
Solution
Let us draw the unit circle and shade the required region.
y
5p
6
1
2
y
1
2
p
6
1
2
5p
6
p
6
x
5
< x < . To get the full answer we must
6
6
5
add 2k to both sides, so the answer will be + 2 k < x <
+ 2 k, k Z.
6
6
As we can see in the figure, the boundaries are
a. Inequalities in sin x
Consider the inequality sin x > a.

If a > 1 there is no solution
(because 1 sin x 1).
p arc sin a
arc sin a
If a < 1 the answer will be all the real

numbers, i.e. (, ).
If 1 a 1 the answer is
(arcsin a + 2k) < x < ( arcsin a + 2k), k Z.
Remember!
[a, b] is an interval which
includes a and b:
x [a, b] means
a x b.
(a, b) is an interval
which does not include a
or b: x (a, b) means
a< x < b.
We can write this as

y
x (arcsin a + 2k, arcsin a + 2k), k Z.

Now consider the inequality sin x < a.
If a < 1 there is no solution.
If a > 1 the answer will be all the real
numbers, i.e. (, ).
p arc sin a
arc sin a
( arcsin a + 2k) < x < (arcsin a + 2k),
k Z.
241
EXAMPLE
189 Solve the inequality sin x
Solution
2
.
2
Let us draw the figure, as shown at the right.

2
= , so the
2
4
3
second boundary is = .
4
4
We know arcsin
y
3p
4
2
2
p
4
We have the sign, so the answer is

3
( + 2 k) x ( + 2 k), k .
4
4
We can write this answer alternatively as

3
x + 2k ,
+ 2k , k .
4
4
EXAMPLE
190 Solve the inequality sin x > 23 .
Solution
Let us draw the figure.
) = , so the
We know arcsin(
2
3
4
second boundary is ( ) = .
3
3
So the answer will be

4
( + 2 k) < x < ( + 2 k), k , i.e.

3
3
4
x ( + 2 k,
+ 2 k ), k .
3
3
EXAMPLE
2
2
p
3
191 Solve the inequality sin x < 2.
Solution
242
4p
3
We know that 1 sin x 1, so this inequality has no solution.

Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
192 Solve the inequality 2sin 5x 2.
Solution
Rearranging the terms give us sin5 x

We know arcsin
Remember!
The first bound is always
5
the smallest:
is
4
smaller than .
4
boundary,

so
2
=
2
4
the
is the second
first
boundary
y
5p
4
p
4
2
2
is
5
= .
4
4
By solving the equation we get

(
+ 2 k) 5 x ( + 2 k),
4
4
k .
Dividing all sides by 5 gives us (
EXAMPLE
2
.
2
2k
2k
+
) x ( +
), k .
4
5
20
5
193 Solve the inequality 4sin3x + 2 < 3.
Solution
1
Rearranging the terms give us sin 3x < .
4
1
arcsin is not a special angle so, we will leave it
4
1
4
p arcsin 1
4
in this form.
arcsin 1
4
So we can write the answer as

( arcsin
1
1
+ 2 k)<3 x< (arcsin + 2 k ) , k .
4
4
Dividing all sides by 3 gives us

(
+ arcsin
3
1
1
arcsin
4 + 2k ) < x < (
4 + 2k ), k Z.
3
3
3
b. Inequalities in cos x
Consider the inequality cos x > a.
y
arccos a
If a > 1 there is no solution.

numbers, i.e. (, ).
a
x
If 1 a 1 the solution is
(arccos a + 2k) < x < (arccos a + 2k), k .
arccos a
243
Now consider the inequality cos x < a.

If a > 1 there is no solution.
y
arccos a

numbers, i.e. (, ).
arccos a + 2 k < x < 2 arccos a + 2 k,

k .
EXAMPLE
2p arccos a
194 Solve the inequality cos x 0.
Solution
Let us draw the figure, as shown at the right.

The boundaries are arccos0 =
2
3
= . So
2
2
and
2
p
2
( + 2 k) x ( + 2 k), k .
2
2
3p
2
EXAMPLE
195 Solve the inequality 2cos 2x 1 > 0.
Solution
1
Rearranging the terms gives us cos 2 x > .
2
1
The boundaries are arccos =
and
2 3
1
arccos = . So we have
2
3
p
3
1
2
( + 2k) < 2 x < ( + 2 k ), k Z.

3
3
Dividing all sides by 2 gives
( + k) < x < ( + k ), k Z.
6
6
244
p
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
196 Solve the inequality 2cos x + 3 0 in [0, 2].
Solution
3
.
2
Now let us draw the figure. The boundaries
Rearranging the terms gives us cos x
are arccos(
2 arccos(
5p
6
3
5
and
)=
2
6
2
2
3
5 7
)= 2
= .
2
6
6
So the answer is [
EXAMPLE
5 7
,
].
6
6
7p
6
197 Solve the inequality 2cos 3x > .
Solution
We can rewrite the inequality as cos 3 x > . However, 3.14 and so < 1. So the
2
2
inequality is true for all real numbers: x (, ).
Check Yourself 28
1. Solve the inequalities.
a. sin x <
2
2
b. 2sin x 3
d. sin(5 x + ) 0
3
c. 2sin 3x < 1
e. 2sin (2x) > 1

a. 2cos x 2
d. cos( 2 x) >
b. 2cos(3x
2
2
)1
6
c. cos 3 x <
3
2
e. 5cos 3x 2 > 0
3. Solve the inequalities in the interval [0, 2].
2
a. cos(2 x )
4
2
b. sin(3 x + ) < 0
3
Answers
5
1. a. + 2k < x < + 2k , k
4
4
7 2 k
2k
+
< x< +
, k
18
3
18
3
5
e. + k < x < + k , k
12
12
c.
c. 3sin x + 1 0
b.
+ 2k x + 2k, k
3
3
d.
2 2 k
2 k
+
+
,k
x
15
5
15
5
245
2. a.
c.
+ 2k x
+ 2k, k
4
4
b.
2k
2k
+
, k
x +
18
3
6
3
5 2 k
7 2k
+
< x<
+
, k
18
3
18
3
d. + k < x < + k, k
8
8
2
2
arccos + 2 k
arccos + 2 k
5
5
e.
<x<
, k
3
3
2 5
8 11
14 17
5
3. a. 0, ,
b. ( , ) ( ,
) (
,
)
9 9
9 9
9
9
4
4
1
1
c. [0, + arcsin ] [2 arcsin , 2 ]
3
3
c. Inequalities in tan x
y
Consider the inequality tan x > a.
p
2
As we can see in the figure, the solutions to

the inequality are symmetric about the
origin. So we will write only one answer and
add k instead of 2k to give the final solu-
arc tan a
x
tion. So the solution is
arctana + k < x <
+ k , k .
2
p + arc tan a
Now consider the inequality tan x < a.

From the figure we can get the solution
+ k < x < (arctan a + k ), k

2
p
2
p
2
a
arc tan a
x
p + arc tan a
p
2
Note
If the inequality is given with or , the answer will include arctan a but exclude ,
2
because tan( ) is undefined.

2
246
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
198 Solve the inequality tan x > 1.
Solution
Look at the figure.
arctan1= , so the answer is

4
p
2
1
p
4
( + k) < x < ( + k), k .

4
2
EXAMPLE
p
2
tan x
199 Solve the inequality tanx 3.
Solution
Look at the figure.

We know arctan 3 =
p
2
, so the answer is
3
p
3
( + k) < x ( + k ), k .
2
3
Alternatively, we can write
x + k, + k , k .
3
EXAMPLE
200 Solve the inequality 3tan(4x 5 )+
Solution
3
tan(4 x )
. We know
5
3
3
arctan(
) = , so we have
3
6
to
( + k) 4x < ( + k) . Adding
5
6
5
2
7
each part gives ( + k) 4x < ( + k ).
30
10
tan x
3 0.
Rearranging the terms gives us
So the final answer is
p
2
p
2
p
6
3
3
tan x
7 k
k
+ ) x < ( + ), k .
120 4
40 4
247
EXAMPLE
201 Solve the inequality 3tan x 1 in [0, 2].
Solution
3
.
3
3
Since arctan
= , the boundaries are
3
6
6
Rearranging the terms gives us tan x
p
2
3
3
7
and + = . So we have
6
6
7 3
x , , .
6 2 6 2
p
6
x
7p
6
3p
2
d. Inequalities in cot x
tan x
cot x
Consider the inequality cot x > a and look at

the figure. We can see that the inequality has
solution k < x < (arccot a + k), k .
arccot a
p + arccot a
Now consider cot x < a.
From the figure we can get the solution
(arccot a + k) < x < ( + k), k .
cot x
arccot a
p + arccot a
Note
If the inequality is given with or , the answer will include arccot a but exclude 0 and ,
because cot 0 and cot are undefined.
248
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
202 Solve the inequality cot x > 1.
Solution
EXAMPLE
We know arccot 1= , so by the formula we have k < x < ( + k), k .

4
4
203 Solve the inequality 3cot 2x + 3 0.
Solution
Rearranging the terms gives us cot 2 x

We know arccot(
3
.
3
3
2
)=
, so we have
3
3
2
( + k) (2 x < + k) . Dividing all parts by
3
2 gives us the answer:
3
3
y
cot x
2p
3
x
k
k
( + ) x < ( + ), k .
3 2
2 2
EXAMPLE
204 Find all solutions of the inequality cot 2x 3 in [0, 2].
Solution

From the figure we have k < 2 x
5
+ k
6
5 k
k
and so
< x ( + ), k .
2
12
2
5p
6
x
If we replace k with 0, 1, 2 and 3 we get

11p
6
5 11 17 3 23
x 0,
,
, 12 2 , 12 .
12 2 12

If k is greater than 3 or smaller than 0 then the answer is not in [0, 2], so this is the
complete solution.
249
Check Yourself 29
a. tan 3 x <
3
3
b. tan( x ) 3 0
3
c. 2tan 3x < 6

a. cot 3x 1
b. 3cot(2x +
)1
6
c. 2cot 4x 1 < 0
3. Solve the inequalities in the interval [0, ].
a. tan(3 x + ) 3
3
b. cot(2 x ) <1
3
Answers
k
k
1. a. +
< x< + , k
6
3
18 3
c.
b.
2
5
+ k x <
+ k, k
3
6
k
1
k
+
< x < arctan3 + , k Z
6 3
3
3
k
k
+
x< + , k
4 3
3 3
1
arccot
k
2 + k , k
c.
+
< x<
4 4
4
4
2. a.
b.
k
k
+
<x
+ , k
12 2
12 2
7 4 13 7
3. a. 0,
,
,
,
18 9
18 9 18 9
7 2 19
b. 0, ,
,
6 24 3 24
2. Advanced Trigonometric Inequalities

Some problems may ask us to solve more complex trigonometric inequalities. The inequality
may include one type of trigonometric ratio but with different powers, or it may include two
or more different types of ratio. Alternatively, the expression may include one type of trigonometric ratio with two boundaries.
1. If the question has two inequalities (for example, a < cos x < b), we can draw a unit
circle and find the answer on the circle by using the methods we have already seen.
2. If the inequality contains a trigonometric ratio with different powers, we can try to
factorize it. By using substitutions we can change the inequality into a quadratic
inequality and then solve it. We can then use this to write the final solution.
250
Algebra 10
3. If the problem involves more than one type of trigonometric ratio, we can try to simplify
or factorize it by using the methods that we have learned in the previous sections. We can
use summation formulas, sum to product or product to sum formulas, trigonometric
identities or other types of substitution to simplify the expression.
4. If we have a system of trigonometric inequalities, we can try to solve each inequality
separately and then find their common solution.
For some questions we may have to use a combination of methods to obtain the solution. Let
us look at some examples.
EXAMPLE
205 Solve the inequality 21 < cos x
Solution
2
.
2
Look at the figure. We can use

2
1
2
=
and arccos( ) =
, and
2
4
2
3
2
find the other boundaries as and .
4
3
2p
3
arccos
1
2
p
4
2
2
Now we are ready to write the solution as the

union of the two regions in the figure:
2p
3
p
4
4 + 2k, 3 + 2k 3 + 2 n, 4 + 2 n , k, n .
EXAMPLE
206 Solve the inequality
Solution
3
1
> sin x > .
2
2

Using arcsin
3
1
= and arcsin = , we
2 6
2
3
5p
6
2p
3
p
3
p
6
can find the other boundaries as

5
2
and =
=
.
6
6
3
3
The answer is the union of the intervals:
2
5
( + 2 k, + 2 k) ( + 2 n ,
+ 2 n ), k, n .
6
3
3
6
251
EXAMPLE
207 Solve the inequality |tan x| 1.
Solution
We can rewrite this inequality as
p
4
3p
4
1 tan x 1.
Let us draw the figure. We have

arctan1=
and arctan( 1) = , so the

4
4
answer is [ + k, + k], k .
4
4
EXAMPLE
3p
4
p
4
208 Solve the inequality 2sin x + sin x 1 0.

2
Solution
First notice that the inequality contains a quadratic expression in sin x. Let us use the
substitution t = sin x and try to factorize the new expression. The inequality becomes
2t2 + t 1 0, which we can factorize as (2t 1)(t + 1) 0. The roots of this expression are
1
t = and t = 1. Let us draw a table for the inequality:
2
1
2
1
2t2 + t 1
So the inequality is true for sin x 1 and sin x
1
.
2
If sin x 1 then x = + 2 k, k . (1)

2
1
5
If sin x then + 2 n x
+ 2 n , n . (2)
2
6
6
5
(1) and (2) give us the solution: x = + 2 k, k Z and + 2 n x
+ 2 n , n Z.
2
6
6
EXAMPLE
209 Solve the inequality 1 4cos x < 0.
Solution
Let us use the substitution t = cos x and try to factorize the expression:
1
1
1 4t2 = (1 2t)(1 + 2t) < 0. The roots are t = and t = and the inequality is true for
2
2
1
1
t < and t > .
2
2
252
Algebra 10
1
2
4
So the solutions are cos x < , i.e.
+ 2 k < x <
+ 2 k , k , and
2
3
3
1
cos x > , i.e. + 2 n < x < + 2 n , n .

2
3
3
4
Finally, the answer is x

+ 2k,
+ 2 k + 2 n , + 2 n , n, k .
3
3
3
3
EXAMPLE
210 Solve the inequality sin5x cos 3x cos5 xsin 3 x<
Solution
3
.
2
We can use the sum and difference formulas on the left-hand side:
sin 5x cos 3x cos 5x sin 3x = sin (5x 3x) = sin 2x.
3
. From the
2
3
figure, the second boundary is arcsin
=
2
3
4
and the first boundary is =
.
3
3
So we need to solve sin 2 x <
4p
3
3
2
p
3
So we have
4
+ 2k < 2 x < + 2 k , i.e.
3
3
2
( + k) < x < ( + k ), k .
3
6
EXAMPLE
211 Solve the inequality (cos 2x 3cos x) 1.
Solution
It is difficult to work with the different ratios cos 2x and cos x, so let us use the formula
cos 2x = 2cos2x 1 to get an inequality in cos x only. Then take 1 to the left side of the
inequality to get 2cos2x 3cos x 2 0.
Using the substitution t = cos x gives us 2t2 3t 2 0.
By factorizing we have (2t + 1)(t 2) 0. The roots are t =
2t 3t 2
1
2
1
and t = 2. Write a table:
2
1
or cos x 2. The second inequality has no solution, so we only
2
1
2
4
need to consider cos x
( + 2 k) x ( + 2 k), k .
3
3
2
So the solution is cos x
253
EXAMPLE
212 Solve the inequality (sin x cos x) sin 2x.

2
Solution
Expanding the power gives us sin2x 2sin x cos x + cos2x sin 2x.
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and 2sin x cos x = sin 2x, we can rewrite this
1
inequality as 1 sin 2x sin 2x, i.e. 1 2sin 2x and sin 2 x .
2
1
1
7
are arcsin = and = .
2
2 6
6
6
7
7
So the solution is + 2k 2 x + 2 k , i.e. ( + k ) x ( + k ), k .

6
6
12
12
The boundaries for sin 2 x
EXAMPLE
sin x > 0
213 Solve the system of inequalities cos x 0 .
Solution
Let us draw the unit circle and find the

answers on it.
In the first unit circle the answer is (0, ),

3
In the second unit circle the answer is [ ,
]
2 2
The intersection of these two answers gives us
the solution: x [ + 2k, + 2 k), k .

2
EXAMPLE
sin x > 0
cos x 0
tan x 3
.
cot x <1
214 Solve the system of inequalities
Solution
Let us draw the unit circle and find the answers on it.
y
p
2
p
6
p
4
tan x 3
In the first unit circle the answer is [ + k, +k), k .

3
2
254
cot x < 1
(1)
Algebra 10

In the second unit circle the answer is ( + n, + n), n . (2)
4
The intersection of (1) and (2) gives us the solution: x [ + k , + k), k .

3
2
Check Yourself 30
a.
3
1
< sin x
2
2
d. cos 2 x <
1
4
g. cos 2 2 x < sin 2 2 x+
b. |tan x| > 3
c. 8sin2x 6sin x + 1 0
e. 4tan2x tan x 3 < 0
f.
6
< 3+ 2 cos x
cos x +1
2
2
2. Solve the inequality sin x + cos x > 0 in [0, 2].
sin x <
3. Solve the system of inequalities
cos x
2
2 .
1
2
Answers
4

5
1. a. + 2k, + 2k + 2 n,
+ 2 n , n, k
3
6
6
3

b. ( + k, + k) ( + n , + n ), n, k
2
3
3
2
1
1
5
c. [ arcsin + 2k, arcsin + 2k] [ + 2 n,
+ 2 n], n, k
4
4
6
6
2
d. ( + k,
+ k), k
3
3
e. arctan + k < x < + k , k

4
4
f. ( + 2k, + 2 k), k
3
3
g.
2. [0,
3
7
) ( , 2 ]
4
4
7 k
k
+
< x<
+ , k
16 2
16
2
3. + 2k, + 2k , k
3
4
255
ABUL WAFA BUZJANI

(10 June 940 - 15 July 998)
Abul Wafa Buzjani was a Muslim mathematician and astronomer.

He was born in Buzjan, Khorasan in Iran. His extended name is
Abu al-Wafa Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Ismail
ibn al-Abbas al-Buzjani.
When he was nineteen years old, Abul Wafa moved to Iraq. He
made many discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. Abul Wafa
worked mostly on trigonometry and wrote many books, but many
of them are lost today.
Abul Wafa also studied the movement of the moon. There is a
crater on the moon with his name. He also invented a wall
quadrant for the calculation of measurements in astronomy.
Abul Wafa is known as the father of the basic rules of plane
trigonometry and spherical trigonometry. He introduced the
terms secant and cosecant to mathematics and improved
methods for calculating trigonometric tables. He also developed
new methods for solving some problems in spherical triangles.
In spherical trigonometry, he studied and developed the
properties of the sine function. He also established some of the
basic trigonometric identities and formulas, including
sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b
sin 2a = 2sin a cos a
cos 2a = 1 2sin2a
sin2a = 1 cos2a.
Abul Wafa discovered the law of sines for spherical triangles that
sin A sin B sin C
is
=
=
.
sin a sin b sin c
The works of Abul Wafa were translated to Western languages
beginning
in
the
12th
century.
He
is
well-known
mathematician, and many books have been written about him.

Abul Wafa died on 15 July 998 in Baghdad, Iraq.
Spherical triangles
NASIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI

(18 Feb 1201 - 26 June 1274)
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was born in 1201 in Tus, Khorasan in Iran.
His extended name is Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al
Hasan al-Tusi, but he is known as just Tusi in the West.
Tusi was a Muslim mathematician, astronomer, chemist,
biologist, physicist and scientist. He also studied Islamic
theology and philosophy.
Tusi began his studies at an early age. In Tus he studied the
Koran, hadith, logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and
medicine. Later he traveled to different places to study and to
attend the lectures of famous scholars. He went to Nishapur to
study philosophy and mathematics. After the attack of the
Mongols he went to Mosul and other places, and during this
time he made his most important contributions to science.
Finally he joined Hulagu Khans army. Tusi died in 26 June
1274 in Kadhimiya, Iran, and left about 150 works on different
subjects.
A 60 kilometer diameter crater on the moon was named
Nasireddin, in honor of Tusi. The minor planet 10269 Tusi was
also discovered by a Russian astronomer and given his name.
Tusi was the first scientist to treat trigonometry as a separate
mathematical discipline, different from astronomy. He also gave
the first extensive description of spherical trigonometry, and he
was the first person to list the six distinct cases of a right
triangle in spherical trigonometry.
Tusi formulated the law of sines for plane triangles:
a
b
c
=
=
. He also wrote the same formula for
sin A sin B sin C
spherical triangles and proved these laws. In 1265, Tusi wrote a
manuscript regarding the calculation for the nth roots of an
integer. He studied binomial expansions, and used Pascals
triangle before Pascal.
Today Tusis work lives on in his many books about
mathematics, biology, astronomy and chemistry.
EXERCISES
3 .4
A. Types of Trigonometric Equation

a. sin x =
2
2

a. tan x = 1
b. sin x =
3
2
b. 3tan 2x 3 = 0
2
) 2=0
3
c. 6sin 2x + 3 = 0
d. 2sin 3x 3 = 0
c. 2 tan(5 x
e. 2 sin( x )+ 3 = 0
5
f. 4sin 5x = 0
d. 3tan(3x + 24) 3 = 0
x
g. sin( ) = 1
3 4
3
h. 2 sin( + 2 x) 1= 0 i. 3sin 4x + 2 = 0
2
x
j. sin( ) 1= 0
2
x
2 sin 2 x
k. 2 sin( 2 )+ 2 = 0 l.
=1
3
2
x
e. tan( + ) = 2
3 2
3
f. tan( x ) = 0
2

a. cot x = 1
b. cot 4x = 3

a. cos x =
2
2
2
c. cos(5 x ) =
4
2
b. 2cos x + 3 = 0
d. 3cos 4x 4 = 0
e. 2cos 3x 3 = 0
f.
2
cos(2 x + ) = 1
3
g. cos(5x 30) = 1
2
h. cos( 2 x) =
in [0, 2 ]
2
2
3 x
i. cos( + ) = 0 in [0, 2 ]
2 3
258
c. 1 cot 2x = 2
d. 3cot(3 x )+ 3 = 0
3
x
e. cot( ) = 1
2 3
x
f. 2 cot( ) 4 = 0
2
5. Find the sum of the roots of each equation in the

interval 700 < x < 1000 in degrees.
a. cos 3 x =
1
2
b. sin 2 x =
2
2
c. tan( x + ) = 3
3
Algebra 10
a. cos 3x + cos 5x = 0
a. sin 3x = sin 30
b. 4cos22x + 2cos 2x = 0
b. cos 4x = cos 20
c. 2cos x + cos x = 1
3cos x
d. cos 2 x +1=
2
e. cos 2x = sin x + 1
c. tan x = tan
d. cot
f. cos 3x + cos 5x = 2cos 4x
10. Solve
x
= cot15
2
sin 3x cos 3 x
.
=
sin x
cos x

a. sin 2x sin x = 0
b. (sin 3 x cos 2 x)+(cos 3 xsin 2 x) =
1
2
11. Solve tan(2 x + ) = cot( x ) .
c. sin 6x = sin 2x
d. 2sin 3x = 1
e. cos 2x = 3cos x + 1 in [0, 2]
f.
2 sin x 2
= 0 in [0, 2 ]
2 sin x + 3
g. sin(2x + 10) sin(2x 10) = 0

3
h. 4sin x + 2sin x 2sin x = 1
12. Solve each linear equation in sin x and cos x.

a. 3sin x 3cos x = 5
b. 3cos x 4sin x = 5
c. 12sin x + 5cos x = 13
d. 2sin x + 2cos x = 1
e. 3sin x cos x = 1

a.
f. sin x 2cos x = 1
2 tan 3 x
= 3
1 tan 2 3x
b. tan2x + tan x 2 = 0
c. cot2x 1 = 0
cot 3x cot x
= 3
d.
1+ cot 3 x cot x
e. tan x + cot x = 2
f.
x
cot cos x =1
2
13. Solve the homogeneous equations.

a. 2sin x + cos x = 0
b. 3sin x 3cos x = 0
c. sin2x + sin x cos x 2cos2x = 0
d. sin2x 2sin x cos x 3cos2x = 0
259
14. Find the maximum and minimum values of each
20. For which values of a does the equation
function.
a. f(x) = 3sin x + 4cos x
a
= 3tan x have a solution?
cos x
b. f(x) = 3sin x + cos x

c. f(x) = 2sin x 5cos x
d. f(x) = sin x cos x
21. Solve arccos x+ arctan x = .

a. f(x) = 5sin x 12cos x + 13
b. f(x) = 7sin x + 2cos x + 1
c. f(x) = sin x + 3cos x 3
x + y = 4
Solve
the
system
of
equations.
22.
tan x + tan y =1
B. Further Trigonometric Equations

16. Solve |sin x cos x| = sin x + cos x.
5
2
23. Solve tan2 x +cos 2 x = .
17. Solve each system of equations in the interval

[0, ].
1
sin x sin y = 4
a.
x + y = 3
24. Solve tan2x + cot2y 2tan x 4cot y + 5 = 0.

sin( x + y) =1
b.
sin( x y) =1
tan x + cot y =1
c.
x + y =
4
18. Find the roots of sin4 x + cos4 x = cos 4x in [0, 2].
19. Solve 1 cos 2x = 2 sin x.

260
C. Trigonometric Inequalities
25. Solve each inequality.
1
2
b. 2 sin( x )+1< 0
3
a. sin 3x >
c. 2sin 2x + 2 0
3
d. sin(3 x )
5
2
e. 3sin 5x + 3 > 0
Algebra 10
26. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.

a. cos 2 x >
1
2
x
c. 2 cos + 2 0
3
x
e. 2 cos( ) 3 > 0
2 3
b. 2 cos(2 x ) < 1
3
d. 3cos x 3 > 0
a. tan2x < 3
b. tan2x + tan x 2 > 0
c. (cot2x 1)(cot2x 3) 0

a. tan 3x 1
b. 3tan 4x + 3 < 0
x 5
c. 3tan( )+3 0
2 36
d. tan 5x + 3 > 0
a. cos 4 x cos x + sin 4 xsin x

2
b. 1+ sin
x
x
4sin 3 x cos 2
3
3
c. 2(sin x + cos x)2 3

d. sin x cos x <

a. cot 3x + 3 < 0
1
2
sin x <
2
2
3
c. |sin x|
2
1
4
e. cos 2x + sin x 1 < 0
x
b. 2 cot + 2 0
2

a.
2
2
b.
1
3
< cos x
2
2
d. 3 < tan x
a.
3
3
6 tan 3 x
> 3
tan 2 3x 1
b. tan x cot x > 0
e. |cot x| > 1
34. Solve each system of inequalities.

a. sin x 2sin x 0
2
b. 2cos2x cos x 1 > 0

c. 6cos2x + cos x 1 < 0
d. 2sin2x 1 0
e. 2cos4x 3cos2x > 1
sin x cos x 2
a.
sin x + cos x 2
tan x >1
b.
cot x 1
sin x cos x > 4

c.
tan x 3
261
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
3A
1. (a 3)x2 + (b + 1)y2 = 1 is the equation of a unit

circle. Find (a, b).
A) (2, 1)
B) (1, 2)
D) (3, 4)
C) (3, 2)
5. This figure contains
E
a
D
seven identical
squares. What is
tan (EDB)?
E) (4, 0)
A
A)
3
4
B)
4
3
C)
5
4
D)
3
5
E)
5
3
, b is a point on the unit circle. Given that

2
2. P
6. In the figure,
P is in the fourth quadrant, find b.
A)
1
2
B)
3
2
C) 1
D)
1
2
E)
3
2
BC = 10 and
1
tan = .
3
Find AC = x.
A) 33
C) 3
B) 3
10
D)
3. sin x cos x = 1 is given. What is sin x cos x?
E) 1
A)
15
16
B)
15
32
C)
3
4
D)
3
8
E)
7
8
7. In the figure,
m(ABC) = 30,
m(BCA) = 90 and
DB = DC.
What is tan (DAC)?
30
B
4. In the figure, ABCD is a

square with
m(CKE) = 90,
m(DHA) = 90,
DH = HK and
m(DAH) = .
Find tan .
7
A)
2
262
3
B)
2
C
H
K
3
2
B)
5
2
C)
5
3
D) 3
E) 23
8. Which one of the following is equivalent to
3
C)
4
A)
2
D)
3
1
E)
2
sin 40?
A) sin 220
D) sin (40)
B) cos 140
C) sin 50
E) cos (50)
Algebra 10
9. Which one of the following is not equivalent to
sin ?
2
A) sin 2 +
B) cos (2 )
D) cos
C) cos ()
E) sin ()
13. In the figure,
ABC is a triangle
with AB = 10 cm,
DE = BE = 5 cm,
EC = 3 cm and
DC = 4 cm.
Find AD = x.
x
D
5
A) 2
10.
3
4
=
is given. Find the positive value of
cos x sin x
cos x.
2
3
A)
B)
2
5
C)
3
5
D)
4
5
3
5
E)
B) 4
C) 6
D) 8
135
B) 135
10
C) 120
A) 1
B) 2
C) 2
D) 22
E) 4
A)
D) 90
A
2
C
x
A) 5
B) 6
Chapter Review Test 3A
C) 8
B) 12 cm2
72
cm 2
5
C) 18 cm2
E) 15 cm2
16. An inscribed triangle has side lengths of 3, 7 and

8 units respectively. Find the circumference of its
A) 73 units
D) 10
4
12
E) 60
54
cm 2
5
D)
12. Find x in the figure.
CD = 5 cm.
Find A(CDE).
Find x in the figure.
E) 10
AB AE,
AB = 8 cm,
AC = 6 cm,
CE = 9 cm and
2
a = 5 cm and c = 6 cm. Which one of the
following is a possible value of m(B)?
15. In the figure,

A
14. ABC is a triangle such that A( ABC ) = 15 2 cm 2 ,
A) 150
11.
E) 12
D)
B)
7
units
3
7 3
units
7
E)
C)
14 3
units
3
3 3
units
7
263
3B
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. Find m(B) =
5. In the figure,
in the figure.
234157
G
F
ABCDEFGH is a cube.
Find tan (GBH).
521523
a
B
A) 28 34 26
B) 27 33 26
C) 27 34 26
D) 28 33 26
A)
1
3
B)
C)
D)
E) 3
E) 29 33 26
6. The figure contains
2. Find the primary directed angle of 3333.

A) 277
B) 267
C) 263
D) 257
E) 253
5
A)
12
4
B)
15
A)
and are
b
C) 12
5
15
D)
4
20
E)
3
3
2
C)
1
5
D)
2
5
3
5
E)
2
tan sec ?
15
B)
3
15
15
15
15
C)
D)
E)
3
5
5
15
8. < < and sin 2 = 12 are given. What is

B
264
B)
3
and cos B = .
5
Find cot C.
1
2
7. < < 3 and sin = 1 are given. What is
4. In the figure, AB = BC
B)
A)
A) 2
1
2
a
B
is a trapezoid and
complementary
angles, BD = 5
4
and tan = .
3
Find DC = x.
five identical
squares. What is
sin (ALM)?
C)
3
4
D)
4
3
E)
5
4
4
2
tan + cot ?
A)
1
13
B)
1
13
13
C)
24
13
D)
6
13
E)
13
6
Algebra 10
9. Which expression is equivalent to
13. In the figure,

m(ABC) = 90,
AD = 2, DB = 4
and BC = 3.
Find sin .
17
cos + x + sin
x + tan (2 x)?
2
A) cos x + sin x + tan x

B) cos x sin x tan x
A
2
D
C) cos x + sin x tan x
D) cos x sin x + tan x

E) cos x + sin x tan x
A)
B)
5 5
11
C)
5 5
2
11
D)
11
2
E)
2
5
10. Which one of the following is false?

A) sin 40 = cos 50
B) tan 210 = cot 30
is given.
3
Evaluate (sin a sin b)2 + (cos a + cos b)2.
14. a + b =
C) tan 45 = cot 225

D) sec 89 = csc 1
E) sin 280 = cos 10
11. Find the value of

A) 3
B)
A) 0
sin 15 cos 15
+
.
sin 45 cos 45
3
2
C) 0
D)
3
2
E) 3
B) 1
C) 2
15. In the figure,

ABCD is a square and
3 DE = AB.
Find csc .
D) 3
E) 4
F
a
B
A)
12. x [0, ], y ,
1
5 2
16. cos x =
3 2 2
6
D)
Chapter Review Test 3B
B)
1
6
5 2
7
C) 52
D)
E) 7
5 2
3
1
1
, cos x = and sin y=
2
3
2
are given. Find cos (x + y).

A)
B)
3+2 2
6
E)
C)
2 2 3
6
32 2
6
sin 2x.
A)
1
is given. If x is an acute angle, find
3
2 2
2
B)
2 2
3
C)
2
9
D)
4 2
9
E)
8 2
9
265
3C
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. Find the primary directed angle of
A)
2
5
B)
3
5
4
5
C)
D)
5. In the figure, ABCD is
72
.
5
7
5
E)
8
5
3
A) ,
B) 2 , 2 C) 2 , 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
D) 1 , 3
2
2
E) 2 , 2
2
2
3. In the figure, ABC
3
4
B)
A)
10
B)
3
10
1
3
C)
6. In the figure, ABC is a
D)
1
6
E)
10
3
right triangle with

m(B) = 90,
m(BAC) = 45,
m(ACD) = 15 and
AC = 26. Find DC.
is a right triangle
with altitude AH.
CH = 4 and
AC = 6 are given.
Find sin B.
A)
rectangle with
AB = 3 AD.
What is a possible
value of tan ?
2. Find the coordinates of the terminal point of an

3
arc in standard position with length
on the
4
unit circle.
45
D
26
15
B
B
2
3
1
2
C)
4. The figure contains

five identical
squares. What is
sin + cos ?
D)
1
3
E)
A) 4
C) 6
B) 23
E) 5
1
4
7. 0 < x < and cos x =

A
D) 2
3
are given. What is
5
csc x sec x + tan x?
A)
19
12
B)
17
12
C)
7
12
D)
13
6
E)
7
6
a
C
A)
2+ 5
10
D)
266
B)
1+ 2
10
1+ 5
10
E)
C)
2+ 3
10
3+ 5
10
8. cos 25 = a is given. Find sin 205 in terms of a.

A) a
D) 1 a2
B)
1
a
C)
1 a2
E) a
Algebra 10
9. cos 36 0.8090 and cos 37 0.7986 are given.

Find cos (36 15).
A) 0.8116
B) 0.8074
D) 0.8044
C) 0.8064
E) 0.8038
B) 0.0274
D) 0.0274
11 . cos =
C) 0.0174
E) 0.0374
4
is given. If is an acute angle, what is
5
B)
10
4
5
C)
3
5
D)
4
10
A) tan 3a
B) cot 3a
E)
C) cot 4a
E) tan 8a
14. 6x = is given. Which one of the following is

equivalent to
A) 1
tan 5 x + tan x
?
tan 5 x tan x
B) 1
C) 0
D) 3x
E) 2x
is given. Which one of the following is

20
sin 2 a sin 4 a
equivalent to
?
sin 7 a cos 9 a
10
A) 3
sin ?
2
A)
sin a + sin 3 a+ sin 5 a

?
cos a + cos 3 a+ cos 5 a
D) tan 6a
10 . sin 36 0.5878 and tan 42 0.9004 are given.

Find (3 cos 54) (2 cot 48).
A) 0.0374
13. Which one of the following is equivalent to
15. a =
B) 2
C) 1
D) 2
E) 3
12. sin 25 = a is given. Find the value of sin 40 in

terms of a.
A) 2a
B) 2a 1
D)
1 2 a2
a2 +1
Chapter Review Test 3C
1
1
+
?
cos 195 sin 195
16. What is
2
C) 1 2a
E) 2a2 + 1
A) 22
D) 46
B) 42
C) 26
E) 62
267
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
3D
1. What is 240 in radians?

3
A)
4
5
B)
3
5. A triangle ABC has side lengths a = 5 and b = 3.
7
C)
6
4
D)
3
sin x tan x
.
cot 2 x
1
3
2. In a right triangle, cos x = . Find

A)
64
3
D)
3. If
A)
6 2
5
B)
17
3
11
E)
6
C)
81 2
2
8 2
3
E)
B)
7
4
C)
7
4
D)
9
5
268
C)
21
2
E) 17
D) 4
6. In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 60, m(C) = 15,

and N is a point on BC such that AN bisects A
and BN = 4 cm. Find the length of AB.
B) 33
C) 62
D) 23
E)
8
5
A) 30
B) 45
C) 60
D) 90
E) 120
8. x and y are acute angles. If sin x =

B) cos x
E)
C) 1
cos x
sin x
E) 4
sin2A + sin2B = sin2C.

Find m(C).
3
cos y = , find sin(x y).
5
D) tan x
B) 19
7. A triangle ABC has the property
sin x cos x
tan
x cot x .
4. Simplify
1 sin 2 x
A) 1 tan x
A) 6
A) 42
3cos x + 2 sin x 2
= , what is cot x?
2 cos x sin x
3
8
5
Find c if m(C) = 60.
A)
33
65
B)
63
65
C)
33
65
D)
13
48
5
and
13
E)
14
65
Algebra 10
9. Find cos 75.
13. What ratio is not equal to sin 15?
6+ 2
4
A)
3 2
2
B)
6 2
4
D)
C)
A) sin 165
D) sin 105
3
are given.
5
14. Simplify
Find sin 2x + cos 2x.

7
A)
25
17
B)
25
11. Given that 0 < x <

cos 2x.
A)
A)
2
2
2
and sin x cos x = , find
2
3
2 14
9
B)
12. Calculate
2
3
2
E)
5
15. Simplify
D)
A)
27
D)
25
7
C)
5
5
9
3 14
14
C)
E)
13
13
3
4
Chapter Review Test 3D
C)
C) cos 75
E) cos 105
3+ 2
4
A)
3
3
sin 410 sin 210 tan105

.
cot( 15 ) cos 220
B) 0
C)
1
2
D)
1
2
E) 1
D)
3
3
E) 1
sin105 + sin15
.
cos105 + cos15
B) 3
C) 3
4
9
sin15 cos15
.
tan15 cot15
B)
B) cos 255
6 2
4
E)
10. 90 < x < 180 and sin x =
2 6
2
16. Simplify cos 20 cos 40 cos 60 cos 80.

D)
1
4
E)
1
2
A)
1
16
B)
1
8
C)
3
8
D)
2
32
E)
269
1
2
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. Calculate
A)
1
2
3E
5. Write the signs of the trigonometric ratios
(sin0 cos 90 )+ tan0 cos180

.
2sin 270 +cot 90
B)
1
2
C) 1
D) 1
sin 233, cos 125, tan 500 and sec 200 in order.
E) 0
A) , , ,
B) , , +, +
C) , +, , +
D) +, , , +
E) , +, ,
2. Find the range of f(x) = 3sin 4x + 5.

A) [3, 4]
B) [1, 1]
D) [2, 8]
C) [7, 17]
E) [3, 5]
6. Which ratio is the biggest?

A) sin 250
B) cos 300
D) cot 250
C) sec 80
E) tan 80
3. Find the domain of f ( x) = 2 tan(2 x + ) 5.

k
+ , k
6 2
k
+ , k
C) x
12 2
A) x
E) x
B) x
+ k, k
6
D) x
+ k, k
12
+ k, k
2
7. Find the fundamental period of f(x) = 3sin3 5x.

A)
B)
C)
2
3
D)
2
15
E)
2
5
4. In which expression is x undefined?

A) cos x =
7
3
B) tan x = 28
C) sec x = 12
D) sin x =
E) cot x = 0.001
270
3
2
8. Find the fundamental period of

f(x) = tan 3x + sin2 2x.
A) 2
B)
C)
5
6
D)
E)
Algebra 10
9. Find the fundamental period of f ( x) = sin

A)
B) 2
C) 2
D) 4
2x
.
E) 2
12. Find the domain of f(x) = arccos(2x 3).

A) [1, 2]
B) [1, 1]
C) [5, 1]
E) (, )
D) [1, 5]
10. The graph of the function f(x) = sin x is given.

Which of the following operations should be
combined to draw the graph of
f(x) = sin(2x 3) + 1?
I. move the graph 3 units left
1
2
13. Calculate arccos( ).

A)
II. move the graph 3 units right
B)
C)
5
3
2
3
D)
E)
III. move the graph 3 units down

IV. move the graph 1 unit up
V. move the graph 1 unit down
VI. divide all values on the xaxis by 2
2
3
14. Calculate sin(arccos ).
VII. multiply all values on the xaxis by 2

A) I, IV, VII
B) I, V, VI
D) II, IV, VII
C) IV, II, VI
E) II, V, VI
11. What is the equation of the graph?

y
p
2
A)
3p
2
2
3
B)
1
3
C)
5
2
3
4
3
5
C)
D)
2
3
5
3
E)
15. Calculate cos( + arctan ).

2p
A)
4
5
B)
4
5
D)
4
3
E)
3
5
3
5
A) y = 2cos 2x 3
B) y = 2 sin 2x 3
C) y = 3 cos 2x 2
D) y = 3 sin 2x + 2
E) y = 3 cos 2x + 2
Chapter Review Test 3E
16. Calculate sin(arccos

A)
33
65
B)
37
39
5
4
+ arccot ).
13
3
C)
63
65
D)
13
65
E)
271
20
39
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
3F
1. Solve 2cos 3x 1 = 0.
6. Solve 3sin x 5 cos x = 0.

2k
, k
B) +
9
3
A) + 2k, k
9
C) + 2k, k
3
2k
D) +
, k
3
3
2 k
+
, k
18
3
E)
5
A) arctan + k, k
3
4
B) arc cot + k, k
3
3
C) arcsin + 2 k, k
5
3
D) arctan + 2 k, k
5
2. Which of the following is not a solution of

2
2sin x 1 = 0?
A) 45
B) 135
C) 225
D) 425
E) 585
3. What is the sum of the roots of 2cos2x cos x = 0

in [0, 2]?
A) 2
B)
5
E) arc cot + 2 k, k
3
7. What are the maximum and minimum values of

f(x) = 4 sin x 5 cos x?
11
3
C) 4
D)
17
3
E) 6
A) 3, 3
B) 5, 5
D) 9, 9
C) 41, 41
E) 7, 7
4. Solve tan(3x ) = tan .

7 k
+ , k
12
2
k
+ , k
C)
36 3
A)
E)
B)
k
+ , k
12 3
D)
7 k
+ , k
36 3
3 k
+ , k
4
3
8. Find the roots of sin 2x + cos x = 0 in [, ].
5

A) , , ,
2
6
6 2
C) ,
5. Solve sin x cos x = 1.

A)
+ 2 k, k
2
C) 2k, k
,
6

D) , , ,
2
3
6 2

E) , , ,
4
6 4 2
B) { + k, 2 n}, k, n
2
D) { + 2 k, 2 n}, k, n
2
E) { + 2k, + 2 n}, k, n
2
272

B) , , ,
2
6 6 2
2
9. Find the sum of the roots of cot x 3 = 0 in
[0, 540].
tan x +1
A) 1130 B) 720 C) 630 D) 1620 E) 1480

Algebra 10
sin x + cos y =1
.
x+ y =
A) ( + 2 k, 2 k), k
6
3
5
B) ( + 2 k, 2 k) ( +2 n, 2 n), k, n
6
3
6
3
10. Solve the system
C) (
5
+ 2k, 2k), k
6
3
D) ( + 2 k, 2 k), k
2
E) ( + 2 k, 2 k) ( + 2 n , + 2 n ), k, n
2
6
3
11. Solve sin x
2
.
2
A) + 2k, + 2k , k
4
4
+ 2 k , k
B) + 2k,
4
4
C) + 2k, + 2k , k
4
4
3
5
D) + 2k,
+ 2k , k
4
4
E) + 2k,
+ 2 k , k
4
4
12. Solve cos(3 x )
3
.
2
A) + 2k, + 2k , k
6
18
B) + 2 k, + 2 k , k
2
6
2
2
k
k
, +
, k
C) +
3 6
3
9
2k 2k
D) +
, +
, k
3
6
3
18
2k 2k
E) +
, +
, k
3
6
3
18
Chapter Review Test 3F
13. Solve cot(2 x + ) 3 < 0 .

5
A) k,
+ k , k
6
k 5 k
+
B) ,
, k
2
2 12
5
C) + k,
+ k , k
6
6
D) + k, + k , k
6
k 5 k
E) + ,
+
, k
2
12 2 12
14. Solve 1 < tan x 3.

3
A) + k,
+ k , k
4
3
B) + k, + k , k
6
C) + k, + k , k
3

D) + k, + k , k
4
3
E) + 2k, + 2k , k
3
15. Solve 2cos2x + 3cos x 2 > 0.
A) + 2k, + 2 k , k
3
3
B) + 2k, + 2 k , k
6
6
C) + 2 k,
+ 2 k , k
3
3
D) ( arccos 2+ 2 k,arccos 2+ 2 k ), k
E) + k, + 2 k , k
3
2
273
APPLICATON SAYFASI
GELECEK
274
Algebra 10
A. TANGENTS
The word tangent comes from the Latin word tangens, which means touching. Thus, a
tangent line to a curve is a line that just touches the curve. In other words, a tangent
line should be parallel to the curve at the point of contact. How can we explain this idea
clearly? Look at the figures below.
a tangent line to a curve
zoomed in once
zoomed in twice
B
original curve
As we zoom in to the curve near the point A, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from
the tangent line. So, the tangent line is parallel to the curve at the point A.
x
a secant line to a curve
How can we find the equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point? The graphs below
show one approach.
y
y
B(x, f(x))
B
B
f(x) f(a)
A(a, f(a))
The slope of the line is
the tangent of the angle
between the line and the
positive x-axis.
a
positive
slope
zero
slope
276
a
negative
slope
no
slope
xa
The first graph shows the curve y = f(x). The points A(a, f(a)) and B(x, f(x)) are two points on
this curve. The secant line AB has slope mAB, where
mAB =
f (x) f (a)
.
xa
Now suppose that we want to find the slope of the tangent to the curve at point A. The
second graph above shows what happens when we move point B closer and closer to
point A on the curve. We can see that the slope of the secant line AB gets closer and
closer to the slope of the tangent at A (line t). In other words, if m is the slope of the
tangent line, then as B approches A, mAB approaches m.
Algebra 10
Definition
tangent line
The tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point A(a, f(a)) is the line through A with the
slope
m = lim
x a
f (x) f (a )
,
xa
provided that this limit exists.

Example
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 at the point A(1, 1).
We can begin by calculating the slope of the tangent.
Here we have a = 1 and f(x) = x2, so the slope is
m = lim
f (x) f (1)
x2 1
= lim
x 1 x 1
x 1
m = lim
(x 1)(x +1)
= lim( x+1) =1+1= 2.
x 1
(x 1)
x 1
The equation of a line

through the point (x1, y1)
with slope m:
y y1 = m(x x1).
x 1
Now we can write the equation of the tangent at point (1, 1):
y y1 = m(x x1)
y 1 = 2(x 1)
y = 2x 1.
Example
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 1 at the point (1, 2).
Here we have a = 1 and f(x) = x3 1, so the slope is
m = lim
x 1
x3+ y3=(x+ y)(x2xy+y2)
f ( x) f ( 1)
( x3 1) (( 1)3 1)
x3 +1
= lim
= lim
x 1
x 1 x +1
x (1)
x +1
( x +1)( x2 x + 1)
x 1
( x +1)
m = lim
m = lim( x2 x +1) = (1) 2 (1)+1

x 1
m = 3.
So the equation of the tangent line at (1, 2) with slope m = 3 is

y y1 = m(x x1)
y (2) = 3(x (1))
y + 2 = 3x + 3
y = 3x + 1.
Differentiation
277
We can also write the expression for the slope of a tangent line in a different way. Look at the
graphs below.
y
y
B
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
A
a+h
h
h
h
h
From the first graph, writing x = a + h gives us the slope of the secant line
mAB =
f (a+ h) f (a)
.
h
We can see in the second graph that as x approaches a, h approaches zero. So the
expression for the slope of the tangent line becomes:
f (a + h) f (a )
m = lim
.
h0
h
THE SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE TO A CURVE
The slope of a tangent line to a curve y = f(x) at x = a is
m = lim
h0
Example
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 at the point (1, 1).
Let f(x) = x3. Then the slope of the tangent at (1, 1) is
m = lim
h0
(x+y)3=x3+3x2y+3xy2+y3
f (a + h) f (a )
.
h
f ( 1+ h) f (1)
( 1+ h) 3 ( 1) 3
= lim
h0
h
h
(1)3 + 3(1) 2 h+ 3(1) h2 + h3 (1) 3

h0
h
m = lim
m = lim
h0
h(3 3h + h2 )
= lim(3 3 h+ h2 ) = 3.
h0
h
So, the equation of the tangent at point (1, 1) is

y (1) = 3(x (1))
y + 1 = 3x + 3
y = 3x + 2.
278
Algebra 10
Example
Solution
Find the equation of the normal line to the curve y =
2
at the point (2, 1).
x
Recall that a normal line is a line which is perpendicular to a tangent. The product of the
slopes mt of a tangent and mn of a normal is 1.
Let us begin by finding the slope of the tangent.
2
2
2
1
f (2+ h) f (2)
mt = lim
= lim 2+ h 2 = lim 2+ h
h 0
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
mt = lim
h 0
2 (2+ h)
1
h
= lim
= lim
h
0
h
0
h( h + 2)
h( h + 2)
2+ h
1
mt = .
2
We have mt mn = 1.
mn mt = 1
The product of slopes of
the tangent line and the
normal line at a point
equals 1.
So, mn =
1
1
=
= 2.
1
mt
The equation of the normal line passing through the

point (2, 1) with the slope mn = 2 is
y y1 = mn(x x1)
y 1 = 2(x 2)
y = 2x 3.
Check Yourself 1
1. Find the equation of the tangent line to each curve at the given point P.
a. f(x) = x2 1
P(1, 0)
b. f(x) = x3 + 1
P(0, 1)
1
1
P( , 2)
c. f(x) =
2
x
2. Find the equation of the normal line at point P for each curve in the previous question.
Answers
1. a. y = 2x 2 b. y = 1 c. y = 4x + 4
2. a. y =
Differentiation
1
1
x+
2
2
b. x = 0 c. y = 1 x + 15
4
8
279
B. VELOCITIES
position at
time t = 2
Imagine you are in a car driving

across a city. The velocity of the car
will not be constant. Sometimes
the car will travel faster, and
sometimes it will travel slower.
However, the car has a definite
velocity at each moment. This is
called the instantaneous velocity of
the car. How can we calculate the
instantaneous velocity?
position at
time t = 2+h
S(2 + h) S(2)
S(2)
S(2+h)
To answer this question, let us look at a simpler example: the motion of an object falling
through the air. Let g = 9.8 m/s2 be the acceleration of the object due to gravity. We know
from physics that after t seconds, the distance that the object will have fallen is
1 2
gt meters or s(t) = 4.9 t2 meters.
2
Suppose we wish to calculate the velocity of the object after two seconds. We can begin by
s(t) =
calculating the average velocity over the time interval [2, 2 + h]:
average velocity =
distance travelled
elapsed time
s(2 + h) s(2) 4.9(4 + 4h+ h2 4)
=
= 19.6 + 4 .9 h
h
h
If we shorten the time period, the average velocity is becoming closer to 19.6 m/s, the value
of instantaneous velocity.
More generally, we can calculate the instantaneous velocity V(a)
of an object at time t = a by the limit of the average velocities:
V(a ) = lim
h 0
s(a + h) s( a)
h
This is not the first time we see the above formula. It is the
same formula that we use for the slope of the tangent line to a
curve. Remember that
f (a + h) f (a )
.
h
This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the slope
m = lim
h 0
of the tangent line at A(a, s(a)).

280
Algebra 10
Example
Solution
A stone is dropped from the top of the Eiffel Tower. What is the velocity of the stone after five
seconds?
We use the equation of motion s(t) = 4.9t2 to find the
velocity V after five seconds:
V(5) = lim
s(5+ h) s(5)
4.9(5+ h) 2 4.9(5) 2
= lim
h0
h
h
V(5) = lim
4.9(25 +10 h+ h2 25)

4.9(10 h+ h2)
= lim
h0
h
h
V(5) = lim
4.9h(10+ h)
= lim(49+ 4.9 h) = 49 m/s.
h0
h
h 0
h 0
h 0
Example
A particle moves along a straight line with the equation of motion s(t) = t2 + 3t + 1, where
s(t) is measured in meters and t is in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity over the interval [1, 2].
b. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.
Solution
a. Average velocity is the ratio of distance travelled to elapsed time. So, we have
average velocity =
s(2) s(1) (2 2 + 3 2+1) (1 2 + 3 1+1)

=
= 6 m/s.
1
2 1
b. Let V(2) be the velocity after two seconds.

V(2) = lim
s(2+ h) s(2)
( h+ 2 )2 + 3 ( h + 2) +1 [2 2 + 3 2 +1]
= lim
h 0
h
h
V(2) = lim
h2 + 4h + 4+ 3h +6+1 11
h2 +7 h
= lim
= lim( h+7) = 7 m/s.
h 0
h 0
h
h
h 0
h 0
Check Yourself 2
1. A basketball player throws a ball upward at a speed of 20 m/s. This means that after t
seconds, the balls height will be s(t) = 20t 4.9t2.
a. Find the average velocity of the ball over the interval [1, 2].
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the ball after two seconds.
2. The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line is given by the equation of motion
s(t) = 2t3 + 3t 2, where t is measured in seconds and s(t) is in meters.
a. Find the average velocity of the particle over the following intervals.
i. [1, 3] ii. [1, 4] iii. [2, 4]
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at each time.
i. t = 2 ii. t = 3 iii. t = 4
Answers
1. a. 5.3 m/s b. 0.4 m/s 2. a. i. 29 m/s ii. 45 m/s iii. 59 m/s b. i. 27 m/s ii. 57 m/s iii. 99 m/s
Differentiation
281
C. RATES OF CHANGE
In section A we learned how to find the slope of a tangent line and in section B we learned
how to calculate the instantaneous velocity of an object from a given acceleration. We can
say that acceleration is a rate of change: it shows how fast or slowly a quantity (the velocity)
changes from one moment to the next. Other examples of rates of change are how fast a
population grows, or how fast the temperature of a room changes over time.
The problem of finding a rate of change is mathematically equivalent to finding the slope of
a tangent line to a curve. To understand why, suppose y is a quantity that depends on
another quantity x. Thus, y is the function of x and we write y = f(x).
Look at the graph of f(x). If x increases by an amount h, then y increases by f(x + h) f(x).
y
f(x+h)
y=f(x)
B(x+h, f(x+h))
f(x+h) f(x)
f(x)
A(x, f(x))
f(x+h) f(x) is the

change in y that corresponds
to a change h in x.
h
x
The difference quotient
x+h
f (x+ h) f (x)
is called the average rate of change of y with
h
respect to x over the interval [x, x + h] and can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line
AB. If we take the limit of the average rate of change, then we obtain the instantaneous rate
of change of y with respect to x, which is interpreted as the slope of the tangent line to the
curve y = f(x) at A(x, f(x)).
The following summarizes this part:
RATES OF CHANGE
1. The average rate of change of f over an interval [x, x + h] is
f (x+ h) f (x)
.
h
2. The instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at a point x is
f (x + h) f (x)
lim
.
h0
h
282
Algebra 10
Example
Solution
A student begins measuring the air temperature in a room at eight oclock in the morning.
2
She finds that the temperature is given by the function f (t ) =16+ t 2 C, where t is in
3
hours. How fast was the temperature rising at 11:00?
We are being asked to find the instantenous rate of change of the temperature at
t = 3, so we need to find the following limit:
f (3+ h) f (3)
h
2
2
16 + (3 + h)2 (16 + (3) 2 )
3
3
= lim
h 0
h
2
2
16+ (9+6 h + h2 ) 16 9
3
3
= lim
h 0
h
2
(9 + 6 h + h2 9)
3
= lim
h 0
h
2h(6+ h)
= lim
h 0
3h
2
= lim(6+ h)
3 h 0
2
= 6 = 4 C per hour
3
rate of change = lim
h 0
Example
Solution
A manufacturer estimates that when he produces x units of a certain commodity, he earns

R(x) = x2 3x 1 thousand dollars. At what rate is the revenue changing when the
manufacturer produces 3 units?
We need to find the instantaneous rate of change of the revenue at x = 3, so
rate of change = lim
h 0
R(3+ h) R(3) (3+ h) 2 3(3+ h) 1 (3 2 3 3 1)

=
h
h
9+6 h + h2 9 3 h
3 h + h2
= lim
= lim(3+ h) = 3.
h 0
h 0
h 0
h
h
It follows that revenue is changing at the rate of $3000 per unit when 3 units are produced.
= lim
In conclusion, rates of change can be interpreted as the slope of a tangent. Whenever we

solve a problem involving tangent lines, we are not only solving a problem in geometry but
also solving a great variety of problems in science.
Differentiation
283
D. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
f (x+ h) f (x)
as a difference quotient of the
h
function f(x). We have calculated the limit of a difference quotient as h approaches zero.
Up to now we have treated the expression
Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special name and notation.
derivative of a function
Definition
The derivative of the function f(x) with respect to x is the function f (x) (read as f prime of x)
defined by
f (x) = lim
h 0
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h
The process of calculating the derivative is called differentiation. We say that f(x) is
differentiable at c if f (c) exists.
Thus, the derivative of a function f(x) is the function f (x), which gives
1. the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at any point (x, f(x)),
2. the rate of change of f (x) at x.
FOUR-STEP PROCESS FOR FINDING f(x)
1. Compute f(x + h).
2. Form the difference f(x + h) f(x).
3. Form the quotient
f (x+ h) f (x)
.
h
4. Compute f (x) = lim

h 0
Example
Solution
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x2.

To find f (x), we use the four-step process:
1. f(x + h) = (x + h)2 = x2 +2xh + h2
2. f(x + h) f(x) = x2 + 2xh + h2 x2 = 2xh + h2
2
3. f (x+ h) f (x) = 2 xh+ h = h(2x+ h ) = 2x+ h
h
h
h
4. lim(2 x + h) = 2 x
h 0
Thus, f (x) = 2x.

284
Algebra 10
Example
10
Solution
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x2 8x + 9 at x = 1.

We apply the four-step process:
1. f(x + h) = (x + h)2 8(x + h) + 9 = x2 + 2xh + h2 8x 8h + 9
2. f(x + h) f(x) = x2 + 2xh + h2 8x 8h + 9 (x2 8x + 9) = 2xh + h2 8h
2
3. f (x+ h) f (x) = h + 2 xh 8h = h + 2x 8
h
h
4. lim
h0
f (x + h) f (x)
= lim( h + 2 x 8) = 2 x 8
h0
h
So, f (x) = 2x 8 and f (1) = 2 1 8 = 6.

This result tells us that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point x = 1 is
6. It also tells us that the function f(x) is changing at the rate of 6 units per unit change
in x at x = 1.
Example
11
Let f(x) =
1
.
x
a. Find f (x).
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point (1, 1).
Solution
h
1
1
f (x + h) f (x)
1
1
x
x
(
+ h)
a. f (x) = lim
= lim x + h x = lim
= lim(
)= 2 .
0
0
0
h0
h
h
h
h
x(x + h)
x
b. In order to find the equation of a tangent line, we

have to find its slope and one point on the
tangent line. We know that the derivative gives us
the slope of the tangent. Let m be the slope of the
tangent line, then
1
= 1.
12
So, the equation of the tangent line to the graph
m = f (1) =
y = x+2
2
y=
y=
1
x
1
x
x
of f(x) at the point (1, 1) with the slope m = 1

is
y 1 = 1(x 1)
y = x + 2.
Differentiation
285
Example
12
Solution
The function f(x) = x is given. Find the derivative of f(x) and the equation of the normal
line to f(x) at the point x = 1.
x + h x x+ h + x
f (x + h) f (x)
x+ h x
= lim
= lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
x+ h + x
f (x) = lim
h 0
f (x)=lim
h 0
f (x)=
x+ h x
h( x + h + x )
= lim
h 0
h
h( x + h + x )
= lim
h 0
1
x+ h + x
1
2 x
Remember that if mt is the slope of a tangent and mn is the slope of a normal at the same
point, then mt mn = 1. So, we can find the slope of the normal from the slope of the
tangent. Then we can write the equation of normal line to f(x) at the point x = 1.
The slope of the tangent is
1
1
= .
2 1 2
The slope of the normal is
mt = f (1) =
mn =
1
1
= = 2.
1
mt
2
The equation of the normal line is

y y0 = mn (x x0)
y 1 = 2(x 1)
(Note that y0 = f(x0), that is y0 = f(1) = 1)
y = 2x + 3.
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = 2x + 7.
2. Let f(x) = 2x2 3x.
a. Find f (x).
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point x = 2.
3. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x3 x.
1
4. If f ( x) =
, find the derivative of f(x).
x+ 2
Answers
1. 2 2. a. 4x 3 b. y = 5x 8
286
3. 3x2 1
4.
1
2 ( x + 2)3
Algebra 10
E. LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND DERIVATIVES

When we were studying limits we learned that the limit of a function exists if and only if the
left-hand and the right-hand limits exist and are equal. Otherwise the function has no limit.
From this point, we may conclude that the derivative of a function f(x) exists if and only if
f ( x + h) f ( x )
f ( x + h) f ( x )
and f ( x+ ) = lim+
exist and are equal.
h 0
h
h
hand derivative and the right-h
hand
These expressions are respectively called the left-h
derivative of the function.
f ( x ) = lim
h 0
Example
13
Solution
Show that the function f(x)= x does not have a derivative at the point x = 0.
Here we should find the left-hand derivative and the right-hand derivative. If they exist, then
we will check whether they are equal or not.
Let us find the left-hand derivative:
f (0 ) = lim
h 0
f (0 + h) f (0)
0 +h 0
h
= lim
= lim
.
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
Since h < 0, h is undefined and this limit does not exist. So the left-hand derivative does
not exist either.
Thus, the function f(x)= x has no derivative at the point x = 0.
Example
14
Solution
x2 1,
x 1
.
f(x) is given as f ( x) =
2 x 2, x < 1
Does this function have a derivative at the point x = 1?
We will find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.

f (1 ) = lim
f (1 + h) f (1)
2(1 + h) 2 0
2h
= lim
= lim
=2
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
f (1+ ) = lim+
f (1 + h) f (1)
(1 + h) 2 1 0
h2 + 2 h
= lim+
= lim+
= lim(
h + 2 ) = 2.
h 0
h 0
h 0 +
h
h
h
h 0
h 0
The left-hand and the right-hand derivatives are equal to each other. Thus, the derivative of
the function at the point x = 1 exists and
f (1) = f (1) = f (1+) = 2.
Differentiation
287
F. DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY

Recall that if f (c) exists, then the function f(x) is differentiable at point c. Similarly, if f(x)
is differentiable on an open interval (a, b), then it is differentiable at every number in the
interval (a, b).
Example
15
Solution
Where is the function f(x) = |x| differentiable?

We can approach this problem by testing the differentiability on three intervals:
x > 0, x < 0 and x = 0.
1. If x > 0, then x + h > 0 and |x + h| = x + h.
Therefore, for x > 0 we have
f (x) = lim
h 0
| x + h | | x|
x+ h x
h
= lim
= lim = lim1=1.
h
0
h
0
h
h
h h 0
So, f (x) exists and f (x) is differentiable for any x > 0.

2. If x < 0, then |x| = x and |x + h| = (x + h) if we choose h small enough such that
it is nearly equal to zero.
Therefore, for x < 0 we have
f (x) = lim
x0
| x + h | | x|
( x + h) ( x)
h
= lim
= lim
= lim(1) = 1
x
0
h
0
h 0
h
h
h
So, f (x) exists and f(x) is differentiable for any x < 0.

3. For x = 0 we have to investigate the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives separately:
lim+
|0+ h| |0|
| h|
h
= lim+
= lim+ = lim+ 1=1
h 0
h 0 h
h 0
h
h
lim
|0+ h| |0|
| h|
h
= lim
= lim
= lim(1)
= 1
h 0
h 0 h
h 0
h
h
h 0
h 0
Since these limits are different, f (x) does not exist. So, f(x) is not differentiable for
x = 0.
In conclusion, f(x) is differentiable for all the values of x except 0.
Alternatively, from the graph of f(x), we can see that f(x) does not
have a tangent line at the point x = 0. So, the derivative does not
y = f(x)
exist.
Note that the function does not have a derivative at the point where
the graph has a corner.
288
Algebra 10
A function f is
continuous at x = a
if and only if
lim f ( x) = f ( a).
If a function f(x) is differentiable at a point, then its graph has a non-vertical tangent line at
this point. It means that the graph of the function cannot have a hole or gap at this point.
Thus, the function must be continuous at this point where it is differentiable.
x a
Note
If f(x) is differentiable at a, then f(x) is continuous at a.
The converse, however, is not true: a continuous function may not be differentiable at every
point.
For example, the function f(x) = |x| is continuous at 0, because lim f (x) = 0 = f (0).
x 0
But it is not differentiable at the point x = 0.
Example
16
2 x2 x,
The piecewise function f(x) is given as f ( x) = 6,

3
x 2,
a. Is f(x) continuous at x = 2?
x>2
x = 2.
x<2
b. Is f(x) differentiable at x = 2?
Solution
a. Since lim f ( x) = f (2), f(x) is continuous at x = 2.

x 2
b. Let us find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives of the function f(x) at the point x = 2.
f (2 ) = lim
h 0
= lim
h 0
f (2+ h) f (2)
(2 + h)3 2 6
= lim
h 0
h
h
2 3 + 3 2 2 h + 3 2 h2 + h3 8
h(12+6 h+ h2 )
= lim
h 0
h
h
h+ h2 ) =12
= lim(12+6
h 0
f (2 + ) = lim+
h 0
f (2+ h) f (2)
2 (2+ h)2 (2 + h) 6
= lim+
h 0
h
h
= lim+
8+8 h + 2 h2 2 h 6
2 (4+ 4h + h2 ) 2 h 6
= li m+
h 0
h
h
= lim+
h(7+ 2 h)
= lim(7+
2 h) = 7.
h 0 +
h
h 0
h 0
Since f (2+) f (2), the derivative of the function f(x) does not exist at the point x = 2.
So, the function is continuous at x = 2, but it is not differentiable at the same point.
Differentiation
289
We have seen that a function f(x) is not differentiable at a point if its graph is not
continuous at x = a. The figures below show two more cases in which f(x) is not
differentiable at x = a:
y
a discontinuity
a corner
a vertical tangent
CRITERIA FOR DIFFERENTIABILITY

For the following cases the function is not differentiable at a given point:
1. the graph has a discontinuity at the point,
2. the graph has a corner at the point,
3. the graph has a vertical tangent line at the point.
Example
17
Solution
290
Explain why the function shown in the graph

on the right is not differentiable at each of the
points x = a, b, c, d, e, f, g.
y = f(x)
The function f(x) is not differentiable at the

points x = a, b, c because it is discontinuous at
each of these points. The derivative of the
function f(x) does not exist at x = d, e, f
d e
f
g
x
a b c
because it has a corner at each of these points.
Finally, the function is not differentiable at x = g because the tangent line is vertical at that point.
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 4
1. Given that
x 1,
f ( x) = 2
x 1,
x <1
, show that the derivative of f(x) does not exist at the
x 1
point x = 1.
2. f(x) = |x2 4x + 3| is given. Find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 3.
3. The graph of a function f is given below. State, with reasons, the values at which f is not
differentiable.
y
y = f(x)
-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
Answers
1. compare f (1) and f (1+).
2. does not exist.
3. x = 1, corner; x = 4, discontinuity; x = 8, corner; x = 11, vertical tangent.
Differentiation
291
At the beginning of our study of derivatives we have learned that a curve lies very close to its
tangent line near the point of contact. This means that for the same value of x near the point
of tangency, the values of y on the curve and tangent line are approximately equal to each other.
This fact gives us a useful method for finding approximate values of functions.
We can use the tangent line at (a, f(a)) as an approximation to the function f(x) when x is near
a. The equation of this tangent line is
y = f(a) + f (a)(x a).
So, our approximation becomes
f(x) f(a) + f (a)(x a).
This type of approximation is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation of
f(x) at a. The linear function whose graph is the tangent line
L(x) = f(a) + f (a)(x a)
is called the linearization of f(x) at a. The geometric interpretation of linear approximation is
show in the figure.
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
f(a)
L(a)
The linear approximation f(x) L(x) is a good approximation when x is near a. It is very
useful in physics for simplifying a calculation or a theory. You might think that a calculator can
give us better approximation than the linear approximation. But a linear approximation gives an
approximation over an entire interval, which can be more useful. For this reason, scientists
frequently use linear approximation in their work. The following example illustrate the use of
linear approximation method to simplify calculation.
For example, let us find the linearization of the function f ( x)= x + 2 at a = 2, and use it to
approximate the numbers
4,01 .
3,99 and
First, we have to find f (2), the slope of the tangent line to the curve f ( x)= x + 2 when x = 2.
1
The derivative of f(x) is f ( x)=( x + 2 ) =
.
2 x+ 2
1
1
So, f (2)=
= .
2 2+2 4
The linearization is given by
L(x) = f(a) + f (a) (x a)
1
x 3
(x 2) = + .
4
4 2
x 3
The linear approximation is therefore x + 2 L( x)= + .
4 2
In particular we have
L(x) = f(2) + f (2) (x 2) = 2 +
3.99 = 1.99+ 2 L(1.99) =

4.01 L(2.01) =
1.99 3
+ =1.9975
4
2
2.01 3
+ = 2.0025.
4
2
x 3
The graphs of f ( x)= x + 2 and its linear approximation L( x)= + are shown below. We
4 2
see that our approximations are overestimates because the tangent line lies above the curve.
y
x 3
L(x) = +
4 2
2
f(x) = x + 2
The following table shows estimates from the linear approximation with the actual values.
approximation
actual value
3.99
1.9975
1.99749...
4.01
2.0025
1.00249...
EXERCISES
4 .1
A. Tangents
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
each function at the given point.
a. f(x) = 5x 1 ; x = 3
b. f(x) = 4 7x ; x = 2
c. f(x) = x2 1 ; x = 1
d. f(x) = 3x2 2x 5 ; x = 0
e. f(x) = x3 3x + 5 ; x = 1
f.
f(x) = x + x ; x = 4
g.
f ( x) =
h. f ( x) =
1
; x= 2
x2
4x
; x= 2
x +1
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to each
C. Rates of Change
5. The volume of a spherical cancer tumor is given
4 3
by the function V( r ) = r , where r is the
3
radius of the tumor in centimeters. Find the rate
of change in the volume of the tumor when

2
r = cm.
3
6. A certain species of eagle faces extinction. After a

conservation project begins, it is hoped that the
eagle population will grow according to the rule
N(t) = 2t2 + t + 100 (0 t 10), where N(t)
denotes the population at the end of the year t.
Find the rate of growth of the eagle population
when t = 2 and the average rate of growth over
the interval [2, 3].
function at the given point.

a. f(x) = 2x + 5 at (2, 9)
b. f(x) = x2 + x + 1 at (1, 3)
c. f(x) = x3 x at (2, 6)
d. f(x) = 2x at (4, 4)
B. Velocities
3. A particle moves along a straight line with
the equation of motion s(t) = t2 6t 5, where s
is measured in meters and t is in seconds. Find
the velocity of the particle when t = 2.
4. If a stone is dropped from a height of 100 m, its
7. The fuel consumption (measured in litres per

hour) of a car travelling at a speed of v kilometers
per hour is c = f(v).
a. What is the meaning of f (v)?
b. What does the statement f (20) = 0.05 mean?
height in meters after t seconds is given by

s(t) = 100 5t2. Find the stones average velocity
over the period [2, 4] and its instantaneous
velocity at time t = 4.
294
Algebra 10
D. Derivative of a Function
8. Each limit below represents the derivative of a
function f(x) at x = a. Find the function f and the
number a in each case.
(1+ h)10 1
h 0
h
3
b. lim 8+ h 2
h 0
h
cos( + h)+1
d. lim
h0
h
a. lim
3x 81
x 4 x 4
c. lim
x +6,
14. Given that f ( x) = x2 ,
3
x 6 x,
c. f ( x) =
15. Consider the slopes

of the tangent lines
to the given curve at
each of the five
points shown. List
these five slopes in
decreasing order.
2 x +1
x 1
d. f ( x) = 3x +1
0x8
6x,
x> 3
y
A
D
C
x
16. If the tangent to the graph of f(x) = x2 2ax + 3
E. Left-Hand and Right-Hand

Derivatives
10. Let f(x) =
x = 3 find f (3).
Mixed Problems
9. Find the derivative of each function.

a. f(x) = 3 2x + x2 b. f ( x) =
x> 3
.
9x 24, 8 < x
Does the function have derivative at x = 8? Why
or why not?
17. At which point of the curve y = x2 + 4 does its
tangent line pass through the origin?
18. An arrow is shot upward on a planet. Its height (in
11. Given that f(x) = |x 1|, find f (1).
at x = 1 is parallel to the line 2x y = 1, find a.
meters) after t seconds is given by h(t) = 60t 0.6t2.
F. Differentiability and Continuity
a. At what time will the arrow reach the top?
12.
b. With what velocity will the arrow hit the

ground?
y = f(x)
2 1
19. Given the continuous function
find a, b and c such that its graph has a tangent

touching it at three points..
The graph of f(x) is given. At what numbers is f(x)

not differentiable? Why?
13. Let f(x) =
x2 + 7x, x 1
.
9x 24, x > 1
Does the function have derivative at x = 1? Why

or why not?
Differentiation
x2 +10 x +8, x 2
f ( x) = ax2 + bx + c, 2 < x < 0,

2
x0
x + 2 x,
20. Given that f(x) = |x2 2x|, find f (1).
21. Using linear approximation calculate 99.
295
A. BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES

Up to now, we have calculated the derivatives of functions by using the definition of the
derivative as the limit of a difference quotient. This method works, but it is slow even for
quite simple functions. Clearly we need a simpler, quicker method. In this section, we begin
to develop methods that greatly simplify the process of differentiation. From now on, we will
use the notation f(x) (f prime of x) to mean the derivative of f with respect to x. Other books
and mathematicians sometimes use different notation for the derivative, such as
d
dy
= Dx( f (x)).
f (x) = y =
dx
dx
All of these different types of notation have essentially the same meaning: the derivative of a
function with respect to x. Finding this derivative is called differentiating the function with
respect to x.
In stating the following rules, we assume that the functions f and g are differentiable.
Our first rule states that the derivative of a constant function is equal to zero.
THE DERIVATIVE OF A CONSTANT FUNCTION
If c is any real number, then c = 0.
We can see this by considering the graph of the constant
function f(x) = c, which is a horizontal line. The tangent line to
a straight line at any point on the line coincides with the straight
line itself. So, the slope of the tangent line is zero, and therefore
the derivative is zero.
We can also use the definition of the derivative to prove this
result:
f (x + h) f (x)
c c
f (x) = lim
= lim
= lim 0 = 0.
h 0
h
0
h 0
h
h
Example
18
y
y=c
slope = 0
x
The slope of the tangent to
the graph of f(x) = c, where c is
constant, is zero.
a. If f(x) = 13, then f (x) = (13) = 0.

1
1
b. If f (x) = , then f ( x) = = 0 .
2
2
296
Algebra 10
Next we consider how to find the derivative of any power function f(x) = xn.
Note that the rule applies not only to functions like f(x) = x3, but also to those such as
g(x) = 4 x3 and h( x) =
1
= x 5 .
x5
THE DERIVATIVE OF A POWER FUNCTION (POWER RULE)

If n is any real number, then (xn) = nxn 1.
Example
19
a. If f (x) = x, then f ( x) = x = 1 x11 = 1 .

b. If f (x) = x2 , then f ( x) = ( x2 ) = 2 x 2 1 = 2 x.
c. If f (x) = x3 , then f ( x) = ( x 3 ) = 3 x 3 1 = 3 x 2 .
Note
To differentiate a function containing a radical expression, we first convert the radical
expression into exponential form, and then differentiate the exponential form using the Power
Rule.
Example
20
a. If f (x) = 2 x3 , then f ( x) = x 3 / 2 in exponential form

f (x) = (x3 / 2 ) =
3 3 / 2 1 3 1 / 2
x
= x .
2
2
1
b. If f (x) = , then f ( x) = x 1 in exponential form
x
f (x) = (x1 ) = 1 x 11 = x 2 =
Differentiation
1
.
x2
297
The proof of the Power Rule for the general case (n ) is not easy to prove and will no be
given here. However, we can prove the Power Rule for the case where n is a positive integer.
Proof
f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h)n x n
= lim
.
h 0
h 0
h
h
Here we need to expand (x + h)n and we use the Binomial Theorem to do so:
(Power Rule) If f(x) = xn, then
f (x) = lim
n (n 1) n 2 2
n
n 1
x h + + nxh n 1 + h n x n
x + nx h +
2
f (x) = lim
h 0
h
f (x) = lim
n xn 1h +
h 0
n (n 1) n 2 2
x h + + nxh n 1 + h n
2
h
(every term includes h as a factor,

so hs can be simplified)
n (n 1) n 2
f (x) = lim nxn 1 +

x h + + nxh n 2 + h n 1 = n x n 1 (if h = 0, then every term including
h 0
h as a factor will be zero)
2
Check Yourself 5
Differentiate each function by using either the Constant Rule or the Power Rule.
1. f(x) = 2
2. f(x) = 0.5
5. f(x) = x3
3
6. f (x) = x7
3. f (x) = 1
3
4. f (x) = 3
2
7. f (x) = 1
x2
8. f (x) =
1
x3
Answers
1. 0
2. 0
3. 0
4. 0
5. 3x2
6.
73 4
x
3
7.
2
x3
8.
3
2 x5
The next rule states that the derivative of a constant multiplied by a differentiable function
is equal to the constant times the derivative of the function.
THE CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE
[c
Example
21
f (x)]= c f (x)
a. If f (x) = 3x, then f ( x) = (3 x) = 3 ( x) = 3 1 = 3 .

b. If f (x) = 3x4 , then f ( x) = (3 x 4 ) = 3( x 4 ) = 3 (4 x 3 ) =12 x 3 .
298
Algebra 10
Proof
(Constant Multiple Rule) If g(x) = c f(x), then

g(x) = lim
h 0
g(x + h) g(x)
c f (x + h) c f (x)
= lim
h 0
h
h
g(x) = c lim
h 0
f (x + h) f (x)
h
g(x) = c f (x).
Example
22
a. If f (x) =
b.
2
6
, then f ( x) = (2 x 3 ) = 2( x 3) = 2(3 x 4) = 6 x 4 = 4 .
3
x
x
5
1
5
.
If f (x) = 5 x, then f ( x) = (5 x1 / 2 ) = 5( x1 / 2 ) = 5 x 1 / 2 = x 1 / 2 =
2 x
2
2
Next we consider the derivative of the sum or the difference of two differentiable functions.
The derivative of the sum or the difference of two functions is equal to the sum or the
difference of their derivatives. Note that the difference is also the sum since it deals with
addition of a negative expression.
THE SUM RULE
[ f (x) g(x)] = f (x) g(x)

Note
We can generalize this rule for the sum of any finite number of differentiable functions.
[ f (x) g(x) h(x) ...] = f (x) g (x) h (x) ...
Differentiation
299
Now, lets verify the rule for a sum of two functions.

Proof
(Sum Rule) If S(x) = f(x) + g(x), then
[ f (x + h)+ g(x + h)] [ f (x)+ g(x) ]

S(x + h) S(x)
= lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
S(x) = lim
S(x) = lim
[ f (x + h) f (x)]+ [g(x + h) g(x) ]

h
h 0
S(x) = lim
h 0
f (x + h) f (x)
g(x + h) g(x)
+ lim
h
0
h
h
S(x) = f (x)+ g ( x).

Example
23
a. If f (x) = x2 +7, then f ( x) = ( x2 +7) = ( x2) +(7) = 2 x3+0 = 2 x3.

2
t2
2
b. If g(t) = t + 5 , then g( t) = t
2
+5t =
2
5 t
5
5
1 2
2
2
+(5 t ) = ( t ) +5( t ) .
5
1
g(t ) = (2t 21 )+5(2 t21 )
5
2
2t 10
g(t ) = t 10t 3 = 3 .
5
5 t
Notice that in this example, the independent variable is t instead of x. So, we differentiate
the function g(t) with respect to t.
By combining the Power Rule, the Constant Multiple Rule and the Sum Rule we can
differentiate any polynomial. Let us look at some examples.
Example
24
Solution
Differentiate the polynomial function f(x) = 3x5 + 4x4 7x2 + 3x + 6.

f (x) = (3 x5 + 4 x4 7 x2 + 3 x +6)
f (x) = (3 x5 )+(4 x4 ) +(7 x2 ) +(3 x) +(6)
f (x) = 3(x5 )+ 4( x4 ) 7( x2 ) + 3( x) +(6)
f (x) = 3 5 x4 + 4 4 x3 7 2 x+ 3 1+0
f (x) =15 x4 +16 x3 14 x+ 3
300
Algebra 10
Example
25
It is estimated that x months from now, the population of a certain community will be
P(x) = x2 + 20x + 8000.
a. At what rate will the population be changing with respect to time fifteen months from
now?
b. How much will the population actually change during the sixteenth month?
Solution
a. The rate of change of the population with respect to time is the derivative of the
population function, i.e.
rate of change = P(x) = 2x + 20.
Fifteen months from now the rate of change of the population will be:
P(15) = 2 15 + 20 = 50 people per month.
b. The actual change in the population during
the sixteenth month is the difference between
the population at the end of sixteen months
and the population at the end of fifteen
months. Therefore,
the change in population = P(16) P(15)
= 8576 8525
= 51 people.
Check Yourself 6
1. Find the derivative of each function with respect to the variable.
3
2x
b.
4
f (r ) = r 3
3
d. f(x) = 3x2 + 5x 1
e.
f (t ) =
a. f (x) =
2. Find the derivative of f (x) =

3. Differentiate f (x) =
Answers
3
1. a. 2
2x
2. 2x 2
Differentiation
b. 4r2
x x+ x
0.1
x
4 t2
+t
t3 3
3
2
f. f (x) = x 4x + 3
x
x3 3x2 + 3x 1
.
x 1
x2 x x
c.
c. f(x) = 0.2x
d. 6x + 5
e.
12 2t
+1
3
t4
f. 2 x 4
3
x2
3. 1
301
B. THE PRODUCT AND THE QUOTIENT RULES

Now we learn how to differentiate a function formed by multiplication or division of
functions. Based on your experience with the Constant Multiple and Sum Rules we learned
in the preceding part, you may think that the derivative of the product of functions is the
product of separate derivatives, but this guess is wrong. The correct formula was discovered
by Leibniz and is called the Product Rule.
The Product Rule states that the derivative of the product of two functions is the derivative
of the first function times the second function plus the first function times the derivative of
the second function.
THE PRODUCT RULE
[ f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)

Be careful! The derivative of the product of two functions is not equal to the product of the
derivatives:
We can easily see this by looking at a particular example.
Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x2. Then
[ f (x)g(x)] f (x)g(x)
f (x)g(x) = x x2 = x3
f (x) =1 and g( x) = 2 x
[ f (x)g(x)] = 3 x2
f (x)g(x) =1 2 x = 2 x
[ f (x)g( x)] f (x)g(x).
Example
26
Solution
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x(x + 1).

By the Product Rule,
f (x) = x (x+ 1)+ (x) (x+1) = x 1+1 ( x+1) = 2 x+1 .
We can check this result by using direct computation:

f(x) = x(x + 1) = x2 + x so, f (x) = 2x + 1, which is the same result.
Note that preferring direct differentiation when it is easy to expand the brackets is always
simpler than applying the Product Rule.
Example
27
Solution
Differentiate the function f(x) = (2x2 + 1)(x2 x).

f (x) = (2 x2 +1) (x2 x) +( 2x 2 + 1) (x2 x)
f (x) = (4 x)(x2 1) + (2 x2 + 1)(2 x 1)
f (x) = 4x3 4x+ 4x3 2x2 + 2x 1
f (x) = 8 x3 2 x2 2 x 1
302
Algebra 10
28
Differentiate the function f(x) = (x3 + x 2)(2x + 1).
Solution
First, we convert the radical part into exponential form:
Example
f (x) = ( x3 + x 2)(2 x +1) = ( x3 + x 2) (2 x1/ 2 +1).

Now, by the Product Rule,
f (x) = (x3 + x 2) (2 x1/ 2 +1)+( x3 + x 2) (2 x1/ 2 +1)
f (x) = (3 x2 +1)(2 x1/ 2 +1)+( x3 + x 2) x 1/ 2 = 6 x5 / 2 + 3 x2 + 2 x1/ 2 +1+ x5 / 2 + x1/ 2 2 x 1/ 2
f (x) = 7 x5 / 2 + 3x2 + 3x1 / 2 2 x1/ 2 +1.
Let us look at the proof of the Product Rule.

Proof
(Product Rule) If P(x) = f(x)g(x), then

P(x) = lim
h 0
P(x + h) P(x)
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
= lim
h 0
h
h
By adding f(x + h)g(x) + f(x + h)g(x) (which is zero) to the numerator and factoring, we have:
P(x) = lim
h 0
P(x) = lim
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x + h)g(x ) + f (x + h)g(x ) f (x)g(x)

h
f (x + h) [g(x + h) g(x)]+ g(x) [f (x + h) f (x) ]
h
h 0
g(x + h) g(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
P(x) = lim f (x + h)
+ g( x)
h 0
h
h
f (x + h) f (x )
g(x + h) g(x)
+ lim g(x) lim
h
0
h
0
h
h
P (x) = f (x) g (x)+ g(x) f (x) = f (x)g(x)+ f (x)g (x).

P(x) = lim f (x + h) l im
h 0
Example
29
Solution
h 0
Differentiate the function f(x) = (x2 + 1)(3x4 5x)(x3 + 2x2 + 4).

In this example we have a product of three functions, but we are only able to apply the rule
for the product of two functions. So, before we proceed we must imagine the function as
a product of two functions as follows:
f ( x) = ( x2 +1)(3 x4 5 x) ( x3 + 2 x2 + 4)
f ( x) = [( x2 +1)(3 x4 5 x)] ( x3 + 2 x2 + 4) +( x2 +1)(3x 4 5 x)( x3 + 2 x2 + 4)
requires product rule once more
f ( x) = [2 x(3x4 5x)+( x2 +1)(12 x3 5)] ( x3 + 2 x2 + 4) +( x2 +1)(3 x4 5 x)(3x2 + 4x ).
Our aim is to introduce this method and because any further simplification is time
consuming, we will stop at this point.
Differentiation
303
The derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus
the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator. Or,
numerator derivative of the numerator denominator numerator derivative of the denominator
.
=
the square of the denominator
denominator
THE QUOTIENT RULE

f (x) f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x)
g(x) =
( g(x))2
g( x) 0
The quotient rule is probably the most complicated formula you will have to learn in this text.
It may help if you remember that the quotient rule resembles the Product Rule.
f (x) f (x)
g(x) g(x)
Example
30
Solution
Also note that like in the Product Rule, the derivative of a quotient is not equal to the
quotient of derivatives.
Find the derivative of the function f (x) =

Using the Quotient Rule:
f (x) =
(3x+ 1) (2 x 1) (3 x+1) (2 x 1)
(2 x 1)2
f (x) =
3 (2 x 1) (3 x+1) 2 6 x 3 6 x 2
=
(2 x 1)2
(2 x 1)2
f (x) =
Example
31
Solution
304
3x+ 1
.
2x 1
5
.
( 2 x 1)2
2
Differentiate the rational function f (x) = x + x 21 .
x 1
According to the Quotient Rule,

f (x) =
(2 x+ 1) (x 1) (x2 + x 21) 1
(x 1)2
f (x) =
2 x2 x 1 x2 x+ 21 x2 2 x+ 20
=
(x 1)2
(x 1)2
f (x) =
x2 2 x+ 20
.
x2 2 x+ 1
Algebra 10
32
Example
Solution
Differentiate the function f (x) =
2 x2 + 3x+ 1
.
2x
Before trying to use the Quotient Rule let us simplify the formula of the function:
f (x) =
2 x2 + 3x+ 1 2 x2 3x
1
3 1
=
+
+
= x+ + x 1.
2x
2x 2x 2x
2 2
In this example, finding the derivative will be easier and quicker without using the Quotient Rule.
f (x) = 1+ 0
1 2
1
x2 1
x =1 2 =
2
x
x2
Note
We do not need to use the Quotient Rule every time we differentiate a quotient. Sometimes
performing division gives us an expression which is easier to differentiate than the
quotient.
Let us verify the Quotient Rule.
Proof
(Quotient Rule) Let Q(x) =
f (x)
and Q(x) be differentiable.
g(x)
We can write f(x) = Q(x)g(x).

If we apply the Product Rule: f (x) = Q(x)g(x) + Q(x)g(x)
Solving this equation for Q(x), we get
f (x) Q(x)g (x)
=
Q(x) =
g(x)
Q(x) =
Example
33
Solution
f (x)
g (x)
g(x)
g(x)
f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x)

.
( g(x))2
f(x) = x g(x), where g(4) = 2 and g(4) = 3. Find f (4).

f (x) = ( x g( x)) = ( x ) g( x)+ x g ( x)
f (x) =
g(x)
2 x
So f (4) =
Differentiation
f (x)
+ x g (x)
g(4)
2 4
+ 4 g (4) =
2
13
+2 3 = .
22
2
305
Check Yourself 7
1. Find the derivative of each function using the Product or the Quotient Rule.
a. f(x) = 2x(x2 + x + 1)
b. f(x) = (x3 1)(x2 2)
1
1
c. f (x) = 2 + x + 1
x
x
d. f (x) = ( x + 1) x 2 +
e. f (x) =
2 x+ 4
3x 1
f. f (x) =
g. f (x) =
x2 x+ 10
x+ 1
h. f (x) =
x 1
x +1
x3 + 3x2 5x+ 6
2x
2. If f(x) is a differentiable function, find an expression for the derivative of each function.
a. y = x2f(x)
b. y =
f (x)
x2
2
c. y = x
f (x)
d. y =
1+ xf (x)
x
3. Suppose that f and g are two functions such that f(5) = 1, f (5) = 6, g(5) = 3 and
g(5) = 2. Find each value.
f
b. (5)
g
a. (fg)(5)
g
c. (5)
f
Answers
1. a. 6x2 + 4x + 2
e.
14
(3x 1)2
b. 5x4 6x2 2x
f.
1
2
x( x +1)
c. 1
2
3
4
3
x
x
2
g. x + 2 x 2 11
( x +1)
d.
5
1
x x + 2x
2
2x x
h. x
2
2
2. a. 2xf(x) + x2f (x) b. f ( x) x 4 2 xf ( x) c. 2 xf ( x) f (2x) x

x
( f ( x))
3. a. 16 b.
306
20
9
3 3
+
x2 2
2
d. x f ( x2 ) 1
x
c. 20
Algebra 10
C. THE CHAIN RULE

We have learned how to find the derivatives of expressions that involve the sum, difference,
product or quotient of different powers of x. Now consider the function given below.
h(x) = (x2 + x 1)50
In order to differentiate h(x) using the rules we know, we need to expand h(x), then find the
derivative of each separate term. This method is, however, tedious!
Consider also the function m( x) = x2 + x 1. This function is also difficult to differentiate
using the rules we have learned. For each of the two functions h(x) and m(x), the
differentiation formula we learned in the previous sections cannot be applied easily to
calculate the derivatives h(x) and m(x).
We know that both h and m are composite functions because both are built up from simpler
functions. For example, the function h(x) = (x2 + x 1)50 is built up from the two simpler
functions f(x) = x50 and g(x) = x2 + x 1 like this:
h(x) = f(g(x)) = [g(x)]50 = (x2 + x 1)50
Here we know how to differentiate both f and g, so it would be useful to have a rule that tells
us how to find the derivative of h = f(g(x)) in terms of the derivatives of f and g.
THE CHAIN RULE
[ f ( g( x))] = f ( g( x)) g( x )
outer
function
argument
of the
outer
function
derivative of
the outer
function
derivative of
the argument
of the outer
function
For example, if h(x) = f(g(x)) = (x2 + x 1)50, then

h(x) = f (g(x)) g(x) = 50(x2 + x 1)49 (2x + 1).
1. [(x2 + x 1)50] 50(x2 + x 1)49

2. [(x2 + x 1)50] 50(2x + 1)49
Differentiation
307
Example
34
Solution
Example
35
Solution
Differentiate the function f(x) = (3x2 + 5x)2005.

2
2004
(3 x2 +5 x) = 2005(3 x2 +5 x) 2004 (6 x+5).
By the Chain Rule, f ( x) = 2005(3 x +5 x)
Suppose m(x) = f(g(x)) and g(1) = 5, g (1) = 2, f(5) = 3 and f (5) = 4 are given.
Find m (1).
By the Chain Rule, m(x) = f(g(x)) g (x). So m (1) = f (g(1)) g(1) = f (5) 2 = 4 2 = 8.
Note
The Chain Rule can be generalized for the composition of more than two functions as follows:
[ f1( f2( f3(...fn(x)...)))] = [ f1( f2( f3(...fn(x)...)))] ( f2( f3(...fn(x)...))) ( f3(...fn(x)...)) ... fn(x)
Using the Chain Rule we can generalize the Power Rule as follows:
GENERAL POWER RULE
[(f(x))n] = n(f(x))n 1 f (x)
By using this rule we can more easily differentiate the functions that can be written as the
power of any other functions.
Example
36
Solution
Differentiate the function m( x) = x2 + x 1.

1
We can rewrite the function as m(x) = (x2 + x 1)2 and apply the General Power Rule:
1
1
m( x) = ( x2 + x 1) 2 ( x2 + x 1)
2
1
1
m( x) = ( x2 + x 1) 2 (2 x +1)
2
m( x) =
Example
37
Solution
2 x +1
2 x2 + x 1
Differentiate the function f ( x) =
1
.
x + 3x
2
f ( x) =[( x2 + 3x)1] = 1( x2 + 3 x) 2 ( x2 + 3 x)
f ( x) = 1( x2 + 3 x) 2 (2 x + 3)
f ( x) =
308
2x + 3
( x2 + 3x)2
Algebra 10
Example
38
Solution
1
f ( x) = (2 x3 + x2 15) 3 (2 x3 + x2 15)
3
f ( x) =
f ( x) =
Example
39
Solution
Differentiate the function f(x) = (2x3 + x2 15) 3 .
1
1
(6 x2 + 2 x)
3
3 3 (2 x + x2 15)4
6 x2 + 2 x
3 3 (2 x3 + x2 15)4
3
Differentiate the function f ( x) = (( x +1) 3 +5 x) .
f ( x) = 3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) 4 (( x+1) 3 +5 x)

2
5
2
f ( x) = 3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) 4 ( ( x+1) 3 ( x+1) +5)
3
2
5
2
f ( x) = 3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) 4 (5 ( x+1) 3 )
3
Example
40
Solution
Differentiate the function f ( x) = (2 x 3)5 x2 2 x.

The function is the product of two expressions, so we can use the Product Rule:
f ( x) = ((2 x 3) 5 ) x2 2 x +(2 x 3) 5 ( x2 2 x)
f ( x) = 5 (2 x 3)4 2 x2 2 x +(2 x 3) 5
f ( x) =10(2 x 3) 4 x2 2 x +
Differentiation
1
( x2 2 x) 2 (2 x 2)
2
(2 x 3)5 (2 x 2)
2 x2 2 x
309
Example
41
Solution
2t +1
Differentiate the function g(t ) =
.
t3
6
2t +1 2t +1
g(t ) = 7

t3 t 3
(by the Power Rule)
2t +1 2 ( t 3) 1 (2 t +1)
g(t ) = 7

(t 3)2
t3
(by the Quotient Rule)
2t +1 2t 6 2t 1
g(t ) = 7

(t 3)2
t3
g(t ) =
(simplify)
49(2t +1)6
.
(t 3)8
Notation
dy
.
dx
If y = f(g(x)) such that y = f(u) and u = g(x), then we can denote the derivative of f(g(x))
dy dy du
=
.
by y = f (g(x)) g(x) or y = f (u) u(x) or
dx du dx
Remember that if y = f(x), then we can denote its derivative by y or
The notation
Example
42
Solution
dy dy du
is called Leibniz notation for the Chain Rule.
=
dx du dx
Given that y = u2 1 and u = 3x2 + 1, find
dy
by using the Chain Rule.
dx
By the Chain Rule,

dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
d
d
=
( u 2 1) (3 x+1) (find the derivative of the first function with respect to u
dx du
dx
and the second function with respect to x)
dy
= (2 u 1) 3
dx
dy
= (2 (3 x+1) 1) 3
dx
dy
=18 x + 3.
dx
310
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 8
1. Find the derivative of f(x) = (2x + 1)3.
2. Differentiate y = (x3 1)100.
3. Find f (x) given f ( x) =
1
3
x + x +1
4. Find the derivative of g( x) = 4

5. y =
x3 1
.
x3 +1
1
dy
and u = 3x 1 are given. Find
.
u
dx
Answers
1. 6(2x + 1)2
4.
Differentiation
1 x3 +1 43 6 x2
(
)
4 x3 1 ( x3 +1)2
2. 300x2(x3 1)99
5.
3.
2 x +1
3 ( x2 + x +1)4
3
3
(3x 1)2
311
D. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f is also a function, so f may have a
derivative of its own, denoted by (f ) = f . This new function f is called the second
derivative of f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f. Look at three different ways
of writing the second derivative of a function:
d2 y
f ( x) = y = 2
dx
Example
43
Solution
Find the second derivative of the function f ( x) =
2x
.
x 1
By the Quotient Rule,

f ( x) =
2 ( x 1) 2 x 1 2 x 2 2 x
2
=
=
.
2
2
( x 1)
( x 1)
( x 1) 2
Now differentiate f (x) to get f (x):

2
f ( x) =
2
( x 1)
2
3
= (2( x 1) ) = 4( x 1) 1=
( x 1)3
Note
Before computing the second derivative of a function, always try to simplify the first derivative
as much as possible. Otherwise the computation of the second derivative will be more tedious.
Notation
If we differentiate the second derivative f (x) of a function f(x) one more time, we get the
third derivative f (x). Differentiate again and we get the fourth derivative, which we write
as f (4)(x) since the prime notation f (x) begins to get difficult to read. In general, the
derivative obtained from f(x) after n successive differentiations is called the nth derivative or
dn y
the derivative of order n and written by f (n)(x) or
.
dxn
Example
44
Solution
Find the derivatives of all orders of the polynomial function

f(x) = x5 + 4x4 + 2x3 5x2 6x + 7.
f (x) = 5x4 + 16x3 + 6x2 10x 6
f (x) = 20x3 + 48x2 + 12x 10
f (x) = 60x2 + 96x + 12
f (4)(x) = 120x + 96
f (5)(x) = 120
f (n)(x) = 0
312
(for n > 5)
Algebra 10
Example
45
Solution
1
Find a general expression for the nth derivative of the function f ( x) = .
x
dy
1
= ( x1 ) = x2 = 2
dx
x
d2 y
2
= ( x2 ) = 2 x3 = 3
2
dx
x
6
d3 y
= (2 x3 ) = 6 x4 = 4
3
dx
x
24
d4 y
= (6 x4 ) = 24 x5 = 5
dx4
x
120
d5 y
= (24 x5 ) = 120 x6 = 6
dx5
x
n!=n(n1)(n2)...321
for any natural number n
(1)n n!
dn y
n
( n+1)
=
(...)
=
(1)
!
=
n
x
dxn
xn+1
Check Yourself 9
1. Find the second derivative of each function.
a. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 4x + 5
b.
f ( x) =
x 1
x+ 2
2. Find the third derivative of each function.

a. f(x) = x
2/3
b.
1
f (t ) = ( t 2 1)5
2
Answers
1. a. 6x 6
Differentiation
b.
6
( x + 2)3
2. a. 8 x 3
27
2
2
2
b. 15t( t 2) (3t 2)
2
313
Motion is one of the key subjects in physics. We define

many concepts and quantities to explain the motion in
one dimension. We use some formulas to state the
relations between the quantities. Derivative plays an
important role in defining the quantities and producing
the formulas from other derivatives. Here we will give the
definition of important concepts and formulas that
includes the uses of derivative.
DISPLACEMENT
The displacement is the change in the position of an object. If we denote the position at time t1
by x1, and the position at time t2 by x2, then the displacement is the difference between these two
points; this is defined by
x = x2 x1.
The time interval is, similarly,
t = t2 t1.
We use the capital Greek letter (delta) to show a change in a variable from one value to
another.
VELOCITY
The velocity describes how fast the position of an object
changes. It is measured over a certain time interval. If a
car has a displacement x in a particular time interval t,
then the car's average velocity, Vav, over that time interval
is defined by
Vav =
displacement x2 x1 x
=
.
=
time interval
t2 t1
t
The definition of the average velocity includes a time interval. We learn more about the motion
when smaller time intervals are used. Because of this, we define the instantaneous velocity as
follows.
The instantaneous velocity at a time t is the velocity of an
object at that given instant of time. In other words, it is the
limit of the average velocity as t approaches zero:
x(t + t ) x(t )
t
From the definition given above, we may conclude that the instantaneous velocity is the
derivative of the displacement with respect to time t.
V(t )= lim
t 0
V (t )= lim
t 0
x dx
=
t
dt
ACCELERATION
The term acceleration refers to the rate of change in velocity of an object with respect to time.
We define the average acceleration, aav, in terms of velocity v1 at time t1 and v2 at time t2:
v2 v1 v
=
t2 t1
t
Now we will define the instantaneous acceleration as follows.
aav =
v
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the expression
as the time interval goes to
t
zero.
v dv
=
t dt
This means that the instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.
Also it is the second derivative of the displacement.
a(t ) lim =
t 0
For example, the position function x(t) of a car moving along a straight line is given as
x(t) = 4t2 + 6t 20 m where t is in seconds.
The derivative of the position function gives the velocity function.
V (t )=
The acceleration is
dx
=(4t 2 +6t 20) = 8t +6 m/s
dt
dv
=(8t +6) = 8 m/s 2.
dt
So, the car moves with constant acceleration.
a(t )=
EXERCISES
4 .2
A. Basic Differentiation Rules

1. Find the derivative of each function by using the
rules of differentiation.
c. f(x) = 10(3x + 1)(1 5x)

d. f(x) = (x3 1)(x + 1)
c. f(x) = e
f ( x) =
Product or the Quotient Rule.
b. f(x) = (2x + 3)(3x 4)
1
f (x ) =
151
d.
2. Find the derivative of each function by using the

a. f(x) = 5x(x2 1)
a. f(x) = 2
b.
B. The Product and The Quotient Rules
e. f(x) = (x3 x2 + x 1)(x2 + 2)

f. f(x) = (1 + t )(2t2 3)
1 8
x
12
f ( x) =
3
2x + 4
h. f ( x) =
x 1
2 x +1
i.
f ( x) =
1 2x
1+ 3x
j.
f ( x) =
x
x2 +1
k.
f ( x) =
x2 + 2
x2 + x +1
l.
f ( x) =
x + 3x
3x 1
g.
e. f(x) = 2x0.8
f.
g.
f ( x) =
f ( x) =
5 4/5
x
4
2
6
411
h. f(x) = 0.3x0.7
i. f(x) = 7x12
j. f(x) = 5x2 3x + 7
x 3 + 2 x2 + x 1
x
k.
f ( x) =
l.
4 3 2
f ( x) = 4 3 +
t
t
t
o.
316
f ( x) =1
2
x
1
3
+
x
x
g(1) = 3, find the value of h(1).

a. h(x) = f(x) g(x)
m. f ( x) = x + 3 x + 5 x
n. f ( x) = x +
3. Given that f(1) = 2, f (1) = 1, g(1) = 2 and
1
x
b. h(x) = (x2 + 1) g(x)

c. h( x) =
xf ( x)
x + g( x)
d. h( x) =
f ( x) g( x)
f ( x) g( x )
Algebra 10
4. Differentiate the function f ( x) =
x 3x x
by
x
simplifying and by the Quotient Rule. Show that
7. h(x) = g(f(x)) and f(2) = 3, f (2) = 3, g(3) = 5

and g(3) = 4 are given. Find h(2).
both of your answers are equivalent. Which

method do you prefer? Why?
5. f(3) = 4, g(3) = 2, f (3) = 6 and g(3) = 5 are

given. Find the value of the following expressions.
a. (f + g)(3)
8. By using the Chain Rule, find
dy
for each function.
dx
a. y = u2 1, u = 2x + 1
b. y = u2 + 2u + 2, u = x 1
b. (fg)(3)
f
c. (3)
g
f
d.
(3)
f g
c. y =
1
, u = x3
u 1
d. y = u +
1
u
, u = x2 x
C. The Chain Rule

6. Find the derivative of each function.
a. f(x) = (3x 1)2
b. f(x) = (x2 + 2)5
D. Higher Order Derivatives

9. Find the second derivative of each function.
c. f(x) = (x5 3x2 + 6)7
a. f(x) = 3x2 7x + 2
d. f(x) = (x 2)3
2
e. f ( x) =
(5x2 + 3x 1)2
b. f(x) = (x2 + 1)7
f. f ( x) =
c. f ( x) =
1
4x2 +1
x2
x 1
d. f ( x) = 2 x 1
g. f ( x) = ( x +1+ x ) 3
h. f(x) = (x 1)5 (3x + 1)1/3
i.
(1 3 x)7
f ( x) =
(2 x +1)4
j.
f ( x) = (
3x 9 3
)
2x + 4
2x 1
3x +1
l. f(x) = 3x + [2x2 + (x3 + 1)2]3/4
k. f ( x) =
Differentiation
10. Find the third derivative of each function.

a. f(x) = 5x4 3x3
b. f(x) =
2
x
c. f ( x) = 3x 2
d. f(x) = (2x 3)4
317
Mixed Problems
16. The concentration of a certain drug in a patients

bloodstream t hours after injection is given by
11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph
0.2t
.
t2 +1
a. Find the rate at which the concentration of
C(t ) =
of the function f(x) = (x3 + 1)(3x2 4x + 2) at

the point (1, 2).
the drug is changing with respect to time.
x
12. The curve y = 2
is called a serpentine
x +1
curve. Find the equation of the tangent line to the
b. How fast is the concentration changing

1 hour after the injection? What about after 2
hours?
curve at the point x = 3.
13. f is a differentiable function. Find an expression

for the derivative of each of the following functions.
a. y = x2xf(x)
b. y = x3(f(x))2
c. y =
d. y =
x3
f ( x)
x + xf ( x )
x
14. Prove that (fgh) = f gh + fgh + fgh if f, g and h
are differentiable functions.
17. g(x) = f(x2 + 1) is given. Find g (1) if f (2) = 3.
18. Find an expression for the derivative of
15. A scientist adds a toxin to a colony of bacteria. He
g( x)h( x)
f
if f, g, h, m and n are differentiable
m( n( x))
functions.
estimates that the population of the colony after t

24t +10
hours will be P(t ) = 2
thousand bacteria.
t +1
Find the estimated rate of change of the
19. If the tangent to the graph of f at point (2, 3) has an
population after three hours.
20. Given that f ( x) = x x x and f ( a) = 7 ,
angle of 60 with x-axis, find the slope of tangent to

the graph of g(x) = f 2(x) x f(x) at x = 2.
64
find a.
21. Given that f(4 g(x) + 7) = x3 2x2 + 3 and
g(x) = 1 x, find f (1).
22. Find an expression for the nth derivative of the
318
function f ( x) =
1
.
2x
Algebra 10
A. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Let us begin by looking at the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions.
DERIVATIVES OF SINE AND COSINE
(sin x) = cos x
(cos x) = sin x
46
Example
Solution
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = (sin x + cos x)2.

f ( x) = 2(sin x + cos x)(sin x+ cos x)
(by the General Power Rule)
f ( x) = 2(sin x + cos x)(cos x sin x)
(by the sum, derivative of the sine and cosine)
f ( x) = 2(cos x sin x)
(simplify)
f ( x) = 2 cos 2 x
(by the trigonometric identity)
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x
Now let us derive the formula for the derivative of the function f(x) = sin x.
Proof
(Derivative of Sine Function)

By the definition of the derivative, we have
f ( x) = lim
f ( x + h) f ( x )
sin( x + h) sin x
= lim
h
0
h
h
f ( x) = lim
sin x cos h + cos x sin h sin x

sin x cos h sin x cos x sin h
= lim
+
h 0
h
h
h
h 0
h 0
lim
h0
sin h
=1
h
cos h 1
lim
=0
h0
h
Example
47
Solution
cos h 1
sin h
cos h 1
sin h
sin x lim
+ l im cos x lim
f ( x) = lim sin x
+ cos x
= lim
h 0
h
0
h
0
h
0
h
0
h
h
h
f ( x) = sin x 0 + cos x 1 = c os x.
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x sin x.

By the Product Rule
f ( x) = ( x sin x) = ( x) sin x+ x (sin x) = sin x+ xcos x.
Differentiation
319
Example
48
Solution
Example
49
Solution
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = cos(x3 x).

f ( x) = (cos( x3 x)) = sin( x3 x) ( x3 x) = sin( x3 x) (3 x2 1)
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = sin3x2.

In this example we have the composition of three functions.
f ( x) = sin 5 x2 = (sin( x2 ))5
We apply the Chain Rule beginning from the outermost function:
f ( x) = ( (sin( x2 ))5 ) = 5(sin( x2 ))4 ( sin( x2 ))
sin 2x = 2sin x cos x
f ( x) = 5(sin( x2 ) )4 cos( x2 ) ( x2 )
f ( x) = 5(sin( x2 ) )4 cos( x2 ) 2 x
f ( x) =10 x si n( x2 )cos( x2 )
Check Yourself 10
Find the derivative of each function.
1. f(x) = x 3 sin x
2.
f(x) = xcos x
3. f ( x) =
sin x
1+ cos x
4. f(x) = cos2(x2 + x 1)
Answers
1. 1 3cos x
2. cos x xsin x
4. sin(2x2 + 2x 2) (2x + 1)
3.
1
1+ cos x
DERIVATIVES OF OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

(tan x) = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x
(tan f(x)) = sec2 f(x) f (x)
(cot x) = csc2 x = (1 + cot2 x)

sin x
(sec x) = sec x tan x =
cos2 x
(cot f(x)) = csc2 f(x) f (x)
(csc x) = csc x cot x =

320
cos x
sin2 x
(sec f(x)) = sec f(x) tan f (x) f (x)

(csc f(x)) = csc f(x) cot f(x) f (x)
Algebra 10
Example
50
Solution
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = tan(x2 3x + 1).

f (x) = sec2(x2 3x + 1) (x2 3x + 1) = sec2(x2 3x + 1) (2x 3)
or
Example
51
Solution
= (1 + tan2(x2 3x + 1))(2x 3).
Find the derivative of the function f ( x) =
sec x
.
1+ tan x
By the Quotient Rule,

f ( x) =
(sec x) (1+ tan x) sec x (1+ tan x) (by the Quotient Rule)
(1+ tan x)2
f ( x) =
sec x tan x (1+ tan x) sec x sec 2 x

(1+ tan x)2
(differentiate)
f ( x) =
sec x(tan x + tan 2 x sec 2 x)

(1+ tan x)2
(factorize)
f ( x) =
sec x(tan x 1)
(1+ tan x)2
(simplify using tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x)
Check Yourself 11
Find the derivative of each function.
tan x
1. f ( x) =
2. f(x) = 4 sec x cot x
x
3. f(x) = cot(x2 x + 1)
Answers
1.
Differentiation
x sec 2 x tan x
x2
2. 4sec xtan x + csc2 x
3. csc2(x2 x + 1) (1 2x)
321
B. DERIVATIVES OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

1. Absolute Value Functions
g( x), g( x) > 0
If f(x) = |g(x)|, then f ( x) =
.
g( x), g( x) < 0
In general, a derivative does not exist when the function has 0 as
y = |x|
value because of a corner as demonstrated in the graph on the right.
corner
When g(x) = 0, the derivative exists only when the right-hand side and the left-hand side
derivatives are equal to each other.
We can also formulate the derivative expression as follows:
f ( x) =
Example
52
Solution
| g( x)|
g ( x) = sgn[ g( x)] g ( x), g( x) 0.
g( x)
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = |1 x2| at the points x = 2, x = 1 and x = 0.
Let us begin by trying to rewrite the function as a piecewise function.
The roots of the function are x = 1 and x = 2.
A piecewise function is a
function that is defined
by different formulae in
different parts of its
domain.
2
x 1, x < 1 and x 1
Then the function f will be f ( x) =
.
2
1 x , 1 x < 1
Let us find f (2):
y = f(x)
Note that f(2) 0.

1
For x = 2, f (x) = (x2 1) = 2x.

So, f (2) = 2 2 = 4.
Let us find f (1):
Since f(1) = 0, we will check the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.
For x < 1, f (x) = (1 x2) = 2x.
So, f (1) = 2 (1) = 2.
For x > 1, f (x) = (1 x2) = 2x.
So, f (1+) = 2 1 = 2.
Since f (1) f (1+), f (1) does not exist.
Let us find f (0):
Note that f(0) 0.
For x = 0, f (x) = (1 x2) = 2x.
So, f (0) = 2 0 = 0.
322
Algebra 10
Example
53
Solution
Given that f(x) = |x3 4x2 + 4x|, find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 2.
3
2
x + 4x 4x,x < 0
The piecewise form of the function is f ( x) =
.
3
2
x 4x + 4x, x 0
Since f(2) = 0, we will check the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.
For 0 x < 2,
f (x) = (x3 4x2 + 4x) = 3x2 8x + 4

f (2) = 3 (2)2 8 2 + 4 = 0.
For x > 2,
f (x) = (x3 4x2 + 4x) = 3x2 8x + 4

f (2+) = 3 (2)2 8 2 + 4 = 0.
Since the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives are equal to each other, the derivative of
the function exists at the point x = 2 and f (2) = 0.
Example
54
Solution
Example
55
Solution
Given that f(x) = |x x2|, find f (2) and f (3).

Since f(2) 0 and f(3) 0, we can use the formula f ( x) =
f (2) =
| 2 22 |
(1 2 2) = 1 ( 3) = 3
2 22
f (3) =
| 3 32 |
(1 2 3) = 1 ( 5) = 5
3 32
| x x2 |
(1 2 x).
x x2
Given that f(x) = |cos x|, find the derivative of f(x) at the points x =
For x =
and x = .
3
, cos x > 0. So, f(x) = cos x and f (x) = sin x.

3
3
f ( ) = sin( ) =
3
3
2
For x = , cos x < 0. So, f(x) = cos x and f (x) = sin x.

f () = sin = 0
Example
56
Solution
Given that f(x) = |x3 9| + x2, find f (2).

For x = 2, x3 9 < 0 and so f(x) = x3 + 9 + x2.
If we take the derivative twice,
f (x) = 3x2 + 2x
f (x) = 6x + 2.
Therefore, f (2) = 6 2 + 2 = 10.
Differentiation
323
Check Yourself 12
1. Given that f(x) = |x2 3x|, find f (3) and f (5).
2. Given that f(x) = |x4 2x2 + 1|, find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 1.
3. Given that f(x) = |sin x|, find f ( ) and f ( ) .

6
2
Answers
1. does not exist; 7 2. 0 3. 3 ; 0
2
2. Sign Functions
Note that a sign function has the range {1, 0, 1}. When
it takes 1 and 1 as its value, the graph is a horizontal line.
Since the slope of a horizontal line is 0, we have 0 as the
derivative. When the function takes 0 as its value, the
graph has a discontinuity. So, the derivative does not exist.
Look at the graph on the right:
In conclusion, if f(x) = sgn (g(x)), then
0,
f ( x) =
does not exist,
Example
57
Solution
g( x) 0
g( x) = 0
slope = 0
1
y = sgn x
x
1
no slope
slope = 0
Given that f(x) = sgn(x2 x),

find the derivative of f(x) at the points
x = 2 and x = 1.
We begin by finding the value of
f(2) and f(1):
f(2) = sgn((2)2 (2)) = sgn(6) = 1
f(1) = sgn(12 1) = sgn(0) = 0.
Since f(2) 0, f (2) = 0.
Since f(1) = 0, f (1) does not exist
(f(x) is not continuous at x = 1).
324
Algebra 10
Example
58
Solution
Find the largest interval on which the function f(x) = sgn(x2 x 6) is differentiable.
We can rewrite the function as a piecewise function:
1, x < 2 and x > 3
f ( x) = 1, 2 < x < 3
.
0, x = 2 and x = 3
Since f(x) is not continuous at the points

x = 2 and x = 3, it is not differentiable.
It has a derivative at all other points, and
this is equal to zero.
y
1
y = f(x)
3
x
So, the largest interval on which f is

differentiable is \ \ {2, 3}.
1
3. Floor Functions
0,
If f(x) = ag(x)b, then f ( x) =
may not exist,
g( x) ]
g( x) ]
When g(x) ], f(x) is certainly continuous and differentiable. However, when g(x) ], we
cannot be certain. It may be differentiable or not. In order to determine whether a floor
function is differentiable or not at a given value, we check the left-hand and the right-hand
derivatives.
Example
59
Solution
Given that f ( x) = a 2 x + 1b

, find the derivative of f(x) at the points x = 2 and x = 4.
3
2 x +1 5
2x + 1
is not an integer for x = 2, f (2) = 0.
= ]. Since the expression
3
3
3
2 x +1
= 3 ]. Here we have to find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives,
For x = 4,
3
because the expression 2 x +1 is an integer for x = 4.
3
f ( x) f (4)
2 3
1
f (4 ) = lim
=
= =+
x 4
x4
4 4 0
For x = 2,
f (4+ ) = lim+
x 4
f ( x) f (4)
3 3
0
= +
=
=0
x4
4 4 0+
Since f (4) f (4+), f (4) does not exist.

Differentiation
325
Example
60
Solution
Given that f(x) = asin xb, find f ( ) and f ().

6
sin( ) = ]. So, f ( ) = 0.
6
2
6
At x = , f(x) is not continuous (see the graph). So, it is
y
1
not differentiable. Thus the derivative of f(x) does not

exist at this point.
Example
61
Solution
p/2
p/2
1
2p
x
y = f(x)
Given that f(x) = ax2b, find f (0).

For x = 0, f(x) = 0 ]. So, we have to find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives of
the function f(x) = ax2b at the point x = 0.
f (0 ) = lim
f ( x) f (0)
a x2 b 0
0
= lim
= =0
x0
x0
x 0
0
f (0 + ) = lim+
f ( x) f (0)
ax2 b 0
0
= lim+
= + =0
x0
x0
x 4
0
x0
x0
Notice that if 1 < x < 1, ax2b = 0.

Since f (0) = f (0+), the derivative of f(x) = ax2b exists at the point x = 0 and f (0) = 0.
Check Yourself 13
1. Given that f(x) = sgn (x2 + x), find f (1) and f (2).
2. Given that f(x) = acos xb, find f ( ) and f ( ).

3
2
3. Given that f(x) = |x2 + 3x 4| + ax2b + sgn (x2 1), find f (0).
Answers
1. does not exist; 0
326
2. 0; does not exist
3. 3
Algebra 10
C. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
Up to now we have worked with the functions expressed in the form y = f(x). In this form,
the variable y is expressed easily in terms of the variable x. A function in this form is said to
be in the explicit form. However, some functions cannot be written in explicit form. Consider
the following equation:
y5 + y + x = 0
If we are given a value of x, we can calculate y in this equation. However, we cannot write
the equation in the form y = f(x). We say that x determines y implicitly, and that y is an
implicit function of x. Look at the same more implicit functions:
x5 + 2xy2 3y4 = 7
y 2y2 = x
x2 y2 + 4y = 0
How can we differentiate an implicit function? Recall the Chain Rule for differentiation. In
an implicit function, y is still a function of x, even if we cannot write this explicitly. So, we
can use the Chain Rule to differentiate terms containing y as functions of x. For example, if
we are differentiating in terms of x,
dy
(y4) = [(f(x))4] = 4( f(x))3f (x) = 4y3y or (y4) = y3
,
dx
dy
(7y) = 7y or (7y) = 7
.
dx
The procedure we use for differentiating implicit functions is called implicit differentiation.
Let us summarize the important steps involved in implicit differentiation.
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Remember that y is really
a function of x and use the Chain Rule when differentiating terms containing y.
dy
2. Solve the resulting equation for y or
in terms of x and y.
dx
Example
62
Solution
Find y given the equation y5 + y + x = 0.

( y5 + y + x) = (0)
(differentiate both sides)
( y5 ) +( y)+( x) = 0
(by the Sum Rule)
5y4 y + y +1= 0
(by the Chain Rule)
y(5y4 +1) = 1
(factorize)
y =
Differentiation
1
5y4 +1
(isolate y )
327
Example
63
Solution
Find
( y3 y2 x + x2 1) = (0)
(differentiate both sides)
( y3 ) ( y2 x) + ( x2 ) (1) = 0
(by the Sum Rule)
3y2
Example
64
dy
given the equation y3 y2x + x2 1 = 0.
dx
dy
dy
(2 y x + y2 ) + 2 x 0 = 0
dx
dx
(by the Chain Rule and the Product Rule)
dy
(3y2 2 yx) = y2 2 x
dx
(factorize)
dy
y2 2x
= 2
dx 3y 2 yx
(isolate
dy
)
dx
The equation x2 + y2 = 4 is given.

dy
a. Find
by implicit differentiation.
dx
b. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (3, 1).
c. Find the equation of the tangent line at this point.
Solution
a. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x, we obtain

( x2 + y2 ) = (4)
( x2 ) +(y2 ) = 0
2x + 2y
dy
=0
dx
dy
x
=
dx
y
( y 0).
b. The slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (3, 1) is given by
dy
dx ( a, b)
is used for slope of the

curve at the point (a, b).
m=
dy
dx (
=
3, 1)
x
y(
=
3 , 1)
3
= 3.
1
c. We can find the equation of the tangent line by using the point-slope form of the
equation of a line. The slope is m = 3 and the point is (3, 1). Thus,
y
y y1 = m(x x1)
y 1 = 3(x 3)
y + 3x 4 = 0
3x + y 4 = 0.
A sketch of this tangent line is given on the right.
The line x + 3y 4 = 0 is tangent to the graph
of the equation x2 + y2 = 4 at the point (3, 1).
328
2
2
2
2
x2 + y2 = 4
Algebra 10
Example
65
Solution
Find the derivative with respect to x of the implicit function
x2 + y2 + x2 = 2.
Differentiating both sides of the given equation with respect to x, we obtain

d 2
d
d
( x + y2 )1/ 2 + ( x2 ) = (2)
dx
dx
dx
1 2
d 2
( x + y2 )1/ 2
( x + y2 ) + 2 x = 0
2
dx
1 2
dy
( x + y2 )1/ 2 (2 x + 2 y )+ 2 x = 0
2
dx
2x+ 2y
2y
dy
= 4 x( x2 + y2 )1/ 2
dx
dy
= 4 x( x2 + y2 )1/ 2 2 x
dx
2
2
dy 2 x x + y x
=
.
dx
y
Check Yourself 14
dy
by implicit differentiation.
dx
1. Find
a. x3 + x2y + y2 = 5
b. x2y + xy2 = 3x
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to each curve at the given point.
a. x2y3 y2 + xy 1 = 0; (1, 1)
2
2
2
b. x y =1; (5, 9 )
16 9
4
c. x 3 + y 3 = 4; (1, 3 3)
Answers
3x2 2 xy
1. a.
x2 + 2 y
2. a. y =
Differentiation
3
5
x+
2
2
b.
3 2 xy y2
x2 + 2 xy
b. y =
5
x4
4
c. y = 3x + 43
329
D. DERIVATIVES OF PARAMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Sometimes we express the variables x and y as functions of a third variable t by a pair of
functions.
x = f(t),
y = g(t)
Functions like these are called parametric functions, and the variable t is called the parameter.
PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION
dy
dy
= dt
dx
dx
dt
dx
0
dt
This enables us to find the derivative of a parametric function (

eliminate the parameter t.
Example
66
Solution
Example
67
Solution
Example
dy
) without having to
dx
Find the derivative with respect to x of the parametric curve x = t + 2 and y = 2t2 1.
dy
dy
4t
= dt = = 4t
dx
dx
1
dt
If a is a positive constant and x = a cos t, y = a sin t, then find
dy
.
dx
dy
dy
a cos t
= dt =
= cot t
dx
dx
a sin t
dt
68
The parametric curve is given by the equations x = t +1 and y = t2 + 3t. Find the slope of
its tangent at x = 2.
dy
Solution Let us begin by finding
in terms of t.
dx
dy
d 2
(t + 3t )
2t + 3
dy
= dt = dt
=
= 2( t +1)1/ 2 (2 t + 3)
1
dx
d
dx
( t +1)
dt
dt
2 t +1
For x = 2, x = t +1 = 2. So, t = 3.
m=
330
dy
dx
t=3
= 2 ( t + 1)1/ 2 (2t + 3) t=3 = 2 (3+1)1/ 2 (2 3+ 3) = 2 2 9 = 36.

Algebra 10
PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION OF SECOND ORDER

dy
d2 y dy
=
= dt
dx
dx2
dx
dt
dy
in terms of t.
dx
2. Differentiate y with respect to t.
dx
.
3. Divide the result by
dt
1. Express y =
Example
69
Solution
Find
d2 y
, if x = 2t t2 and y = 1 t3.
2
dx
dy
d
(1 t3 )
dy
3t 2
dy
dt
dt
First, find
in terms of t:
=
=
=
.
d
dx dx
dx
(2t t 2 ) 2 2t
dt
dt
Then, differentiate
d dy
d
3t 2
6t (2 2t) (3t 2 ) (2)
dy
with respect to t:
( ) = (
)=
.
dt dx
dt 2 2t
dx
(2 2t)2
Finally, divide the result by
6t 2 12t
3t
dx dx d 2 y 12t +12t 2 6t 2
:
: 2=
=
=
.
2
3
dt dt dx
(2 2t) (2 2 t) 8 (1 t)
4( t 1) 2
Check Yourself 15
dy
for each parametric curve.
dx
b. x = 5cos t, y = 5sin t
a. x = 2t + 3, y = t2 1
1. Find
d2 y
for each parametric curve.
dx2
dy
a. x = 3t2 + 2, y = 2t2 1 b.
= 4+ sin 2 t , x = cos 2 t
dx
Answers
c. x =
t 1
t +1
, y=
t +1
t 1
2. Find
Differentiation
1. a. t
b. cot t
2. a. 0
b.
t +1
c.
t 1
1
4 4+ sin 2 t
331
E. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
In order to find the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions, we can use implicit
differentiation. For example, what is the derivative of Arcsin x?
Let y = Arcsinx, then sin y = x and y .

2
2
Now, if we differentiate sin y = x implicitly with respect to x,
we get cos y
dy
dy
1
=1 or
=
.
dx
dx cos y
cos y 0, since
y . So, cos y = 1 sin 2 y = 1 x2 .

2
2
d
1
1
Therefore,
(Arcsin x) =
=
.
cos y
dx
1 x2
1 x2
We can use a similar method to find the derivative of the other inverse trigonometric
functions.
DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1
(Arcsin x) =
1 x
(Arccos x) =
(Arctan x) =
Example
70
Solution
332
1
1 x
1 ( f ( x))2
(Arccos f( x)) =
1
1+ x2
(Arccot x) =
f ( x)
(Arcsin f ( x)) =
(Arctan f ( x)) =
1
1+ x2
f ( x)
1 ( f ( x))2
f ( x)
( f ( x))2 +1
(Arccot f( x)) =
f ( x)
( f ( x))2 +1
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = Arcsin (x2).

f ( x) = (Arcsin( x2 )) =
( x2 )
2 2
1 (x )
2x
1 x4
Algebra 10
Example
71
Solution
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x Arctan x.

By the Product Rule,
f ( x) = ( x Arctan x ) =1 Arctan x + x
Example
72
Solution
1
x
.
( x 1/ 2 ) = Arctan x +
2
2(1+ x)
1+ ( x )
2
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve f(x) = 2 Arccos
f ( x) = 2
x

2
x
1
2
= 2
1
2
x
1
2
x
at x = 3.
2
4 x2
The slope of the tangent line is f (3 ) = 2.

The curve passes through the point ( 3,
2
2
) since f (3 ) =
.
3
3
The equation of the tangent line is: y 2 = 2( x 3) or y = 2 x+ 2 3 + 2 .

3
3
Check Yourself 16
1. Differentiate the functions.
a. f(x) = (Arctan x)3
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = Arccos 2x at the point where it
crosses the y-axis.
Answers
1. a.
Differentiation
3(Arctan x)2
1+ x2
2. y = 2 x +
333
EXERCISES
4 .3
A. Derivatives of Trigonometric
Functions
1. Differentiate the functions.
a. f(x) = sin (3x 5)
B. Derivatives of Special Functions

4. Find the required values using the given data:
a. f ( x) =| 2 x 3x2 |, f (0 )+ f 2
3
+ f (1) = ?
c. f(x) = sin x cos x
1
b. f ( x) = x2 + a xb + sgn( x 2), f = ?
3
d. f(x) = 2 tan x + sec x
c. f(x) = (2x + 3) sgn(x2 + 1), f (2) = ?
e. f(x) = sin x tan x
d. f ( x) = sgn(4 x +5) a
b. f(x) = cos (x2 1)
f. f(x) = 2x tan x x cos x
3x +1
b, f (2) = ?
2
g. f(x) = cos2(2x3 3x)

h. f ( x) = (
i. f ( x) =
1 cos x 10
)
1+ cos x
4x
,
2 x2 1
find the number of different x-values for which the
5. Given that f ( x) =| x2 4| sgn( x3 + x)+
cot x
1+ sec x
j. f(x) = (1 + sec x) (1 cos x)
function is not differentiable.
k. f(x) = tan x2 x 1
l. f ( x) =
cot( x3 1)
1 sec 2 ( x3 1)
m. f(x) = [x2sin(x 1)]5

3
n. f ( x) = sec 2( 2x )
x 1
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve

at the given point.
y = x cos x;
C. Implicit Differentiation
dy
for each equation below.
dx
a. 5x 4y = 3
b. xy y 1 = 0
y
c. x3 + x2 xy = 1 d.
3x2 = 5
x
6. Find
e. 2x2 + 3y2 = 12
f. x2 + 5xy + y3 = 11
g. x2y3 xy = 8
h. xy 3x y2 = 0
x=
7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the given

curve at the indicated point.
3. For what values of x does the graph of
f(x) = x + 2 sin x have a horizontal tangent line?
334
a. 4x2 + 2y2 = 12; (1, 2)

b. 2x2 + xy = 3y2; (1, 1)
Algebra 10
D. Derivatives of Parametric Functions

dy
8 . Find
for each pair of parametric equations.
dx
a. x = 3t 1 and y = t2 2t
1
b. x = t(t + 1) and y = t
t
c. x = t3 t2 1 and y = t2 + 3t + 1
Mixed Problems
13. Find the given order derivative by finding the first few
derivatives and observing the pattern that occurs.
27
a. d 27 (cos x)
dx
b.
d99
(sin 2 x)
dx99
35
c. d 35 ( x sin x)
dx
d. x = t +1 and y = t2 + 3t
e. x = 3 t and y = 4 t 2
f. x = 4cos t and y = 5sin t
2
14. Find the second derivative d y2 of each implicit
9. Find the equation of the tangent line at the given

point P.
1
a. x = + t 2 , y = t2 t + 1, P(2, 1)
t
b. x = 3t2 + 2, y = 2t4 1, P(5, 1)
a. x = t2 t
y = t3 + 3t + 1
b. x = t + 1
1
y= +1
t
11 . Differentiate the functions.

x
a. f(x) = Arcsin
2
x2 1
b. f(x) = Arccos
x
2
c. f(x) = Arctan (x + x 1)
b. x3 + y4 = 20
c. y2 + xy = 8
d.
2
f ( x) = sin x , f
=?
16
17. Given that
< x< ,
2
differentiate f ( x) =
normal line to y = Arcsin
Differentiation
x
when x = 1.
2
|1 tan x | sgn(tan x)
.
cos x
a
b
2
18. Given that f(x) = x3|x2 2|, find f (2) + f (1).
19. Given that f ( x) =
12. Find the equation of the tangent line and the
x + 3 y =1
the curve y = x2 2|x 1| at exactly two points.
d. f(x) = Arctan x 1 x2
e. f(x) = Arcsin (tan x)
16. Find the required values using the given data:
c. x = 2sin2 t
y = 3cos2 t
E. Derivatives of Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
a. x2y 1 = 0
15. Write the equation of the line which is tangent to
d2 y
10. Find
.
dx2
dx
function.
x2 +1
, solve f (x) > 0.
x2 1
20. Given that f ( x) = (2 x + 2 )2 , solve f (x) = 0.
335
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
4A
1. f(x) = x3 2x2 + 1 is given. Find the value of the

limit lim
x 2
A) 2
f ( x) f (2)
.
x2
B) 3
C) 4
5. f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x2 + 3 are given.

Find the derivative of f(g(x)).
D) 5x + 1
E) 3x2 4
A) 2x cos (x2 + 3)
B) 2x sin x
C) x + sin x
D) x sin (x2 + 3)
E) x cos (x2 + 3)
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the
function f(x) = 3cos 2x 1 at the point M( , 1).

2
A) y = 1
B) y = 2
D) y = x 2
C) y = 4
x3 ,
6. f ( x) =
3x,
E) y=1
A) 0
3. The graph of the
B) 1
x 1
x >1
is given. Find f (1).
C) 2
D) 3
E) does not exist
parabola
y = ax2 + bx + c is
shown on the right such
that t is its tangent at
the point (1/2, 1).
By using the information
given in the figure, find
the value of a + b + c.
1
A) 2
B)
C) 0
2
y = ax2 + bx + c
t
1/2
45
x
7. f(x) = 2x2 3x + 1 is given. Find f (1).

A) 8
D) 10
B) 6
C) 4
D) 3
E) 1
E) 15
8. f(x) = tan x cot x is given. Find f (x).

4. f(x) = ax2 3x3 + 4 and f (2) = 8 are given. Find
the value of a.
A) 3
336
B) 4
C) 7
D) 11
E) 29
A)
4
sin2 2x
B)
D) tan2 x + cot2 x
3
sin 2x
C) 2tan2 x
E) sin 2x
Algebra 10
9. f ( x) = 2 x 1 is given. Find f (5).

A)
1
2
B)
1
3
C)
1
4
D)
x2
is tangent to the straight line
a
with the equation x y = 1, then find the value
13. If the curve y =

1
5
E)
1
6
of a.
A) 5
10. If the parametric function is given by the equations

x = sin2 , y = sin2 , find
A) 0
B) 1
C) 1
dy
.
dx
D) sin 2
E) tan 2
B) 4
C) 3
dy
.
dt
B) 3t 2t2x
A) 3 2t
D) 3x + 2x2
C) 3x 2x2t
E) 3t + 2x2t
expression f (1) + f (3).

A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
the right belongs to

the function f(x).
f ( x)
If g( x) =
, then
x
find the slope of the
C) 15
y=
D) 18
y
1
1
y = f(x)
B)
1
2
C) 2
D) 1
E) 0
16. Find the shortest distance between the curve
x 1
h(x) = x3 f(x), find h(1).

B) 6
E) 4
graph of g(x) at the point x = 2.
12. Given that f(1) = 3, lim f ( x) 3 = 6 and
A) 3
D) 3
tangent line to the
A) 1
4
x 1
E) 1
14. If f(x) = |2 x| + 2, then find the value of the
15. The graph given on
11. y = 3xt x2t2 is given. Find
D) 2
E) 20
4
and the origin (0, 0).
x
A) 8
B) 4
C) 2
D) 42
E) 22
337
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
4B
1
2
1. f(x) = |x 3| + sgn(x 1) + a x + b is given.
5. Find lim
x0
Find the derivative of the function at the point

A)
1
x= .
2
A) does not exist
B) 0
1
2
16+ x 2
.
x
B) 1
4
C) 1
8
D)
1
16
E)
1
32
C) 1
D) 2
E) 18
x2 + 2, x 1
6. f ( x) =
2. f ( x) =
A) 9
3. Find
is given.
2 x +1, x > 1
Find the derivative of the function at x = 1.
3
x
is given. Find f (9).

3
x
B) 3
C) 1
3
D) 1
6
E) 1
9
d2
(sin x + cos x)2.
dx2
A) 2(cos x sin x)
2
C) sin x cos x
B) 1
7. f ( x) = (
B) 2(sin x cos x)
A) 0
D) 2 cos 2x
A) 300
C) 2
D) 3
E) does not exist
x+ 2 2
df (3)
) is given. Find
.
x2
dx
B) 200
C) 150
D) 90
E) 40
E) 4 sin 2x
4. If the parametric curve is given by the equations

x = t3 2t, y = t3 3t, find
A) 20
338
B) 12
C) 6
d2 y
dx2
.
t =1
D) 20
E) 30
8. f(x) = |x2 + 3x 4| + ax2b + sgn(x2 1) is given.

At which one of the following points does the
derivative of the function exist?
A) 1
B) 0
C) 1
D) 2
E) 3
Algebra 10
9.
13. Which one of the following is correct for the
y
M
tangent lines to the curve y =
l
y = f(x)
x = a and x = a?
x3
at the points
| x|
A) They are perpendicular to each other.

B) They are parallel to each other.
C) The angle between them is 30.
D) They are parallel to x-axis.
A is tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point M(3, 2).

If h( x) =
A)
2
9
E) They are parallel to y-axis.
f ( x)
, find h(3).
x
B)
5
9
C)
1
9
D)
1
3
E) 4
3
1
df ( )
4 .
14. f ( x) = (arcsin 2 x ) is given. Find
dx
2
10. Find the slope of the normal line to the function

f(x) = sin(cos 5x) at the point x =
.
10
1
5
2
5
A) 4
5
B)
C)
1
5
D)
E) 4
5
A)
2
4
B)
2
2
C) 2
D)
E) 2
15. The tangent line to the curve y = x3 at the point

A(2, 8) intersects the curve at another point
B(x0, y0). Find x0.
11. f(x) = (x 1)2 (2x t) and f (0) = 0 are given.
A)
3
2
B)
5
2
C) 3
D) 4
E) 5
Find the value of t.

A) 4
B) 2
C) 0
D) 2
E) 4
16. The implicit function sin (xy) + cos (xy) = 0 is

given. Find
12. f ( x) = 2+ x is given. Find f (4).

A) 1
B) 4
1
C)
2
D) 1
4
dy
.
dx
A) 1
1
E)
16
B)
D) ycos (xy)
y
x
C) 2xy
E) xcos x ycos y
339
APPLICATION SAYFASI EKLENECEK
340
Algebra 10
0
A. THE INDETERMINATE FORM
0
Guillaume de
L'Hospital
(1661-1704)
French mathematician solved a

difficult problem posed by Pascal
at age 15. He published the first
book ever on differential calculus
L'Analyse des Infiniment Petits
pour l'Intelligence des Lignes
Courbes (1696). In this book,
L'Hospital introduced L'Hospital's
rule. Within the book, L'Hospital
thanks Bernoulli for his help. An
earlier letter by John Bernoulli
gives both the rule and its proof,
so it seems likely that it was
Bernoulli who discovered the
rule. L'Hospitals name is spelled
both L'Hospital and L'Hpital,
the two being equivalent in
French spelling.
Let us consider the following limit where both f(x) and g(x) approach to zero as x a:
f ( x)
lim
x a g( x)
0
If we substitute x = a in this limit, we obtain a fraction of the form , which is a
0
meaningless algebraic expression. This limit may or may not exist and is called an
0
indeterminate form .
0
From earlier studies you have learned to calculate such limits by using the limit theorems.
In this section, we will discuss a very powerful method known as LHospitals Rule. This rule
0
gives a connection between derivatives and limits of the indeterminate form .
0
LHOSPITALS RULE
Let the functions f and g be differentiable on an open interval that contains the point a.
Suppose that lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 and lim
xa
x a
xa
lim
x a
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 0
f ( x)
exists. Then,
g( x)
f ( x)
f ( x)
= lim
= L.
g( x) x a g( x)
sin x
.
x
Since lim sin x = 0 and lim x = 0, we can apply LHospitals Rule.

x0
x0
sin x
(sin x)
cos x
lim
= lim
= lim
= cos 0 =1
x0
x0
x0
x
( x)
1
Note
Using LHospitals Rule, differentiate both the numerator and the denominator seperately. Do
not apply the Quotient Rule.
342
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 4
x4
.
x2 4
If we attempted to use LHospitals Rule, we would get

x4
( x 4)
1
1
lim 2
= lim 2
= lim
= .
x 4 x 4
x 4 ( x 4)
x 4 2 x
8
This is wrong!
x4
0
Since lim 2
does not give the indeterminate form , we cannot apply LHospitals Rule
x 4 x 4
0
here. Let us find the correct answer:
lim
x 4
x4
44
0
= 2
=
=0
2
x 4 4 4 12
Note
Before applying LHospitals Rule, verify that we have the indeterminate form
EXAMPLE
Solution
0
.
0
x3 + x + 2
.
x 1
x +1
Find lim
x3 + x + 2 (1)3 +(1)+ 2 0
=
=
x 1
x +1
1+1
0
lim
0
form; appl y the r ule)
0
x3 + x + 2
( x3 + x + 2)
3 x2 +1
= lim
= lim
= 3 (1) 2 +1= 4
x 1
x 1
x 1
x +1
( x +1)
1
lim
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 1
lim
x 1
ln x
.
x2 1
ln x
0
=
x2 1 0
0
form; apply the rule )
0
1
ln x
(ln x)
1
lim 2
= lim 2
= l im x =
x 1 x 1
x 1 ( x 1)
x 1 2 x
2
Applications of the Derivative
343
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 1
2x + 3 1
x +5 2
0
. So, we can use LHospitals Rule:
0
2
2x + 3 1
( 2 x+ 3 1)
2 x+5 2 4
lim
= lim
= lim 2 2 x + 3 = lim
=
= 4.
x 1
x 1
x 1
1
x +5 2
( x +5 2) x1
2 x+ 3
1
2 x +5
We have the indeterminate form
Note
f ( x)
0
is still indeterminate form , we use LHospitals Rule again.
g( x)
0
f ( x)
f ( x )
= lim
.
That gives lim
x a g( x)
x a g ( x )
0
In fact, whenever LHospitals Rule gives , we can apply it again until we get a different result.
0
If lim
x a
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x0
x sin x
.
x2
lim
x sin x 0
=
x2
0
lim
x sin x
( x sin x)
1 cos x 1 cos 0 0
0
( form; apply the rule agai n)
= lim
= lim
=
=
2
2
0
0
x
x
( x )
2x
2 0
0 0
lim
1 cos x
(1 cos x)
sin x 0
= lim
= li m
= =0
x0
x0
2x
(2 x)
2
2
x0
x0
x0
0
form; apply the rule)
0
Check Yourself 1
Find the following limits:
x3 8
x 2 x2 4
Answers
1. 3
2. 6
1. lim
2. lim
x 4
x2 8 x
x4
3. lim
x /2
sin x 1
cos 2 x +1
3. 1/4
B. THE INDETERMINATE FORM
. It is expressed as follows:
f ( x)
Suppose that lim f(x) = , lim g(x) = and lim
exists.
x a g( x)
xa
xa
LHospitals Rule is also valid for the indeterminate form
Then, lim
x a
344
f ( x)
f ( x)
= lim
.
x
a
g( x)
g( x)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
x2 3x +5
.
x 7+ 2 x 3 x2
Find lim
form; apply the rule)
lim
x2 3x +5
=
x 7+ 2 x 3 x2
x2 3x +5
( x2 3 x+5)
2x 3
=
lim
= lim
x 7+ 2 x 3 x2
x (7+ 2 x 3 x2 )
x 2 6 x
( still
lim
lim
x
f orm; apply the ru le)
2x 3
(2 x 3)
2
1
= lim
= lim
=
x
2 6x
(2 6 x)
6
3
Note
LHospitals Rule cannot be applied directly to the indeterminate forms 0 and .
0
But it may be possible to convert them into the form
or into the form .
EXAMPLE
Solution
f g=
f
g
or f g =
1
1
g
f
1
Find lim x sin .
x
x
This limit leads to the form 0, but we can change it to

0
1
the form
by writing x = .
1
0
x
1
lim x sin = lim
x
x x
1
x=0
1
0
x
sin
0
, we can apply LHospitals Rule.
0
1
1
1
1
sin
(sin )
( 2 ) cos
x = lim
x = lim x
x = lim cos 1 =1
lim
x
x
x
x
1
1
1
x
2
( )
x
x
x
Since we have the form
Check Yourself 2
Find the following limits:
2 x2 5 x +7
x
3x + 4
1. lim
1
1
)
5. lim(
x0 x
sin x
Answers
1.
5. 0
345
EXERCISES
5 .1
0
A. The Indeterminate Form
0
1. Find the following limits:
2
x 4x + 4
x2 + x 6
a. lim
x 2
1+ 3x 1
c. lim
x 0
x
e. lim
x0
g.
i.
lim
1 cos x
x2
x 2
lim
sin(2 x + 4)
x2 x 6
3
33x
x 3
x 3
x
sin
3
b. lim
x 0 2 x
x 8x
x2
x 2
h. lim
x 2
j.

3
a. lim x 3 + x 2
x1 2 x 3 x + 1
c.
4 x3 + 4
d. lim 2
x 1 5 x +6 x +1
f. lim
Mixed Problems
2 x+ 6
x2 4
tan x
1 + tan x
lim(tan x sec x)
x
d. lim sin x
x0
3x
f.
b. lim
e. lim
x 1
x 1
x
tan
2
2
1
x2 + 3 x x )
lim( csc x) g. lim(
x
x0 x
2 x2 + 3 x 2
x 1/ 2
6x 3
lim
2
k. lim sin x sin a
l. lim tan( x 4)
x a
x 2
xa
4 x2
5x
x
cos + sin
arctan 3 x
m. lim
6
3 n. lim
x 0 arctan 4 x
x
x
o. lim x
x8
2/3
4
x8
x
arctan( )
2
4
p. lim
x 2
x2
B. The Indeterminate Form

a. lim
x2 + x +1
3 x3 + 4
b. lim
c. lim
x2 + 4
x
d. lim
9 x2
x x 2 x 3
x 0
cot 3 x
cot 5 x
2
e. lim x + cos x
x
3 x2
346
Algebra 10
A. INTERVALS OF INCREASE AND DECREASE

In this section, we will first briefly review the increasing
and decreasing functions and then discuss the
relationship between the sign of the derivative of a
function and the increasing and decreasing behavior of
the function.
Recall the graph of the function f(x) = x2. As we move
from left to right along its graph, we see that the graph of
f falls for x < 0 and rises for x > 0. The function f is
said to be decreasing on (, 0) and increasing on (0, ).
Definition
y=x2
x
the graph of f(x) = x
increasing and decreasing functions

A function f is increasing on an interval I if f(x) increases as x increases on I. That is, for any
x1 < x2 on I, f(x1) < f(x2).
Similarly, f is decreasing on an interval I if f(x) decreases as x increases on I. That is, for any
x1 < x2 in I, f(x1) > f(x2).
a decreasing function
an increasing function
Note
We refer to a function as increasing or decreasing only on intervals, not at particular points.
347
We now learn how the first derivative can be used to determine where the function is
increasing or decreasing. Let us look at the following graphs.
y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
0 < < 90
positive slope
b x
f is increasing
positive slopes (f(x) > 0)
b x
f is decreasing
negative slopes (f(x) < 0)
Observe that the function f is increasing on the interval (a, b) and the tangent lines to the
graph of f have positive slope on that interval. We know that the slope of each tangent line is
given by the derivative f (x). Thus, f (x) must be positive on (a, b).
Similarly, we expect to see a decreasing function when f (x) is negative. These observations
lead to the following important theorem.
Theorem
Let f(x) be a differentiable function on the interval I.

a. If f (x) > 0 for all the values of x on I, then f(x) is increasing on the interval I.
b. If f (x) < 0 for all the values of x on I, then f(x) is decreasing on the interval I.
Note
According to the theorem above, when we are asked to determine the intervals of increase
and decrease for a given function, we must examine the sign of the derivative of the
function. To do this, we shall construct the sign chart of the first derivative. We assume that
you are familiar with constructing the sign chart of a function from your earlier studies.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the intervals where the function f(x) = x2 4x + 3 is increasing and where it is
decreasing.
Let us construct the sign chart of f (x).
f (x) = 2x 4 and x = 2 is a root of f (x) = 0

x
3
2
f (x)
f (x)
decreasing
(
)
+
2
increasing
(
From the chart, f (x) > 0 when x > 2 and f (x) < 0 when x < 2.
So, f is increasing on (2, ) and decreasing on (, 2).
the graph of
f(x) = x2 4x + 3
It would also be true to say that f is increasing on [2, ) and decreasing on (, 2].
348
Algebra 10
Note
As in the previous example, we use an up arrow ( ) for the intervals where the function
is increasing and a down arrow ( ) for the intervals where the function is decreasing.
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
For what values of x is the function f(x) = (x 1)3 either increasing or decreasing?
f (x) = 3(x 1)2.
f (x) 0 for any of the values of x because (x 1) > 0.

2
We conclude that f is always increasing for all the values of x.

The graph of f is shown in the figure.
-1
Note that when x = 1 we have f (x) = 0.

But that does not affect the increase since it is just a point.
the graph of (fx) = (x 1)3
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
For what values of a is the function

f(x) = ax3 2x2 + 2x 3 increasing for all real numbers?
Since f is increasing for all real numbers, f (x) > 0.
f (x) = 3ax2 4x + 2 > 0
This is possible only if 3a > 0 and < 0
Given ax + bx + c = 0,
= b2 4ac.
3a > 0. So, a > 0. (1)
2
= ( 4)2 4 3a 2 = 16 24a < 0. So, a > .
3
(2)
2
By (1) and (2), we have a > .
3
12
mx 2
For what values of m is f ( x) =
always decreasing in its
x+ 3
domain?
Solution
Since f is always decreasing, f (x) < 0 for all the values of x except
x = 3.
EXAMPLE
f ( x) =
m( x + 3) ( mx 2) 3 m + 2
=
< 0.
( x + 3)2
( x + 3)2
Then, we have 3m + 2 < 0 because (x + 3)2 is always positive.

2
Thus, m < .
3
349
EXAMPLE
13
The graph of the function f is given on the interval (a, b). State
whether each of the following functions is increasing or decreasing
on (a, b).
a. g(x) = x2 f(x)
b. h(x) = f 2(x)
c.
m( x) =
y
y = f (x)
f ( x)
x
a
Solution
From the graph, we conclude that x < 0 and f(x) > 0 on (a, b). Also, we have f (x) > 0
because f is increasing on (a, b). Now let us find the derivative of each function.
a. g(x) = 2x f (x) < 0. So g is decreasing on (a, b).
b. h(x) = 2 f (x) f (x) > 0. So h is increasing on (a, b).
c. m(x) = f ( x) x2 f ( x) < 0. So m is decreasing on (a, b).

x
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the intervals where each function is increasing or decreasing.
a. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 6
2. The function f ( x) =
b. f ( x) =
1
3x + 4
kx +1
is always increasing in its domain. Find k.
x +1
Answers
1. a. increasing on (, 0) and (2, ), decreasing on (0, 2)
4
b. decreasing on , 4 and ,
3
3
2. k > 1.
B. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

1. Absolute and Local Maximum and Minimum
In many applications we need to find the largest or the smallest value of a specified quantity.
Here are a few examples:
What is the shape of a container that minimizes the manufacturing costs?
At what temperature does a certain chemical reaction proceed most rapidly?
Which path requires the least time to travel?
These problems can be reduced to finding the maximum or minimum value of a function.
Let us first explain what we mean by maximum and minimum values.
Definition
absolute maximum and minimum

A function f has an absolute maximum at c if f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in its domain.
Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in its domain.
350
Algebra 10
Note
Here is some terminology: If a function f has a maximum (or minimum) at x = c, then we
say that f(c) is a maximum (or minimum) value of f and (c, f(c)) is a maximum (or
minimum) point of f.
An extremum of a function is either a maximum or minimum value of that function.
The figure on the right shows the graph of a
function f with absolute maximum at x = a
and absolute minimum at x = d. Note that
(a, f(a)) is the highest point on the graph
and (d, f(d)) is the lowest point.
y
f(a)
y = f(x)
f(d)
In the same graph, if we consider only
I1
I2
(
) (
)
the values of x sufficiently near b (for
x
a
b
c
d
example, in the interval I1), then f(b) is the
smallest of those values of f(x). In other words, no nearby points on the graph of f are lower
than the point (b, f(b)). To define such points, we use the word local. So, we say that the
function f has a local minimum at the point x = b.
Similarly, f has a local maximum at x = c because f(c) is the largest value of f(x) in the
interval I2. We see that no nearby points on the graph are higher than the point (c, f(c)). We
now state the formal definition:
Definition
local maximum and minimum

A function f has a local maximum at c if f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I
containing c.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I
containing c.
The figure on the right illustrates some
local and absolute extrema of a function
f with the domain [a, e]. We see that f has
a local maximum at x = c, and a local
minimum at x = b and x = d. Also, f has
an absolute minimum at x = b and an
absolute maximum at x = e. Observe
that the absolute minimum is also local,
but the absolute maximum is not local
because it occurs at the endpoint x = e.
absolute and
local max
y
local max
not absolute
local min
not absolute
b
a
y = f(x)
absolute and
local min
351
Note
1. A function has at most one absolute maximum and one absolute minimum. But it may
have more than one local maximum or minimum.
2. An absolute extremum of a function is either a local extremum or an endpoint.
Check Yourself 4
1. Explain the difference between an absolute maximum
and a local maximum.
y
y = g(x)
2. The graph of a function with the domain [a, f] is given

on the right. For each of the points from a to f, state
whether the function has a local maximum or
minimum, or an absolute maximum or minimum.
a
Answers
1. absolute max.: f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in the domain of f.
local max.: f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I containing c.
2. local max. at x = b, x = d
local min. at x = c, x = e
absolute max. at x = d
absolute min. at x = a.
2. Finding the Local Extrema

y
We now learn how the first derivative can be used to locate
y = f(x)
the local extrema. We first consider the functions that have
derivatives at the local extremum points. The figure on the
right shows the graph of a function f with a local
maximum at x = a and a local minimum at x = b. Observe
a
b
that the tangent lines to the graph at these points are
x
horizontal (parallel to the x-axis) and therefore each has
slope 0. Remember that the slope of the tangent line is given by the derivative. So, we say that
f (a) = 0, f (b) = 0.
This analysis reveals an important characteristic of the local extrema of a differentiable
function.
Theorem
If f has a local extremum at c, and f (c) exists, then f (c) = 0.

352
Algebra 10
Note
y = f(x)
The converse of this theorem is not true in general.

That is, when f (c) = 0, f does not necessarily have a
maximum or minimum at x = c. For example, consider
the function f(x) = x3. Here, f(x) = 3x2, so f(0) = 0. But,
f has neither a local maximum nor a local minimum at
x = 0.
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
The function f(x) = 2x3 mx + 5 has a local minimum

at x = 1. Find m.
Since f(x) is a polynomial function, it is differentiable
everywhere. By the theorem above, we have f (1) = 0.
f (x) = 6x2 m
f (1) = 0
6 12 m = 0
m=6
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
In some books, an
extremum that occurs
at a point where the
derivative does not
exist is called a singular
point.
Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = |x|.

Let us plot the graph of f.
x, x 0
f ( x) =| x |=
x, x < 0
We see that f has a local minimum at x = 0.

But there is no horizontal tangent there.
y = f(x)
In fact, there is no tangent line at all since f (x) is not defined at x = 0.
Note
The function f(x) = |x| shows that a local extremum of a function may exist at which the
derivative does not exist. As a consequence, we say that the local extrema of any function f
occurs at the points c where f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist. Such points are given a special
name.
353
Definition
critical point
The value c in the domain of f is called a critical point if either
1. f (c) = 0, or
2. f (c) does not exist.
EXAMPLE
16
Solution
Find the critical points of f(x) = 2x3 9x2 + 12x 7.

The derivative of f is f (x) = 6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2).
Since f (x) is defined for all the values of x, the only critical points are the roots of f (x) = 0.
Therefore, x = 1 and x = 2.
EXAMPLE
17
Solution
Find the critical points of f ( x) =
x2
.
x 1
The Quotient Rule gives

f ( x) =
2 x( x 1) x2 1 x( x 2)
=
.
( x 1)2
( x 1)2
Since x = 0 and x = 2 are the roots of f (x) = 0, they are critical points. Next, observe that
f (x) does not exist when x = 1. However, since f is not defined at that point, the point
x = 1 is not a critical point.
EXAMPLE
18
In the figure on the right the graph of a

function f with critical points at x = a, b, c, d,
and e are shown.
y = f(x)
a. State why these points are critical.

b. Classify each of them as a local maximum,
a local minimum, or neither.
a
Solution
354
a. Observe that there are horizontal tangents at the points x = c, d, and e, so f (x) = 0 at
these points. Next, f (x) does not exist at x = a because the tangent line at this point is
vertical. Finally, since there is a corner at x = b, f (x) does not exist there.
Algebra 10
b. From the graph of f, we say that f has a local maximum at x = d, and a local minimum at
x = b and x = e. Note that f (c) = 0 and f (a) does not exist, and f has no local extrema
at these points. We conclude that not every critical point gives rise to a local extrema.
Check Yourself 5
Find the critical points of the following functions.
1. f(x) = x3 3x + 4
2. f(x) = 1 x
Answers
1. 1, 1 2. 0
3. The First Derivative Test

So far we have learned that any extremum of a function f must occur at any critical point of
f. In the previous example we have seen that not every critical point is a maximum or a
minimum.Therefore, we need a test that helps us classify critical points as local maximum,
local minimum, or neither.
Suppose that the function f is continuous at c and that f is defined on some open interval
containing c.
y
If f is increasing on the left of c and

decreasing on the right, then f should
have a local maximum at x = c.
inc.
dec.
f>0 + f<0
+
355
dec.
+
+
If f is decreasing on the left of c and

increasing on the right, then f should
have a local minimum at x = c.
inc.
f<0
f>0
c
y
If f is increasing on both sides or

+
decreasing on both sides, then f

should have neither a local maximum
nor a local minimum at x = c.
f>0
+ f>0
f<0
f<0
+
c
Moreover, we know that f(x) is increasing where f (x) > 0 and decreasing where f (x) < 0.
These observations are the basis of the following test.
THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST
Let c be a critical point of a function f(x).
1. If f (x) changes from positive to negative at c, then f(x) has a local maximum at c.
2. If f (x) changes from negative to positive at c, then f(x) has a local minimum at c.
3. If f (x) does not change sign at c, then f(x) has no local maximum or minimum at c.
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Find the critical points of the function f(x) = x3 3x2 9x + 6, and classify each critical
point as a local maximum, a local minimum, or neither.
f (x) = 3x2 6x 9 = 3(x 3)(x + 1)
x = 3 and x = 1 are the critical points (where f (x) = 0). Since f (x) is a polynomial
function, it is differentiable everywhere. Thus, we have no points c such that f (c) is not
defined.
x
f (x)
f(x)
(max)
(min)
From the sign chart, f increases for x < 1 and decreases for 1 < x < 3. So, f has a local
maximum at x = 1.
Similarly, f decreases for 1 < x < 3 and increases for x > 3. So, f has a local minimum at x = 3.
356
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = x2/3 + 2.

f ( x) =
2
1
2
x3 =
3
2
1
3 x3
There is no root of f (x) = 0.
Now we will look for the values of x such that f (x)

is not defined but f(x) is defined. We see that f is
defined for all the values of x but f is not defined
at x = 0. So, 0 is a critical point.
x
f (x)
f(x)
(min)
Thus, the first derivative test tells us that x = 0 is

a local minimum of f.
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = |x 1|.

If x > 1, then x 1 > 0. So, f(x) = x 1.
If x < 1, then x 1 < 0. So, f(x) = 1 x.
f (x) =
1,
x>1
1,
x<1
Since f (1 ) f (1+), f (x) is not defined at x = 1.

So, x = 1 is a critical point. Furthermore, f (x) is not equal to zero anywhere.
For x > 1, we have f (x) = 1 > 0. So, f(x) is increasing on this interval.
For x < 1, we have f (x) = 1 < 0. So, f(x) is decreasing on this interval.
x
f (x)
f(x)
(min)
Thus, f has a local minimum at x = 1.

357
EXAMPLE
22
Solution
Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = 5x3 + 4x.

f (x) = 15x2 + 4 is always positive. There is no real solution of f (x) = 0.
x
f (x)
f(x)
f is increasing for all the values of x.

Since f(x) is a polynomial function, f(x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere.
Thus, f(x) has no local extrema.
Check Yourself 6
Find the local extrema of the following functions.
1. f(x) = 2x2 2x + 5
2. f(x) = 1 x4
Answers
1. min.: x =
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
3. f(x) =
x2 +1
x
4. f(x) = |x2 x|
1
1
2. max.: x = 0 3. max.: x = 1, min.: x = 1 4. max.: x = , min.: x = 0, x = 1
2
2
If the function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + 15x + b has a local maximum at the point (1, 10), then
find a and b.
We know that an extremum of a function must occur at a point where f (x) = 0 or f (x) does
not exist. Since f is a polynomial function, f is differentiable everywhere.
So, we have f (1) = 0.
f (x) = 3x2 + 2ax + 15
f (1) = 0
3 12 + 2a 1 + 15 = 0
a = 9
Since the point (1, 10) is on the graph of f, we say that f(1) = 10.
f(1) = 10
13 + a 12 + 15 1 + b = 10
a + b = 6
b = 3 (since a = 9)
358
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
24
The graph of the derivative of the function f(x) is shown in

the figure. Find the intervals where f(x) is increasing or
decreasing and find the local extrema of f.
-2
y = f (x)
-1
1
Solution
We know that f(x) is increasing when f (x) > 0. f (x) > 0 means that the graph of f (x) must
be above the x-axis. In the figure f (x) > 0 for x > 1. So, f(x) is increasing for x > 1. Similarly,
f(x) is decreasing when the graph of f (x) is below the x-axis. So, f(x) is decreasing for x < 1.
x
f (x)
f(x)
(min)
From the chart, f has a local minimum at x = 1.

EXAMPLE
25
Solution
For what values of m does the function f(x) = x3 (m 1)x2 + 3x 2 have no local extrema?
Since f has no extrema, there must be no root of f (x) = 0.
f (x) = 3x2 2(m 1)x + 3
The equation 3x2 2(m 1)x + 3 = 0 must have no root.
A quadratic equation has

1. two solutions when
> 0.
2. one solution when
= 0.
3. no solution when
< 0.
We need < 0:
[2(m 1)]2 4 3 3 < 0
4(m2 2m + 1) 36 < 0
4(m2 2m 8) < 0
4(m 4)(m + 2) < 0
Let us construct a chart to solve the above inequality:
2
+
So 2 < m < 4.
359
Check Yourself 7
1. The function f(x) = x3 3x2 9x + a has a local maximum value of 10. Find a.
2. The graph of the derivative of the function f(x) is given. Find the local extrema of the
function f.
y
x
y = f (x)
Answers
1. 5 2. max.: x = 0, x = 4, min.: x = 2, x = 2
4. Finding the Absolute Extrema

In most types of maximum-minimum problems, we are more interested in the absolute
extrema rather than the local extrema. Recall that the absolute extrema of a function are the
largest and the smallest values of that function in its whole domain. The following figures
show the graphs of several functions and give the maximum and minimum values of the
functions if they exist.
y
y
1
x
1
x
minimum value is 1
maximum value is 1
minimum value is 0
no maximum value
no minimum value
no maximum value
We have seen that some functions have absolute extrema, whereas other do not. In what
conditions does a function have both the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum?
The following theorem answers this question.
360
Algebra 10
Theorem
If a function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both an absolute maximum
and an absolute minimum on [a, b].
The above theorem guarantees the existence of the absolute extrema of a continuous
function on a closed interval [a, b]. Moreover, we know that each absolute extremum can
occur either at a critical point in the interior of [a, b] or at an endpoint of the interval. The
following steps give a useful method for finding the absolute extrema of a continuous
function on [a, b].
CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD
1.
2.
3.
4.
EXAMPLE
26
Solution
Find the critical points of f on the interval [a, b].

Evaluate f(x) at each critical point.
Evaluate f(a) and f(b).
The largest of the values of f found in Steps 2 and 3 is the absolute maximum, the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum.
Find the absolute extrema of the function f(x) = x2 4x + 3 on [0, 3].

Let us apply the Closed Interval Method step by step:
1st Step: To find the critical points of f, we must solve f (x) = 0 and also find where f (x)
does not exist.
f (x) = 2x 4 = 0 gives x = 2.
The domain of the function is [0, 3]. So, x = 2 is in the domain.
And there is no point where f (x) is not defined.
Thus, the only critical point on [0, 3] is x = 2.
2 Step: f(2) = 2 4 2 + 3 = 1
nd
y
3
max
3rd Step: f(a) = f(0) = 02 4 0 + 3 = 3

f(b) = f(3) = 32 4 3 + 3 = 0
4rd Step: fmax[0, 3] = 3, fmin[0, 3] = 1.
The graph of f confirms our results.
3
x
-1
y = f (x)
min
361
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 12x2 + 18x + 6 on
the closed interval [2, 0].
f (x) = 6x2 + 24x + 18 = 6(x + 1)(x + 3)
f (x) = 0 when x = 1 and x = 3.
But x = 3 is outside the interval [2, 0]. So, we do not take it.
The only critical point is x = 1.
Additionally, we should consider the endpoints of the interval [2, 0].
Now, we evaluate f(x) at x = 1, 2, and 0:
f(1) = 2
f(2) = 2
f(0) = 6
fmax[2, 0] = 6, fmin[2, 0] = 2.
Notation
fmax[a, b] denotes the maximum value of the function f on the interval [a, b].
fmin[a, b] denotes the minimum value of the function f on the interval [a, b].
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
Find the absolute extrema of the function f(x) = 2 |x 1| on [1, 3].

If x > 1, then x 1 > 0. So, f(x) = 2 (x 1) = 3 x.
If x < 1, then x 1 < 0. So, f(x) = 2 (1 x) = x + 1.
3 x,
We have f(x) = 2,
x + 1,
We say that f (1) does not
x>1
x=1.
x<1
exist because f (1) = 1 and f (1+) = 1 are not equal.
So x = 1 is a critical point.
Next we consider the endpoints of the interval [1, 3]. So, we should find the values of f for the
points x = 1, 1, and 3.
f(1) = 2
f(1) = 0
f(3) = 0
fmax[1, 3] = 2, fmin[1, 3] = 0.
362
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
x 2
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f ( x) = + on [3, 3].
2 x
1 2
x2 4
2=
2 x
2 x2
x = 2 and x = 2 are the roots of f (x) = 0. So, they are critical points. Next, f (x) does not
f ( x) =
exist when x = 0, but f is not defined at this point; so 0 is not a critical point.
Now let us find the values of f for critical points and endpoints.
13
13
f (3) = ,
f ( 2) = 2,
f (2) = 2,
f(3) =
6
6
f max [3,3]=
13
6
fmin =[3, 3]=
13
6
Check Yourself 8
Find the absolute extrema of each function on the given interval.
1. f(x) = x2 x + 2, [0, 1]
2. g(x) = x3 2x2 + x + 1, [1, 2]
3. h(x) = x x, [1, 4]
Answers
1. fmax = 2, fmin =
7
4
2. fmax = 3, fmin = 3
3. fmax = 2, fmin = 0
363
EXERCISES
5 .2
A. Intervals of Increase and Decrease

1. You are given the graphs of two functions.
Determine where the functions are increasing
and where they are decreasing.
a.
b.
6. The function f(x) = ax3 (a 2)x2 +
y = f (x)
3 1
7. Find the values of a, so that f ( x) =

2. Find the intervals where each of the following
functions is increasing or decreasing.
a. f(x) = 3 8x
c. f(x) = x + 4x + 3
d. f(x) = x3 + 6x
x3
e. f(x) =
2x2 + 2
3
f. f(x) = 3x4 + 4x3 12x2
1
g. f(x) =
2x
h. f(x) = x2/3
5x
i. f(x) =
x2
3
x 1
k. f ( x) = sin x +
always decreasing in its domain.
f(x) = x3 3x2 + 3ax + 15 is increasing on

(, 2) and (4, ), and decreasing on (2, 4).
9. Let f be an increasing function on (0, ). State

whether each of the following functions are
increasing or decreasing on the same interval.
a. f(x)
1
c.
f ( x)
b. x + f(x)
d. f(x2)
10. The graph of the function f is
3. Find the intervals where the function

f(x) = sin x + cos x is decreasing on [0, 2].
4. Show that the function f(x) = Arctanx is increasing

for all the values of x.
364
x2 ax
is
x2 4 x + 3
8. Find a, so that the function
b. f(x) = x2 + 1
j. f(x) =
1
x
3
is always increasing for all the values of x. Find a.
2
1
1
f ( x) = x3 + mx2 4x +1 decreasing
3
for all real numbers?
y
y = f (x)
5. For what values of m is the function
given on the closed interval

[a, b]. State whether each of
the following functions are
increasing or decreasing on
[a, b].
a. x f(x)
y
a
b
x
y = f(x)
b. f 2(x) + x
c. x2 f(x)
Algebra 10
B. Maximum and Minimum Values
15. The function f(x) = x3 9x2 + 15x + 7 is given.

Find the sum of the x-coordinates of its local
extrema.
11. For each of the points from x1 to x9, state whether

f has a local maximum or minimum, and an
absolute maximum or minimum.
y
16. The graph of y = ax2 + bx has an extremum at
y = f (x)
(1, 2). Find the values of a and b.
17. Find k, if f(x) = x3 2x2 7x + k has a local

x1
x2
x3
x4 x5
x6
x7
x8 x9
maximum value of 8.
12. Find the critical points of the following functions.

a. f(x) = x3 + x
1
x2
b. f(x) = 2x
c. f(x) = |x + 1|
13.
18. Given that f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 has a local

maximum at x = 1 and a local minimum at
x = 2, find a and b.
19. Find the value of m, if the curve y = x3 + 2mx2 + 30

is tangent to the line y = 2.
y = f (x)
a
20. Find the relation between a and b, if the function
In the figure above the graph of a function f with

the critical points at a, b, c, d, and e are shown.
f(x) = ax3 + bx + c has one local maximum and

one local minimum.
a. State why these points are critical.

b. Classify each of them as a local maximum, a
local minimum, or neither.
21. For what values of m does the function

2
f(x) = mx + 1 have no local extrema?
x 1
14. Find the local extrema of the following functions.

a. f(x) = 8x + x2
b. f(x) = x3 + 3x + 2
x3
c. f(x) =
+ 2x2 + 4x + 5
3
d. f(x) = (x 1)2(x + 3)2
x
e. f(x) =
x +1
16
f. f(x) = x2
x
g. f(x) = |4 x2|
2
h. f(x) = sin x + sin x

22.
y
2
1
3
6
2
3
7
x
y = f (x)
The graph of the derivative of a function f is

given. Find the local extrema of f.
365
23. Find the absolute extrema of each function on

the given interval.
2
28. Given a parametric function y = f(x) with
a. f(x) = 2x 4x + 3,
[0, 2]
b. f(x) = x2 + 2x 1,
[2, 2]
c. f(x) = x 6x,
[1, 4]
d. f(x) = 2x3 15x2 + 24x + 19,
[0, 2]
e. f(x) = x2 4x,
[0, 3]
f. f(x) = x5 5x4 + 1,
[0, 5]
g. f(x) = 9x2 x4,
[3, 3]
h. f(x) = 9 x2 ,
[1, 2]
i. f(x) = x
1
,
x
[1, 1]
x1
k. f(x) =
,
x +1
[0, 4]
l.
f(x) = |x 3x|,
m. f(x) = 9sin x sin 3x + 3,
[1, 4]
[, 0]
a. Find the intervals of increase and decrease of f.

b. Find the local extrema of f.
29.
3
maximum value of f on [0 , 4].
27. Find the maximum value of f(x) = sinx + cosx.
366
4
5
y = f (x)
The graph of the derivative of a function f is

given.
b. Find the local extrema of f.
30. At what point does the tangent to the curve
y=
x3
2 x2 + x 5 have the smallest slope?
3
31. In the figure, graph of f (x)
value of f(x) = x2 4x + 8 on [2, 3].
26. Let f(x) = ax3 bx. Find a and b, if f(2) = 4 is the
24. Find the sum of the smallest value and the greatest
of f(x) = ax2 + 2x + b, find a + b.
25. If the point (1, 4) is the highest point of the graph
y = 2t2 + 4t + 5
x = t3 + t.
[1, 3]
j. f(x) = 3x2/3,
Mixed Problems
is given. Given that the

equation f(x) = 0 has only
one root and that root is
positive, plot a rough graph
of f(x).
y
y = f (x)
32. Find the range of the function
3x4 4 x3 24 x2 + 48 x, x 0.5
.
f ( x) =
8 x3 +12 x2 + 2,
x < 0.5
33. For which values of a does the interval 0, 1
completely include the range of the function

1
f ( x) = 4
?
3x 8ax3 +12 a2 x2 + a
Algebra 10
A. CONCAVITY
In this section we discuss the concept of concavity. As illustrated in the following figures, two
increasing graphs on an interval may have different shapes. This depends on how the graphs
bend or turn. As we scan the graphs from left to right, we see that the graph of f turns to the
left (upward), while the graph of g turns to the right (downward). We say that the function f
is concave up on the interval (a, b) and the function g is concave down on
the interval (a, b). We now define concavity geometrically.
y
y
y=f(x)
y=g(x)
increasing, concave up
Definition
increasing, concave down
concavity
A function f is concave up on an interval I if the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines
on the interval I.
Similarly, f is concave down on I if the graph of f lies below all of its tangent lines on I.
367
concave up (slopes increasing)
f > 0 f is increasing
f < 0 f is decreasing
concave down (slopes decreasing)
The graphs above illustrates the definition of concavity. Now, we shall see that the
second derivative f tells us where f is concave up and where f is concave down. If f is
concave up on (a, b), then the slopes of the tangent lines increase from left to right as shown
in the left figure above. This means that the first derivative f is increasing on (a, b). We know
that if f is an increasing function, then its derivative f must be positive on (a, b). In a
similar way, it can be shown that if f is concave down on (a, b), then f (x) < 0 on (a, b).
These observations suggest the following theorem.
Theorem
Let the function f be twice differentiable on the interval I.

1. If f (x) > 0 for all the values of x on the interval I, then f is concave up on I.
2. If f (x) < 0 for all the values of x on the interval I, then f is concave down on I.
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
As a conclusion of the
above theorem, we must
examine the sign of the
second derivative.
Determine where the following functions are concave up and where they are concave down.
a. f(x) = 9 x2
b. f(x) = x3
y
a. f(x) = 9 x2
f (x) = 2x and f (x) = 2
Since f (x) < 0 for all the values of x, f is concave down
everywhere.
b. f(x) = x3
f (x) =3x2 and f (x) = 6x
Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 0.
x
f (x)
f(x)
x
+
concave
down
concave
up
y = 9 x2
y = x3
From the sign chart, f(x) changes sign from negative to positive at the point x = 0. Observe
that the point (0, 0) on the graph of f(x) = x3 is where f changes from concave down to
concave up. We call it the inflection point of f.
368
Algebra 10
Inflection point
Definition
An inflection point is a point where a graph changes its direction of concavity.

y
f (a) = 0
f (a) = 0
f (a) does not exist
f (a) does not exist
Note
At each inflection point, either
1. f (a) = 0 or
2. f (a) does not exist.
FINDING THE INFLECTION POINTS

To find the inflection points of a function, follow the steps.
1. Find the points where f (x) = 0 and f (x) does not exist. These points are the
possible inflection points of the function f.
2. Construct the sign chart of f (x). If the sign of f (x) changes across the point
x = a, then (a, f(a)) is an inflection point of f.
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
Investigate f(x) = (x + 1)4 for concavity and find the inflection points.
y
f (x) = 4(x + 1)3

f (x) = 12(x + 1)2
x = 1 is a double root of f (x) = 0.

x
f (x)
f(x)
concave
up
concave
up
the graph of f(x) = (x + 1)4
From the sign chart, f(x) is concave up for all the values of x.
Also, we have f (x) = 0 when x = 1.
But (1, 0) is not the inflection point of f because f does not change sign across x = 1.
369
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for f ( x) =
1 4
x 4 x3 +9 x2 7 x+5.
2
f (x) = 2x3 12x2 + 18x 7

f (x) = 6x2 24x + 18 = 6(x 3)(x 1)
Because f (x) exists everywhere, the possible inflection points are the solutions of the
equation f (x) = 0; that is, x = 1 and x = 3.
1
f (x)
f (x)
concave up
concave down
(inf)
concave up
(inf)
From the sign chart for f , we see that f is concave up on (, 1) and (3, ) and concave
down on (1, 3). It would also be true to say that f is concave up on (, 1] and [3, ) and
concave down on [1, 3].
Also, observe that f (x) changes sign at x = 1 and x = 3. Therefore, the points (1, f(1)) and
(3, f(3)) are the inflection points of f.
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for f(x) = cos x sin x on [0, 2].
f (x) = sin x cos x and f (x) = cos x + sin x
Since f is differentiable on [0, 2], we must find the solutions of f (x) = 0 on [0, 2].
5
f (x) = 0 cos x + sin x = 0 tan x = 1 x =
and x = .
4
4
sin
f = 0
+
f (x)
f = 0
cos
f(x)
5p
4
p
4
concave
down
(inf)
The sign chart of f shows that f is concave down on (0,

5
( ,
).
4 4
2p
concave
up
concave
down
(inf)
5
) and ( , 2) and concave up on
4
4
2
2
5
5
5
2
2
f ( ) = cos sin =
= 0 and f ( ) = cos
sin
= +
=0
4
4
4
2
2
4
4
4
2
2
5
So, ( , 0) and ( , 0) are the inflection points of f.
4
4
370
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 3 has an inflection point at (1, 3). Find the values of a
and b.
f (x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b and f (x) = 6x + 2a
We know that the inflection point of f occurs at a point where f (x) = 0 or f (x) does not
exist.
Since (1, 3) is an inflection point, f (1) = 0.
Also we have f(1) = 3 because the point (1, 3) is on the graph of f.
f (1) = 0 6 1 + 2a = 0 a = 3
f(1) = 3 13 + a 12 + b 1 + 3 = 3 a + b = 0 b = 3
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve f ( x) = x2 +
1
at its inflection point.
x
We first need to find the inflection point of f.

f ( x) = 2 x
1
2
and f ( x) = 2+ 3
2
x
x
Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 1 and (1, 0) is the inflection point.

f does not exist when x = 0 but this point is not the inflection point of f. (Why?)
Now we can find the equation of the tangent line at the point (1, 0). The slope of the
equation is
1
= 2 1 = 3.
m = f ( 1) = 2 ( 1)
( 1)2
Using the point-slope form of a line,
y y1 = m (x x1)
y 0 = 3 (x + 1) or y = 3x 3.
371
Note
In the beginning of this section we have
seen that an increasing graph can be either
concave up or concave down. This shows
that the increase and decrease of a function
is independent of the concavity of the
function.
Remember that the sign of the first derivative determines where f is increasing and decreasing,
whereas the sign of the second derivative determines where f is concave up and concave down.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A GRAPH AND ITS DERIVATIVES

y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
x
y = f(x)
f > 0, f increasing
f > 0, f increasing
f < 0, f decreasing
f < 0, f decreasing
f > 0, f concave up
f < 0, f concave down
f > 0, f concave up
f < 0, f concave down
Check Yourself 9
1. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for each function.
x +1
x1
2. The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 has an inflection point at (1, 1). Find a and b.
a. f(x) = x3 2x2 7x + 3
b.
f ( x) =
3. The graph of a function y = f(x) is shown in the figure.
y
y = f(x)

b. Find the intervals of concavity of f.
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2
2
2
1. a. concave up: ( , ) , concave down: ( , ) , inflection point x = .
3
3
3
b. concave up: (1, ), concave down: (, 1), no inflection point.
2. a = 3, b = 1 3. a. increasing: (1, 2), (4, 6), (8, 9) b. concave up: (3, 6), (6, 9)
decreasing: (2, 4), (6, 8)
concave down: (1, 3)
372
Algebra 10
B. THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

We have seen that the first derivative test helps us classify the critical points of a function f.
Here we learn an alternative test for determining whether a critical point of f is a local
maximum or a local minimum.
THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

Let f be twice differentiable on an interval I and c be a critical point of f in I such that
f (c) = 0.
1. If f (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at x = c.
2. If f (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at x = c.
y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
c
f (c) = 0, f (c) > 0
f (c) = 0, f (c) < 0
local minimum at c.
local maximum at c.
The graphs above illustrates the second derivative test. We know that f is concave up near c
if f (c) > 0. This means that the graph of f lies above its horizontal tangent at c and so
f has a local minimum at c.
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
Apply the second derivative test to find the local extrema of the function
f(x) = x3 3x2 9x + 6.
f (x) = 3x2 6x 9 and f (x) = 6x 6.
So, f (x) = 0 gives x = 1 and x = 3, the critical points of f.
To apply the second derivative test, we compute f at these points.
f (1) = 12 and f (3) = 12
Since f (1) < 0, the second derivative test implies that f(1) = 11 is a local maximum value
of f. And since f (3) > 0, it follows that f(3) = 21 is a local minimum value.
Remember that we had found the same results by using the first derivative test in Example 24.
373
Note
The second derivative test can be used only when f exists. Moreover, this test fails when
f (c) = 0. In other words, if f (c) = 0 = f (c), then there might be a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither at the point x = c. In such cases we must use the
first derivative test.
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = 3x5 5x3 + 3.

f (x) = 15x4 15x2 = 15x2(x2 1) = 15x2(x 1)(x + 1) = 0
So, the critical points are x = 1, x = 0, and x = 1.
The second derivative is f (x) = 60x3 30x.
When we compute f (x) at each critical point, we find that
f (1) = 30 < 0, f (0) = 0, f (1) = 30 > 0.
The second derivative test tells us that f has a local maximum at x = 1, a local minimum
at x = 1. Since f (0) = 0, this test gives no information about the critical point 0. Let us
apply the first derivative test.
x
f (x)
f(x)
We see that f does not change sign at x = 0. So, f does not have a local maximum or
minimum.
Check Yourself 10
Apply the second derivative test to find the local extrema of each function.
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 12x + 7
2. f (x) = 8x5 5x4 20x3
4
3. f (x) = x +
x
Answers
1. max.: x = 2
1
min.: x =
2
374
2. max.: x = 1
3
min.: x =
2
3. max.: x = 2
min.: x = 2
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
5 .3
A. Concavity
i. f(x) =
1. The graphs of two functions are given. Find the

intervals where the second derivative of the
function is positive or negative.
a.
5 x
f ( x) =
sin x
1 cos x
b.
k. f(x) = Arcsin(x 2)
l.
j. f(x) =
x +1
3. Find a and b, if f(x) = x4 4x3 + ax2 + b has an

2
3
inflection point at (1, 3).

1
2. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection

points for each function.
4. The function f(x) = x4 + kx2 + 7x 7 has an

inflection point at x = 1. Find the coordinates of
the other inflection point.
a. f(x) = x2 5x + 6
b. f(x) = 2x2 + 7x
c. f(x) = x3 + x2
d. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 5x 7
e. f(x) = 3x4 16x3 + 30x2 + 4
f. f(x) =
in the figure. Find the intervals of concavity and

the inflection points of f.
1 4
x 6x2 + 4x 7
4
g. f(x) = 3x5 10x3 + 5x

h. f(x)=
5. The graph of the derivative of a function f is shown
1
x2
y
1
3
5
3
x
y = f (x)
375
B. The Second Derivative Test
9. Show that a cubic function has exactly one

inflection point.
6. Determine whether f has a local maximum or

minimum at the given value of x, using the
second derivative test.
1
a. f(x) = x3 3x2 7x + 5,
x=7
3
b. f(x) = x4 3x2 + 2,
1
3
4
3
c. f(x) = 4x + x ,
10. Show that a polynomial function of degree 4 has
x=0
either no inflection point or exactly two inflection

points.
x = 1
2
d. f(x) = x2 + , x =1
x
11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve

y=
7. Find the local extrema of the following functions,
1 3
1
x 2 x2 + 3x + at its inflection point.
3
3
using either the first or second derivative test.

a. f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 9x + 1
b. f(x) = x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 + 1
x2
c. f(x) =
x2
12. Find a, b, and c so that f(x) = ax3 3x2 + bx + c
has an inflection point at the point (1, 1) and a

local extremum at x = 2.
d. f(x) = ( x + 3) 3
e. f(x) =
1
1 + x2
f. f(x) = x + sin x
13. The tangent line to the curve

f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + cx + 1 at the inflection point of
f is perpendicular to the line y = x + 4. Find c.
Mixed Problems
8. Given the graph of f(x), plot a rough graph of
f (x).
y
y = f(x)
14. Given that g(x) = ex f(x) where f is a differentiable
376
function for all real numbers and the function g(x)

has an inflection point at x = a, find an expression
for f (a) in terms of f (a) and f(a).
Algebra 10
In this section we solve applied maximum-minimum problems in which the function is not
given directly. When we face such a problem, we are required to first find the appropriate
function to be maximized or minimized. The following steps will be helpful for solving these
problems.
1. Determine the quantity to be maximized or minimized and label it with a letter (say M for now).
2. Assign letters for other quantities, possibly with the help of a figure.
3. Express M in terms of some of the other variables.
4. Use the data in the problem to write M as a function of one variable x, say M = M(x).
5. Find the domain of the function M(x).
6. Find the maximum (or minimum) value of M(x) with the help of the first derivative.
Such problems where we look for the best value are called optimization problems.
38
EXAMPLE
Solution
A man has 40 m of fencing that he plans to use to enclose a

rectangular garden plot. Find the dimensions of the plot that
will maximize the area.
We want to maximize the area A of the rectangular plot.
Let x and y represent the length and width of the rectangle.
Then, since there is 40 m of fencing,
2x + 2y = 40 or x + y = 20.
b
a
Given a rectangle with
sidelength a and b
Perimeter = 2(a + b)
Area = a b
Then we express A in terms of x and y: A = x y

Expressing A as a function of just one variable,
we get A(x) = x (20 x) = 20x x2 (since y = 20 x).
Since the dimensions will be positive,
x > 0 and y = 20 x > 0 or 0 < x < 20.
The derivative is A(x) = 20 2x. So, the only critical point is x = 10. To investigate this
critical point, we calculate the second derivative. Since A(x) = 2 < 0, the second
derivative test implies that A has a local maximum x = 10.
We can verify that this local maximum is the absolute maximum by showing that the graph of
A is concave down everywhere. Since A(x) < 0 for all the values of x in (0, 20), maximum
value of A occurs at x = 10. The corresponding value of y is y = 20 x = 20 10 = 10.
Thus, the garden would be of maximum area (100 m2) if it was in the form of a square with
sides 10 m.
377
Note
Suppose that f has only one critical point c in the interval I. If f (x) has the same sign at all
points of I, then f(c) is an absolute extremum of f on I. This absolute interpretation of the
second derivative test is useful in optimization problems.
39
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 15 and x2 + 5y is as small as possible.
We have x + y = 15 and we want to minimize M = x2 + 5y. Expressing M as a function of
just one variable we get M(x) = x2 + 5(15 x) = x2 5x + 75 (since y = 15 x).
Since both numbers are positive, x > 0 and y = 9 x > 0 or 0 < x < 9.
5
The derivative is M(x) = 2x 5. So, the critical point is x = .
2
Since M(x) = 2 > 0 for all the values of x in (0 , 9), the second derivative test implies that
5
x = is the minimum value of M(x).
2
5
5 25
Therefore, M gets its minimum value when x = , and y = 15 x = 15 =
.
2
2
2
40
EXAMPLE
Solution
A manufacturer has an order to make cylindrical cans with a

volume of 500 cm3. Find the radius of the cans that will
minimize the cost of the metal in their production.
In order to minimize the cost of the metal, we minimize the
total surface area of the cylinder.
500
.
r 2
Hence the surface area of the can as a function of r is
The volume of the can is V = r2h = 500. So, h =

r
A( r ) = 2 r 2 + 2 r (
h
The surface area of a

cylinder is 2r2 + 2rh
and the volume is r2h
where r is the radius
and h the height.
500
1000
) = 2 r 2 +
, r > 0.
r 2
r
The derivative of A(r) is A( r ) = 4r

Thus, the only critical point is r = 3
Since A( r ) = 4 +
250
.
2000
250
> 0 for r = 3
, the second derivative test implies that A gets its
3
minimum value when r = 3

378
1000 4( r 3 250)
=
.
r2
r2
250
.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
41
Solution
Find the area of the largest rectangle that has two vertices on the x - axis and another two above
the x - axis on the parabola y = 3 x2.
y
Let (x, y) be the vertex of the rectangle in the

first quadrant. Then the rectangle has sides with
the lengths 2x and y. So, its area is A = 2xy.
Using the fact that (x, y) lies on the parabola
y = 3 x2, the expression to be maximized is
A(x) = 2 x (3 x2) = 6x 2x3.
(x, y)
3
3
x
The domain of this function is (0, 3).
y = 3 x2
Its derivative is A(x) = 6 6x2.

So, the critical points are 1 and 1.
Only the positive value x = 1 lies in the
interval (0, 3). Since this is the only critical
value in the interval, we can apply the second
derivative test.
The second derivative is A(x) = 12x and in
particular A(x) < 0 for all the values of x in
(0, 3). So, the maximum value of A(x) in this interval is A(1) = 4. Therefore, the area of
the largest rectangle is 4.
EXAMPLE
42
Solution
Find the point on the line y = x + 2 that is the closest to the point (1, 2).
Let (x, y) be a point on y = x + 2 such that the distance
d between (x, y) and (1, 2) is a minimum.
2
We have d = ( x 1)2 +( y 2) 2 .
Distance between
two points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
( x1 x2 )2 +( y1 y2 )2 .
If the point (x, y) is on the line, then y = x + 2. To

rewrite d in terms of the single variable x, substitute
y = x + 2.
After substitution, d = ( x 1)2 + x2 = 2 x2 2 x +1.
y=x+2
(x, y)
d
(1, 2)
-2
x
It is clear that the minimum of d occurs at the same point as the minimum of d2. So, we
minimize d2 to simplify calculations by letting M = d2.
M(x) = 2x2 2x + 1 has derivative M(x) = 4x 2.
1
1
So, M(x) = 0 when x = . Since M(x) = 4 > 0, the minimum value occurs at x = .
2
2
1
5
1 5
Since y = + 2 = , the point ( , ) is the closest point to the point (1, 2).
2
2
2 2
379
EXAMPLE
43
Solution
The swimmer is 40 m from the shoreline. The lifeguard is 100 m from the point on the shore
that is directly opposite the swimmer. The guard can run at a speed of 5 m/s and swim at a
speed of 3 m/s. What path should the guard follow to get to the swimmer in the least time?
Let x be the distance denoted in the given diagram.
swimmer
402 + x2
40 m
guard
100 x
Recall that if travel is at a constant rate of speed, then

(distance traveled) = (rate of travel) (time elapsed).
D
In short, D = R T or T = .
R
The total time elapsed is
T( x) = (swim time)+( run time) =
swim distance run distance

40 2 + x2 100 x
+
=
+
.
swim rate
run rate
3
5
We wish to minimize the total time elapsed. So, we differentiate this equation to get
T ( x) =
1 1
1
x
1
1
(40 2 + x2 ) 2 (40 2 + x2 ) =
.
3 2
5 3 40 2 + x2 5
T(x) = 0 gives 5x = 40 2 + x2 25x2 = 9(402 + x2) 16x2 = 9 402 x = 30.

But x 30 since x measures a distance.
It is left to the student to verify that T(30) > 0 which means x = 30 corresponds to a path
of minimum time.
Check Yourself 11
1. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 9 and x2y is as large as possible.
2. A rectangle has area of 144 m2. What dimensions will minimize its perimeter?
3. An open rectangular box with a square base is to be made from 300 cm2 of material. Find
the dimensions of the box with the maximum volume.
4. Find the minimum distance from the line 2x + 3y = 13 to the origin.
Answers
1. x = 6, y = 3
380
2. 12, 12
3. 5, 10
4. 13
Algebra 10
How can we explain why a pencil appears to be

broken when it is immersed partially into water or
why objects under water appear to be nearer the
surface than they really are to an observer looking
down? It is an illusion caused by the refraction of
light.
When light passes from one transparent medium to
another(like air and water), it changes speed, and
bends according to the law of refraction which
states:
sin 1 sin 2
=
1
2
where,
1 is the speed of light in medium 1,

2 is the speed of light in medium 2,
1 is the angle between the incident ray and normal to the surface at the point P,
2 is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.
incident
ray
q1
P
q2
medium 1
medium 2
refracted
ray
The experimental discovery of this relationship is usually credited to Willebrord

Snell (1591-1627) and is therefore known as Snells law.
381
Snells law can be derived from a physics principle discovered by Pierre de Fermat,
the seventeenth-century mathematician. Fermats principle states that a ray of
light travels the path of minimum time. The derivation of Snells law from
Fermats principle represent an interesting application of the derivative.
Suppose a light ray is to travel from A
to B, where A is in the medium 1 and
B is in the medium 2. Using the
geometry of the figure given above,
we see that the time it takes the ray
to travel from A to B is
d
d
t= 1 + 2
1 2
t( x) =
A
d1
q1
x
medium 1
medium 2
q2
d2
distance
(time=
),
velocity
( d x) + b
a +x
+
.
1
2
2
dx
We obtain the least time, or the minimum value of t, by taking the derivative of t
with respect to x and setting the derivative equal to zero.
t( x) =
1 a2 + x2
dx
2 ( d x)2 + b2
The function t is differentiable for all the

values of x. So, the only critical values are the
solutions to the equation t(x) = 0. This
equation gives the condition that
x
1 a2 + x2
From the figure, we see that sin 1 =
Using these equations, we obtain
382
x
a2 + x2
dx
2 ( d x )2 + b2
and sin 2 =
dx
( d x)2 + b2
sin 1 sin 2
, which is Snells law.
=
1
2
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
5 .4
1. Find two positive numbers such that their sum is

30 and their product is as large as possible.
2. One number is 4 larger than another. How must
7. A man has 120 metres of fencing. He wishes to

enclose a rectangular garden adjacent to a long
existing wall. He needs no fence along the wall.
What are the dimensions of the largest area he
can enclose?
they be chosen in order to minimize their

product?
8. A closed rectangular
3. The sum of two positive integers is 10. Find the
maximum value of the sum of their squares.
4. Find the minimum possible value of the sum of

two positive numbers such that their product is m.
box is to be made with

192 cm2 of material.
The length of its base
is twice its width.
What is the largest
possible volume of
such a box?
y
x
2x
5. Find the value of m if the sum of squares of the

roots of x2 + (2 m)x m 3 = 0 is to be
minimum.
6. A farmer has 100 m of fencing and wants to build
9. An open tank with a square base is to be made of

sheet iron. Its capacity is to be 4 m3. Find the
dimensions of the tank so that the least amount of
sheet iron may be used.
a rectangular pen for his horse. Find the

dimensions of the largest area he can enclose.
10. A rectangular sheet of
48 cm
tin, 30 cm by 48 cm,
has four equal squares
cut out at the corners.
The sides are then
turned up to form an
open rectangular box.
Find the largest possible
volume of the box.
30 cm
383
11. A closed cylindrical drum with the volume 54 m3

is to be manufactured using the minimum
amount of metal sheet possible. Find the diameter
of the base of the drum.
17. In the figure on the right,
12. The sum of two non-negative numbers is 10. Find

the minimum possible value of the sum of their
cubes.
the point (x, y) lies on

4
the graph of the ellipse
P(x, y)
2
2
x
y
+ =1 in
9 16
the first quadrant.
O
A 3 x
For what value of y will
the area of the triangle POA be maximum?
18. Find the length of the diagonal of the rectangle
with the largest area that can be inscribed in an

isosceles triangle of base 24 cm and height 10 cm.
13. Find the area of the

largest rectangle that is
D
inscribed in a circle with
the radius R. ([AC] is the
A
diameter of the circle
because an angle inscribed in a
semicircle is a right angle).
19. A right cylinder is inscribed
2R
B
in a right circular cone with

the radius 3 cm and height
5 cm. Find the dimensions
of the cylinder of maximum
volume.
20. Car A is 125 km directly west of car B and begins

14. What is the shortest distance from a point on the
curve y2 = 8x to the point (4, 2)?
moving east at 100 km/h. At the same time, car B

begins moving north at 50 km/h. At what time t
does the minimum distance occur?
15. Find the point on the curve y = lnx that is closest
to the line y = x.
16. What is the minimum
possible area of a right

triangle that is formed
in the first quadrant by a
line passing through the
point (4, 3) and the
coordinate axes?
384
21. Among all tangents to graph of
(4, 3)
45
x +1 at positive x-values, the
4
one which intersects y-axis at maximum y-value
y = x 3 6 x2 +
is chosen. Find that y-value.

Algebra 10
A. ASYMPTOTES
When plotting the graph of a function, we need to know the behavior of the function at
infinity and the behavior near points where the function is not defined. To describe these
situations, we define the term asymptote.
y = f(x)
An asymptote is a line that a curve approaches closer and
closer until the distance between the asymptote and the
points on the curve approaches zero.

x 1
.
x+ 2
Observe that f is increasing on the interval (2, ). So, you
Consider the graph of the function f ( x) =
We represent an asymptote
by drawing a dashed line.
might think that its values f(x) increase without bound as x

increases without bound. (f(x) as x ). However, we
can see that the graph of f approaches the line y = 1 as
x . So, we say that y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
Next, the function f is not defined at x = 2. Let us examine
the behavior of f near 2. We see that the graph of f goes to
plus infinity as x approaches 2 from the left, whereas the
graph goes to minus infinity as x approaches 2 from the
right. So, we say that x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.
Definition
asymptote
y
y=
x1
x+1
y=1
x
x = 2
vertical asymptote
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x) if
either
lim f(x) = or lim f(x) = .
x a+
x a
x
vertical
asymptote
FINDING THE VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE

P( x)
has a vertical asymptote x = a whenever only the
Q( x)
denominator of f(x) equals zero (that is, Q(a) = 0 but P(a) 0).
A rational function f ( x) =
385
EXAMPLE
44
Solution
Find the vertical asymptotes of the function f ( x) =
x
.
x 4
2
Let P(x) = x and Q(x) = x2 4.

Note that x = 2 and x = 2 are the roots of the denominator.
Since P(2) 0 and P(2) 0, x = 2 and x = 2 are both vertical asymptotes of the graph of f.
horizontal asymptote
Definition
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x)

if either
horizontal
asymptote
lim f(x) = b or lim f(x) = b.
FINDING THE HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE

A rational function
f ( x) =
an xn + an 1x n 1 +...+ a1x + a0
bm xm + bm 1x m 1 +...+ b1x + b0
horizontal asympote:
lim f ( x) =
EXAMPLE
45
Solution
if
n>m
an / bm
if
n = m.
if
n<m
Find the horizontal asymptote of the function f ( x) =
has the following limit as
x
.
x 4
2
To find the horizontal asymptotes we must evaluate lim f ( x).

x
Since the degree of the polynomial in numerator is smaller than the degree of the polynomial
x
= 0. So, y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
in denominator, lim 2
x x 4
EXAMPLE
46
Solution
Find all the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function f ( x) =
x2 x
.
2 x 5x + 3
2
To find the horizontal asymptotes we must evaluate lim f ( x).

x
x2 x
1
= . So, y = 1/2
x 2 x2 5 x + 3
2
Since the degree of x2 x equals the degree of 2x2 5x + 3, lim

is a horizontal asymptote of f.
Next, to find the vertical asymptotes we must solve 2x2 5x + 3 = 0.

2x2 5x + 3 = (x 1)(2x 3) = 0 gives x = 1 and x = 3/2.
However, x = 1 is also a root of numerator. So, only x = 3/2 is a vertical asymptote of f.
386
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
47
Solution
EXAMPLE
48
Solution
Find all the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function f ( x) =
2 x2 3x +5
.
x2 +1
2 x2 3x +5
= 2. So, y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
x
x2 +1
Since the denominator x2 + 1 is never equal to zero, f has no vertical asymptotes.
lim
Find all the asymptotes of the function f ( x) = 2 x3 5x2 + 7 x 12.

The function f is a polynomial function. But we can write it as a rational function with
2 x3 5x2 + 7x 12
.
1
Since the denominator is never equal to zero, f has no vertical asymptotes.
the denominator 1 such as f ( x) =
Next, compute lim (2 x3 5 x2 + 7 x 12).

x
We know that the limit of a polynomial at infinity is the limit of the term of highest degree.
So, lim (2 x3 5 x2 + 7 x 12) = lim 2 x3 = 2 ( ) 3 = .
x +
x+
lim (2 x3 5 x2 + 7 x 12) = lim 2 x3 = 2 ( ) 3 = .
In other words, lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) do not exist. Therefore, f has no horizontal asymptote.
x +
Note
A polynomial function has no vertical or horizontal asymptotes.
Definition
oblique asymptote
The line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f(x)
if either
y oblique asymptotes
lim[ f ( x) ( mx + n)] = 0 or lim[ f ( x) ( mx + n)] = 0.

x
To find the equation of an oblique asymptote, we use long division.

P( x)
For a rational function f ( x) =
for which the degree of P is exactly one more than the
Q( x)
c
degree of Q, by dividing Q(x) into P(x), we get f ( x) = mx + n +
.
Q( x)
c
In this case, we have lim[ f ( x) ( mx + n)]= lim
= 0.
x
x Q( x )
So, the line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f(x).
387
EXAMPLE
49
Solution
Find all the asymptotes of the graph of f ( x) =
x2 + x
.
x2
x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f because 2 makes only the denominator zero.
Note that the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. So,
the graph of f has an oblique asymptote.
6
x2 + x
By long division of x 2 into x2 + x, we can find that f ( x) =
= x + 3+
.
x2
x2
So, y = x + 3 is an oblique asymptote of f.
Check Yourself 12
Find all the asymptotes of the graph of each of the following functions.
1. f ( x) =
x 1
2x + 3
2. f ( x) =
5x
3 + x2
2. y = 0
3. x =
3. f ( x) =
x2 9
3+7 x 2 x2
4. f ( x) =
x2 x 2
x 1
Answers
3
1
1. x = , y =
2
2
1
1
,y=
2
2
4. x = 1, y = x
B. CURVE PLOTTING
Curve plotting is the final part of our study of the derivatives. So far we have seen how to use
the derivatives to find the most interesting features of a graph. With the use of all the
information about the graph of a function, we can easily draw it.
STEPS OF CURVE PLOTTING
1. Domain: Find where f(x) is defined.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: Construct the sign chart of f (x) to determine the
intervals where f(x) is increasing and where f(x) is decreasing.
3. Local Extrema: Find the critical points of f and classify each as a maximum, a
minimum, or neither by using the First Derivative Test.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: Construct the sign chart of f (x) to determine the
intervals where f(x) is concave up and where f(x) is concave down. With the help of
the chart, find the inflection points.
5. Intercepts: In y = f(x) setting x = 0 gives the y-intercept and y = 0 gives the
x-intercept(s). To find the x-intercept(s) may be difficult, in which case we do not use
this information.
6. Behavior at Infinity: Consider lim f(x) and lim f(x) to see how the graph of f
x +
x
behaves as x .
7. Asymptotes: Find all the asymptotes of the graph and draw the asymptotes in a
coordinate plane by using dashed lines.
8. Graph: Start graphing by plotting the local extrema, inflection points, and intercepts.
Then, using the rest of the information, complete the plot by joining the plotted points.
388
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
50
Solution
Plot the graph of the function f(x) = x3 3x 2.
1. Domain: Recall that the domain of a polynomial function is all real numbers. So, f is
defined for all the values of x.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f (x) = 3x2 3 = 3(x + 1)(x + 1)
When f (x) = 0 we have x = 1 and x = 1.
1
x
The sign chart of f shows that f is increasing
+
f (x)
on (, 1) and (1, ) and decreasing on (1, 1).
f(x)
(max)
(min)
3. Local Extrema: We have learned that a polynomial function is differentiable everywhere.

So, the critical points of f(x) are the roots of f (x) = 0.
From the results of Step 2, we say that f has a local maximum at x = 1 and a local
minimum at x = 1.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f (x) = 6x = 0
When f (x) = 0 we have x = 0.
The sign chart of f shows that f is concave

down on (, 0) and concave up on (0, ).
f (x)
So, f has an inflection point at x = 0.
f(x)
concave
down
concave
up
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y = 2 (y-intercept)
Setting y = 0 leads to a cubic equation. Since the solution is not readily found, we will
not use this information.
6. Behavior at Infinity: Recall that the limit of a polynomial function at infinity is the limit
of the term of highest degree.
lim f(x) = lim (x3 3x 2) = lim x3 = ()3 =
(This means that f(x) decreases without bound as x decreases without bound. So, the
graph of f goes to plus infinity as x )
lim f(x) = lim (x3 3x 2) = lim x3 = (+)3 = +
x +
x +
x +
(This means that f(x) increases without bound as x decreases without bound. So, the
graph of f goes to plus infinity as x +)
7. Asymptotes: A polynomial function has no asymptotes.
389
8. Graph: We can find f(1) = 0,

f(1) = 4, and f(0) = 2.
Plot a local maximum at (1, 0) a local
minimum at (1, 4), an inflection
point at (1, 0), and the y-intercept at
y = 2. Finally, complete the graph by
passing a smooth curve through the
plotted points.
local
maximum
f(x) +
as x +
1
x
y = f(x)
inflection
point
2
f(x)
as x
local
minimum
It is clear from the graph of f that x = 1 is a root of f(x) = 0. So, x + 1 is a factor of

x3 3x 2. The other factor can be found by division:
f(x) = (x + 1)(x2 x 2) = (x + 1)2(x 2).
Hence x = 2 is also a root of f(x) = 0 and the graph crosses the x-axis at this point. But note
that x = 1 is a double root of f(x) = 0 and the graph is tangent to the x-axis at x = 1.
EXAMPLE
51
Solution
Plot the graph of the function f(x) = x4 + 8x2 7.

1. Domain: Since f is a polynomial, it is defined for all the values of x.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease:
f (x) = 4x3 + 16x = 4x(x2 4)

When f (x) = 0 we have x = 2, x = 0,
and x = 2.
f is increasing on (, 2) and (0, 2), and
decreasing on (2, 0) and (2, +).
f (x)
f(x)
(max)
(min)
(max)
3. Local Extrema: From the sign chart of f (x), f has local maximum at x = 2 and
x = 2, a local minimum at x = 0.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points:
x
f (x) = 12x2 + 16 = 0
When f (x) = 0 we have x =

f has inflection points at x =
2
3
and x =
2
3
f(x)
2
3
2
3
concave
down
concave
up
f (x)
concave
down
y = 0 x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 7, x4 = 7 (x-intercepts)
390
Algebra 10
6. Behavior at Infinity:
lim f(x) = lim (x4) = ()4 = and lim f(x) = lim (x4) = (+)4 = +
x +
x +
The graph goes to to the left and to the right.

7. Asymptotes: Since f is polynomial, it has no asymptotes.
8. Graph: f(2) = 9, f(0) = 7, f(2) = 9, f (
2
3
local (and absolute)

maximum
5
2
5
, f(
)= .
3
3
3
)=
local
(and absolute) maximum
9
inflection point ( 2 , 5 )
3 3
( 2 , 5 ) inflection point
3 3
5
3
7
2 1
y = f(x)
7
f(x)
as x
f(x)
local
minimum
as x +
Check Yourself 13
Plot the graph of each function.
1. f(x) = 2x3 3x2 12x
Answers
y
1.
2.
y = f(x)
2. f(x) = x2(x 2)2
y = f(x)
1
1
20
391
EXAMPLE
52
Solution
Plot the graph of the function f ( x) =
x3
.
2x + 4
1. Domain: Recall that the domain of a rational function is all real numbers except the
numbers that make the denominator zero. So, f is defined everywhere except x = 2.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f ( x) =
1 (2 x + 4) ( x 3) 2
10
=
2
(2 x + 4)
(2 x + 4)2
Since f (x) > 0 for all the values of x except 2. So, f is always increasing in its domain.
3. Local Extrema: Note that f does not change its sign. By the first derivative test, we say
that f has no local extrema.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f ( x) =
40
(2 x + 4)3
The sign chart of f shows that f is concave up

on (, 2) and concave down on (2, ).
Observe that f changes its sign at x = 2. But
at this point f is not defined. Therefore, there is
no inflection point.
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y =
3
( y - intercept)
4
y = 0 x=3
( x - intercept)
x
f (x)
f(x)
concave
up
concave
down
1
x3
lim f(x) = lim
= .
x
x 2x + 4
2
1
is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
2
Also, x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f because 2 makes the denominator zero.
7. Asymptotes: From Step 6, y =
8. Graph:
y
y = 1 horizontal asymptote
2
y = f(x)
1
2
2
x = 2
vertical asymptote
392
3
4
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
53
Solution
x
.
x 4
2
1. Domain: The domain of f is all real numbers except x = 2 and x = 2.

1 ( x2 4) x 2 x
x2 4
( x2 + 4)
= 2
= 2
2
2
2
( x 4)
( x 4)
( x 4) 2
Since f (x) < 0 for all the values of x except 2 and 2, f is always decreasing in its domain.
3. Local Extrema: f has no local extrema.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points:
2 x( x +8)
f ( x) =
( x2 4)3
f (x)
concave
down
f(x)
f (x) = 0 only when x = 0.
-2
concave concave
up
down
(inf)
f is not defined at x = 2 and x = 2.
+
concave
up
Thus, f is concave up on (2, 0) and (2, ) and concave down on (, 2) and (0, 2). The
sign of f (x) changes at the points x = 2, 0, and 2. But the only inflection point is
x = 0 because f is not defined at 2 and 2.
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y = 0 and y = 0 x = 0.
The point (0, 0) is the only intercept.
lim f(x) = lim
x
= 0.
x 4
2
7. Asymptotes: From Step 6, y = 0 (the x axis) is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.

Next, x = 2 and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of f because they make the
denominator zero.
8. Graph:
y
x=2
vertical
asymptote
y = f(x)
y=0
horizontal
asymptote
x=2
vertical
asymptote
393
EXAMPLE
54
Solution
x2 x + 4
.
x 1
1. Domain: f is defined for all the values of x except x = 1.

(2 x 1) ( x 1) ( x2 x + 4) x 2 2 x 3
=
( x 1)2
( x 1)2
When f (x) = 0, x = 1 and x = 3.

Also, note that f (x) is not defined at x = 1.
From the sign chart of f , f is increasing on

(, 1) and (3, ) and decreasing on
(1, 1) and (1, 3).
f (x)
f(x)
(max)
(min)
3. Local Extrema: f has a local maximum at x = 1 and a local minimum at x = 3.

4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f ( x) =
8
( x 1)3
concave
down
concave
up
f (x)
We conclude that f is concave down on (, 1) and

concave up on (1, ). But it has no inflection point
because 1 is not in the domain of f.
f(x)
y = 0 x2 x + 4 = 0 < 0 (no x intercepts)
2
6. Behavior at Infinity: lim f(x) = lim x x + 4 = .
x
x
x1
7. Asymptotes: Note that the degree of the numerator of f is exactly one more than the
degree of the denominator of f.
(3, 5)
local min.
So, f has an oblique asymptote.

4
.
x1
So, y = x is an oblique asymptote of f.
By long division, we have f ( x) = x +
y=x
oblique
asymptote
Next, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of f.

1
8. Graph: f(1) = 3 and f(3) = 5.
3
3
4
y = f(x)
394
(1, 3)
local max.
x=1
vertical
asymptote
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 14
Plot the graph of each function.
x
x +1
Answers
1. f ( x) =
2. f ( x) =
1.
x +1
2x
y
1
y = f(x)
1/2
1/2
2.
y
y = f(x)
1/2
2
x
Fill in the 3 3 field of squares such that

the graph of the derivative is located
below each graph.
a
395
EXERCISES
5 .5
A. Asymptotes
5. The graph of the

function
f(x) = a(x 2)2(x + b)
is shown in the figure.
Find a and b.
1. Find all the asymptotes of the graph of each function.

a. f ( x) =
2
x +1
b. f ( x) =
1
( x 1)3
3x + 2
c. f(x) = x 4x 5x + 6 d. f ( x) =
4x
3
y = f(x)
6. The graph of the function
3 x
e. f ( x) =
( x + 3)2
f. f ( x) = x +1
1 x2
2
g. f ( x) = 2( x 1)
x + 2x 3
2
h. f ( x) = 4 2 x 3x
2 x + 3x 9
i. f ( x) =
x3
x2 5 x 6
j. f ( x) =
7. Find the equation of a
polynomial function of
degree 4 whose graph is
shown in the figure.
3x 1
has exactly one vertical
x2 + x + m
asymptote. Find m.
y = f(x)
x3
x2 +9
2
k. f ( x) = x + 2 x + 3
x 1
2. The curve y =
f(x) = a(x + b)3(x + c) is

shown in the figure. f has
an inflection point at
x = 1.
Find the sum a + b + c.
y = f(x)
1
2
8. Plot the graph of each rational function.
B. Curve Plotting
a. f ( x) =
x 1
x +1
b. f ( x) =
c. f ( x) =
x 1
2
x 2x 3
2
d. f ( x) = 2( x + 1)
x 4x + 3
3. Plot the graph of each polynomial function.

a. f(x) = x3 6x2
b. f(x) = (x 1)2(x + 3)
c. f(x) = x3 2x2 + x 2
2
e. f ( x) = x2 9
x + 3x
d. f(x) = (x 4)(3 x)
1
x +1
2
f. f ( x) = x + x
x2
e. f(x) = x4 2x2 + 1
Mixed Problems
f. f(x) = x(x 1)(x + 1)2
4. In the figure the graph of

a cubic function y = f(x)
is given. Find the local
minimum value of f.
9. Plot the graph of each function.
y = f(x)
a. f ( x) = x 4 x2
1
1
x
396
b. f ( x) =
x2
x+ 2
c. f(x) = sin x + cos2x
10. State how many solutions the equation
2x3 + 3x2 12x + 3 = a has for each value of a.

Algebra 10
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. Find lim
x 1
A) 1
5A
5. For what values of k is f(x)=x3 +(k+1)x2 +3x+2
x2 + x 2
.
x2 4 x + 3
B)
3
2
always increasing?
D)
C) 0
3
4
E)
2
3
A) 6 < k < 3
B) k > 0
C) 4 < k < 0
D) 3 < k < 2
E) 4 < k < 2
x
1 sin
2
2. Find lim
.
x
x
1
A) 1
B)
2
6. Which of the following is a local extremum of

f(x) = x3 3x2 + 3x + 1?
A) 6
1
D)
2
C) 0
E) 1
B) 1
D) 2
C) 0
E) no extremum
7. Which of the following is false

3. Find the interval on which f(x) = x2 6x + 2 is
for the graph of the

function y = f(x)?
2
decreasing.
A) (, 3)
C) (3, )
B) (3, 3)
D) (0, )
E) (, 6)
y = f(x)
1
A) f(2) = 0
B) f (1) = 0
C) f (1) > 0
D) f (1) > 0
E) f (0) < 0
8. Find the interval on which y = (x + 2)3 is

4. Find the value of the limit lim
x 1
A) 0
B)
1
2
C) 1
concave up.
x 1
.
x2 1
D)
1
3
E)
1
6
A) (2, )
B) (, 2)
D) (, )
C) (2, 2)
E) (2, )
397
9. For what value of m does the polynomial
13. Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the equation
P(x) = x4 + x3 + (m 1)x2 have an inflection

point at x = 1?
y = x2 (m + 1)x + 2m 1 = 0. Find the value

of m that minimizes x12 + x22.
A) 3
A) 0
B) 2
C) 1
10. The graph of the derivative
D) 0
y
y = f (x)
of the function
f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is
given in the figure.
Find a + b.
A) 17
B) 11
E) 1
C) 5
D) 17
B) 1
C) 1
D) 2
E) 2
14. Find the point on the parabola y =
x2
that is
2
3
closest to the point ( , 0).
2
1
1
A) ( 1, )
B) (1, )
2
2
1 1
D)( , )
2 8
11. Find the intersection point of the asymptotes of
y
5
2
cubic function f, find

f(2).
3 x
.
x+ 2
A) (2, 3)
D) (2, 1)
1 1
E) ( , )
2 8
E) 10
15. Given the graph of a
y=
C) (0, 0)
x
y = f(x)
B) (3, 1)
C) (2, 1)
A)
E) (1, 3)
3
2
B) 0
C) 1
D) 2
E)
5
2
16. Which one of the following graphs could be the

12. Which of the following is true for the function
f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 12x + 4?
graph of y = x4 2x2?
A)
B)
A) f has a local minimum at x = 0.
B) f(2) < 0
1
C) f is concave up on ( , ).
2
D) f is always increasing.
E) f has a local maximum at x = 1.

398
D)
C)
E)
x
y
x
Algebra 10
5B
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
1. Let f be an increasing function on the closed
6. If x = a and y = b are the asymptotes of the graph
interval [4, 4]. Which of the following is definitely

true?
A) f(3) > 0
B) f(2) < 0
C) f (1) < 0
D) f(2) < f(2)
of f ( x) =
x2 + 3x + 2
, find a + b.
x2 2 x 3
A) 1
B) 2
B)
2
5
B) 12
C) 3
D) 18
E) 9
x +x
has a local extremum
x+ a
8. Given the graph of the

function f, find the slope of
the tangent line to the
graph of g(x) = x f(x) at
x = 3.
at x = 2, find a.
4
5
E) 5
triangle whose hypotenuse is 6 cm.

A) 36
A)
D) 4
7. Find the maximum possible area of a right
E) f(1) < f(1)
2. If the function f ( x) =
C) 3
D)
C) 1
4
5
E)
2
5
y
3
4
3
x
y = f(x)
3. Find the local minimum value of f ( x) = x + 84 .
A) 3
A) 1
B)
5
2
C)
3
4
D)
5
4
E)
3
2
B) 4
9.
A)
19
14
B)
9
7
C) 1
D)
17
14
E)
8
7
7
x
Given the graph of the derivative of a function f,

what is the sum of the abscissa of inflection
points of f?
A) 9
5. Which of the following is
E) 3
y = f (x)
4. Find the sum of the maximum and minimum

x2
on the interval [4, 1].
x3
D) 0
y
3
values of f ( x) =
C) 6
B) 6
C) 4
D) 7
E) 16
false for the graph of the

function y = f(x)?
3 1
4
the function whose graph

is given in the figure?
y = f(x)
A) f(x) = (x + 1)2(x 2)
11
) <0
5
A) f (2) = 0
B) f (
C) f(1) = 0
D) f (1) > 0
13
E) f ( ) < 0
4
B) f(x) = (x + 1)(2 + x)
y = f(x)
C) f(x) = (x + 1)(2 x)
D) f(x) = (x + 1)2(2 x)
E) f(x) = (x 1)2(x 2)
399
11. Which one of the following could be the graph of

2x
the function f ( x) = 2
?
x 1
y
A)
B)
14. Find m if the inflection point of the function

1 3
2
x x2 + mx +
is on the parabola
3
3
y = x2 2x + 3.
f ( x) =
A) 2
1
C)
D)
A) 2
has a local minimum at the point (1, 2), find a.

B) 1
C) 0
D) 1
x2 +1
. Find the distance between
x
these points.
A) 5
400
B) 25
C) 35
x2 1
has no local extrema?
mx + 3
B) 1
C) 0
D) 2
D) 45
E) 4
E) 55
the function whose graph

is given in the figure?
E) 2
13. Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be the extremum

points of y =
E) 2
12. Given that the function f(x) = x4 ax3 + bx2 2x + 3

A) 2
D) 1
15. Which one of following could be the value of m if

the function f ( x) =
E)
C) 0
1
1
B) 1
1
3
3
x
x +1
x2 2 x 3
x +1
C) y = 2
x + 2x + 3
A) y =
E) y =
x 1
x2 2 x 3
x +1
D) y = 2
x +3
B) y =
1
x2 2 x 3
Algebra 10
Imagine you have a bag of marbles. Your friend asks

you how many marbles there are in your bag. If you
did not know the answer, you would probably count
the marbles: one, two three, four, etc. Matching a
word to a marble like this is one way of counting.
But we can match other things, too. A prisoner
might match every day he spends in his cell to a
mark on the wall, or a shepherd might match every
sheep he looks after to a pebble in a bag. These are
different ways of counting. In these section we will
look at different ways of counting.
A. THE ADDITION PRINCIPLE

Ali wants to go to the cinema to watch a movie. There are two different halls at the cinema.
Three movies are showing in the first hall and four different movies are showing in the
second hall. In how many ways can Ali choose a movie to watch?
Since Ali cannot be in two different halls at the same time, there are 3 + 4 = 7 different ways
for Ali to choose the movie.
addition principle
Definition
Let A and B be two actions that cannot both be performed at the same time. If action A can
be performed in m ways and action B can be performed in n ways, then the action A or B can
be performed in m + n ways.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Mary has three different Barbie dolls and two different Cindy dolls. She wants to take them
out to play with her friend. However, Marys mother will only let Mary choose one doll. In
how many ways can Mary choose a doll?
Mary has three alternatives for her Barbie dolls and two alternatives for her Cindy dolls. So
she can choose a doll in 3 + 2 = 5 ways.
In this example, Mary had five different dolls. If we name the dolls D1, D2, ..., D5 then we can
list the possible results of Marys choice as {D1, D2, ..., D5}. Each element in this set is a
possible outcome of Marys choice.
402
Algebra 10
B. SYSTEMATIC LISTING
In the previous examples it was easy to list the outcomes. Sometimes, however, it can be
more difficult: there may be many different outcomes in a problem, or a task may be
complicated. In this section we will look at different ways of listing the outcomes of a task or
decision.
1. Simple Listing
If our task contains only one part, listing the possible outcomes is very
easy. For example, if we roll a fair dice there are six different possible
results. The list of outcomes is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
EXAMPLE
Solution
David wants to buy a shirt. There are four different colored shirts in Davids size. In how
many different ways can David buy a shirt?
Let us assume that the colors of the shirts are blue, red, yellow and
green. We can list the available shirts as {blue, red, yellow, green}.
Since David only chooses one shirt, each shirt in this set is a possible
outcome. So the answer is four.
2. Using a Product Table

If our task contains two parts, our listing method is a little different. We can use a table called
a product table to list the possible outcomes of the task. Let us look at some examples.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Selman needs to go into and out of the library. If the library has two doors, in how many ways
can Selman go in and out?
There are two tasks for Selman: going into the library and going out. Let the two library doors
be A and B. For each task, Selman can choose either door.
The product table for Selmans library visit looks like this:
Selmans library visit
Go in
Go out
A
(A, A)
(A, B)
(B, A)
(B, B)
We can see that there are four different ways for Selman to go into and out of the library.
Probability
403
EXAMPLE
Solution
How many two-letter words can be formed from the letters in the set {a, b, c}?
This task contains two parts: choosing the first letter and choosing
make a product table to list the possible outcomes.
Second letter
Two-letter combinations
a
b
a
aa
ab
b
ba
bb
First letter
c
ca
cb
the second letter. Let us
c
ac
bc
cc
The table shows us that the outcomes are aa, ab, ac, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb and cc. So there are
nine possible words.
Of course, these are not real words in English. In problems like this, word means a sequence
of letters, not a real English word.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Anton is in his first year at university. He has to take one math or science course in the first
term and a different math or science course in the second term. The courses available are
Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Biology and Chemistry. In how many ways can Anton choose his
two courses?
The required task has two parts: choosing the first terms course and choosing the second
terms course. If we denote each course by its first letter, we can show the possibilities in a
table as follows:
Antons courses
First
term
A
G
P
B
C
A
GA
PA
BA
CA
Second term
P
B
AP
AB
GP
GB
PG
PB
BG
BP
CG
CP
CB
G
AG
C
AC
GC
PC
BC
Notice that some pairs are omitted from the table since Anton cannot take the same course
twice. So there are 20 distinct possibilities.
What would happen if Anton had to take two courses together in the same term? In this case
there would only be 10 possibilities. Can you see why?
Check Yourself 1
1. How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 3, 5 and 9?
2. Two dice are rolled and their numbers are added. How many possibilities are there that
the result is prime?
Answers
1. 9
404
2. 15
Algebra 10
3. Using a Tree Diagram
180
A tree diagram is another useful way to list and count possibilities

or outcomes. We use tree diagrams in several subjects. In
combinatorics, they help us to cope with some complex problems
that cannot be easily solved by using product tables.
30
15
3
6
2 2
5
180 = 3 5 2 2 3
2
2
=2 3 5
This tree diagram helps us

to find the prime
factorization of 180.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Joseph has one black and one navy pair of pants. He has also three shirts which are red,
yellow and green respectively. In how many different ways can Joseph choose to wear his pants
with a shirt?
Pants Shirt Result
Let us list the choices of pants as {B, N} and the choices
of shirts as {R, Y, G}. Since it is not important whether
Joseph chooses his pants or shirt first, we may assume
that he chooses his pants first.
The tree diagram for this problem is opposite. We can see
that Joseph has six possible choices.
EXAMPLE
Solution
R
Y
G
BR
BY
BG
R
Y
G
NR
NY
NG
A student rolls a dice and then tosses a coin. How many different outcomes are possible?
This task contains two different parts which occur in an
order. Constructing a tree diagram will help us to list the
different possible outcomes systematically. Let us list the
outcomes of the dice roll as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and the
outcomes of tossing the coin as {T, H}.
The tree diagram shows us that there are 12 different
possible outcomes.
Dice
1
2
3
4
5
6
EXAMPLE
Solution
Probability
6 results
Coin
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
Result
1T
1H
2T
2H
3T
3H
4T
4H
5T
5H
6T
6H
In a company, three people applied for a department managers position and three different
people applied for an accountancy position. Show all the different ways of filling these two
positions using a tree diagram.
Let A, B and C be the people who applied for the managers position. Similarly, let D, E and
F be the people who applied for the accountancy position. Then we can construct a tree
diagram as follows:
405
Department Accountant
manager
Result
D
E
F
AD
AE
AF
D
E
F
BD
BE
BF
D
E
F
CD
CE
CF
We can see that there are nine possible ways to fill

the positions.
The data in the tree diagrams we have created so far could also have been shown in a product
table. This is because the problems we have looked at contain at most two tasks. However, if
we want to use a product table for a question that includes three or more tasks, we will have
to construct a three-dimensional table. This is difficult to draw on paper. In this case, a tree
diagram is the most appropriate way of listing the outcomes.
Check Yourself 2
Solve each question by making a tree diagram.
1. There are three different routes from city P to city Q and four different routes from city Q
to city R. Aydos wants to travel from city P to R through city Q. In how many ways can he
do this?
2. How many three-digit numbers can be made from the set {5, 6, 9} if
a. any digit can be used more than once in a number?
b. each digit can only be used once in a number?
3. An international conference is being held in Merida, Mexico. The Kyrgyz team must
choose a flight route from Bishkek to Merida. The possible routes are shown in the
following diagram.
Houston
Frankfurt Moscow
Merida
Bishkek
Mexico City Barcelona
Istanbul
Regardless of the number of flight connections, how many different possible routes are there?
Answers
1. 12
406
2. a. 27
b. 6
3. 7
Algebra 10
C. THE MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE

In the previous section we studied different ways of listing all the possible outcomes of a particular task. However, writing out the entire list of outcomes may sometimes be very time-consuming and unnecessary. We need a different approach for problems which only ask us to calculate the number of possible outcomes.
In many of the problems we have looked at so far, the outcome of each part of a task is
equally possible. We say that these tasks satisfy the uniformity criterion. However, in some
problems there have been restrictions, for example: two people always have to sit together, or
only one person in a team can pilot a certain type of space shuttle. These problems do not
satisfy the uniformity criterion.
When we need to calculate the number of possible ways of performing a task which satisfies
the uniformity criterion, we can use the multiplication principle.
multiplication principle (fundamental principle of counting)
Definition
Let a multiple-part task which satisfies the uniformity criterion consist of k parts. If the first
part of the task can be performed in n1 ways, the second part can be performed in n2 ways
and so on, then the number of ways to perform the entire task is n1 n2 n3 ..... nk.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Nicole has four different skirts, three different blouses and two pairs of shoes which she can
wear for a business meeting. In how many ways can Nicole dress for the meeting?
We can use a table with three boxes, one for each part of the task. This problem satisfies the uniformity criterion because any of the three blouses can be worn with any of the skirts and shoes.
Skirts
Blouses
Shoes
4
choices
3
choices
2
choices
Using n1 = 4, n2 = 3 and n3 = 2, by the multiplication principle Nicole can dress in

4 3 2 = 24 ways.
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
How many different two-digit numbers can be formed using the digits in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}?
This task has two parts: choosing the tens digit and choosing the units digit. Since there are
no restrictions we can start by choosing either the tens digit or the units digit, and each digit
can take five different values.
Tens
Units
5
choices
5
choices
By the multiplication principle, we can form 5 5 = 25 different numbers.

Probability
407
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
In the previous example, how many numbers can be formed if a digit cannot be used twice
in a number?
This time we cannot use a digit that we have already used. Therefore, we can choose any of the
five digits in the set for the tens but only four digits remain for the units.
This situation still satisfies the uniformity criterion because we always have five choices for the
tens and four choices for the units.
Tens
Units
By the multiplication principle, the number of two-digit numbers that can be formed without
using a digit twice is 5 4 = 20.
EXAMPLE
12
Solution
How many three-digit counting numbers are there?

It is easy to think that we can use any of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 for each place
value in a number. The answer therefore seems to be 10 10 10 = 1000, since we can use a
digit as many times as we like. However, notice that we cannot put zero in the hundreds place
since this would not give us a proper three-digit number. For example, 048 is not a three-digit
counting number.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
10
10
So the number of three-digit counting numbers is 9 10 10 = 900.
EXAMPLE
13
Solution
How many different three-digit odd numbers can be formed using the digits in the set
{4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}?
The number formed must be an odd number. This is a restriction. In such cases we should
first consider the digit(s) affected by the restriction. In this question it is the units digit that
determines whether the number is odd or even. If the number is odd then the units digit
must be 5, 7 or 9. So there are three ways to choose the units digit. We are free to choose the
two other digits.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
So the answer is 6 6 3 = 108 numbers.

408
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
In a particular country, the automobile license plates are made up of 2

letters followed by 3 digits. Any of the 26 letters of English alphabet and
the digits 0-9 can be used. How many different possible license plates
are there?
We have 26 possibilities for each letter and 10 possibilities for
each digit. So the answer is
26 26 10 10 10 = 262 103 = 676000.
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
A company must form a committee comprising a manager, an assistant and a secretary from
a group of nine people. Assuming that any person can do any job, in how many ways can the
committee be formed?
The restriction here is that no one can hold more than one position. Since the order of
selection is not important, suppose that we first select the manager, then the assistant and
finally the secretary. Then there are nine possible ways to select the manager, eight ways to
select the assistant, and seven ways to select the secretary.
Manager
Assistant
Secretary
So there are 9 8 7 = 504 different ways to form the committee.
EXAMPLE
16
Solution
EXAMPLE
17
A briefcase has a five-digit combination lock. The second digit in the combination is 5. At
most how many different combinations must we try if we want to open the lock?
10 1 10 10 10 = 104 = 10000
A four-digit number is formed using the digits in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
a. How many different numbers can be formed?
b. How many numbers can be formed if no digit can be used more than once?
c. How many numbers greater than 4000 can be formed if no digits are repeated?
d. How many numbers less than 3000 and divisible by 5 can be formed if no digits are
repeated?
Probability
409
Solution
a. Since there is no restriction and there are six digits, the answer is 6 6 6 6 = 1296.
b. Since no digit can be used more than once, the answer is 6 5 4 3 = 360.
c. There are two restrictions: the thousands digit must be greater than 3 and no digit can be
used more than once. Since our number must be greater than 4000, the possible values
for the thousands digit are 4, 5 and 6. Therefore there are
3
5 4 3 = 180
4,5,6
numbers which satisfy the conditions.
d. This problem sets three restrictions. First, no digit can be repeated. Second, the number
must be divisible by 5, so the units digit must be 5. Third, the number must be less than
3000. So there are two possible numbers for the thousands digit: 1 and 2.
Consequently, the total number of possibilities is
2
4 3
1 =24.
5
1,2
EXAMPLE
18
A three-digit number is formed using the digits {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

a. How many different numbers can be formed?
b. How many different numbers which are greater than 300 and divisible by 5 can be formed
if no digit is repeated?
c. How many even numbers greater than 200 can be formed if all the digits are different?
d. How many numbers divisible by 4 can be formed if all the digits are different?
Solution
a. Provided we do not use zero in the hundreds place, all the other digits can be used
without restriction.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
So there are 5 6 6 = 180 possible numbers.
b. There are restrictions on the first and last digits. Since the digits cannot be repeated there
are two cases: if a number is greater than 500 it will not end with a 5, but any other number can end with zero or 5.
First case: Consider the case in which the first digit is 5. Then for the units digit only zero
is possible since the number must be divisible by 5. Since 5 and zero are used, there are
four possible digits left for the tens place.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1
4
1

only 5
1,2,3, or 4
only zero
As we can see, there are four possible numbers (they are 10, 520, 530 and 540).
410
Algebra 10
Second case: Now suppose the number does not begin with 5. Then the hundreds digit
will be 3 or 4. There are two possibilities for the units digit: zero and 5. Since two digits
have been used for the first and last digits, there are four possible digits left for the tens.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
3 or 4
zero or 5
The answer to the question is the sum of these cases: 4 + (2 4 2) = 20.

c. In this question there is a restriction on both the hundreds digit and the units digit.
Because we cannot use the digit 2 twice, we need to count the numbers ending in 2
carefully. Let us consider the three possibilities for the units digit.
If the units digit is zero:
Hundreds
Tens
Units
4

1

2, 3, 4, 5
If the units digit is 2:
zero
Hundreds
Tens
Units
3

1

3, 4, 5
Hundreds
Tens
Units
3

1

2, 3, 5
In conclusion, we can form (4 4 1) + (3 4 1) + (3 4 1) = 40 even numbers greater

than 200.
d. For a three-digit number to be divisible by 4, the last two digits must be 04, 12, 20, 24, 32,
40, or 52. This means that the last digit in any number we form must be even.
If the units digit is zero:
Hundreds
4
Tens
2
1

2 or 4
Units
zero
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1, 3 or 5
We need to consider the case in which 4 is the units digit in two parts. (Can you see why?)
Probability
411
4 in the units place, 2 in the tens place:
Hundreds
Tens
Units
4 in the units place, zero in the tens place:
1, 3, 5
Hundreds
Tens
Units
4
1
1

1, 2, 3 or 5
zero
The union of all these possibilities gives us the total number of three-digit numbers which
are divisible by 4. So there are (4 2 1) + (3 3 1) + (3 1 1) + (4 1 1) = 24 numbers.
Notice that problems b, c and d in Example 26 did not satisfy the uniformity criterion
directly. However, we were able to break each problem up into separate cases which satisfied
the uniformity criterion and then we added he result of each case. This is a useful strategy
when we are solving combinatorics problems.
Check Yourself 3
1. Kamil lives in city E. He wants to go to city G via city F. Four different bus companies
travel from E to F and three more bus companies travel from F to G.
a. In how many different ways can Kamil travel by bus from E to G?
b. Kamil does not want to use the same companies again on his way back home. In how many
different ways can he arrange his trip from E to G and back?
2. We have a list of 12 questions for the second part of this chapter. We need to choose one
question as an Example, one for a Check Yourself section and one for an Exercises
section. Assuming that any question can be used in any section, in how many different
ways can we make our choice?
3. An astronomer wants to name 7000 celestial objects with a code made up of two letters
from the English alphabet followed by a digit. Is this possible?
4. Almazs teacher asks him to write a five-digit number whose first and last digits are even
while the others are odd. How many different numbers can Almaz write if he does not
want to use the same digit twice?
5. How many three-digit numbers greater than 450 can be formed from the digits in the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}?
Answers
1. a. 12 b. 72
412
2. 1320
3. no
4. 960
5. 168
Algebra 10
Facial identification is an important part of forensic science. When a person commits a crime,
witnesses of the crime can sometimes describe the persons appearance to the police. A forensic artist
works with the witnesses to make a picture of the persons face, either with pen and paper or with a
computer program. This process is called facial reconstruction.
Facial reconstruction programs store many pictures (or variations) of different parts of a face: the eyes,
nose, ears, mouth and hair, etc. Some of these parts, such as the eyes and nose, are very important in
determining the overall appearance of a face. Sometimes the forensic artist guides the witness to keep
the different parts of a face consistent and in natural proportion.
There are several different facial reconstruction programs. Newer programs allow an operator to
construct a face in three dimensions. One program has the following number of variations for the
different parts of a face:
The following pictures are examples of some two-dimensional faces produced by the program:
By the multiplication principle, we can calculate that this program can produce over 1030 possible faces
using the given variations.
EXERCISES
6 .1
A. The Addition Principle

1. A box contains 5 different white balls and 7
different red balls. In how many ways can we
randomly pick a ball from the box?
B. Systematic Listing
2. A house has 5 windows and 2 doors. In how many
ways can a burglar break in through a window and
get out through a door? Show the possibilities in
a product table.
3. How many two-digit prime numbers can we form

using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 5?
4. In how many ways we can distribute 3 different

gifts to mer, Ali and Cihan if each person gets
one gift?
5. In how many ways can a president and a secretary

be chosen from a group of 4 people if anyone can
hold either position?
6. A play-off game is a contest or series of contests

that are played to break a tie and determine the
winner of a championship. In play-off games, the
contests stop as soon as it is clear that one team
will win the play-off. A play-off between 2
basketball teams has at most 3 contests. How
many different play-offs are possible between the
two teams?
7. A family has 3 children. List all the possible

gender combinations (male or female) for these
children, ordered from oldest to youngest.
8. Sheena needs to go to a school, a restaurant, a

cinema and a supermarket. If she must not go to
the restaurant before the supermarket, in how
many different ways can her trip be arranged?
414
9. A power panel has 5

electric switches and
the power supply
depends on their
positions. The power
supply is on unless 2 adjacent
switches are both off. How many switch settings
will keep the supply on?
10. A group of tourists in a country want to visit 5

cities A, B, C, D and E once. They will fly to each
city, beginning at city C and ending at city E. If
there is no flight between cities B and D, in how
many ways can they organize the journey? Show
the possibilities in a tree diagram.
C. The Multiplication Principle

11. A dice is rolled, a coin is flipped and a card is drawn
from a deck of 52 cards. How many outcomes are
possible?
12. Rashid has 4 different colored pens and wants to

color each letter in the word ANTARCTICA so
that the same letters are the same color. In how
many different ways can he do this?
13. A new scooter is available in 4 different colors

with 3 types of engine and 2 types of seat. How
many different configurations of this model are
possible?
14. n dice are rolled together and all of them show the
same number. In how many ways can this be
done?
15. An ice-cream shop advertises that it can prepare

126 different varieties of ice cream. An ice-cream
variety is determined by the way it is served, its
flavour and its topping. It can be served in a bowl,
a waffle or a cone and it can be topped with
chocolate sauce or ground walnuts or hazelnuts.
How many different flavours can be ordered?
Algebra 10
16. Igor is preparing a test of 12 multiple-choice
22. A briefcase is locked with two different four-digit
questions for his students. Each question has 4

choices of answer. How many different possible
answer keys could Igor prepare?
combination locks. A thief knows that the

combination for the first lock is a number from
2000 to 5999 and that the first digit of the second
lock is the last digit of the first lock. At most how
many different combinations must the thief test in
order to open both locks?
17. Dastan is going to take the test described in the

previous question. In how many ways can Dastan
complete his answer sheet if
a. he is not allowed to leave any answer blank?
b. he is allowed to leave an answer blank?
23. In how many different ways can we pour tea into

10 cups if
a. the cups are identical?
18. Two teachers and 5 students will form a row to

have their photos taken. In how many different
ways can they be arranged if the teachers must be
at the ends of the row?
19. In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls be
b. the cups are different?
24. The password on Enzis e-mail account is a

number with non-repeating digits.The password is
at least 2 and at most 4 digits long. How many
possibilities are there for Enzis password?
seated in a row if the same genders cannot sit next

to each other?
25. The auto license numbers of all the cars registered

20. A word which reads the same both forward and
backward is called a palindrome. (For example:
RADAR is a palindrome.) How many palindromes
of 7 letters can be formed using the 26 letters of
the English alphabet?
in a particular city are made up of two letters

followed by three or four digits. If there are 26
possible letters, how many license numbers can
end with 91?
26. An organisation wants to create a registration code

21. The combination for a combination lock has 5
digits. We know that the second and fourth digits
are the same and the last digit is odd. How many
different possible combinations are there for the
lock?
Probability
format using the 26 letters A-Z and the digits 0-9.

The format for all codes must have 7 characters
four digits followed by three letters and there must
be enough possibilities to register 200 million
different people. Is this possible?
415
27. A man in Italy once suggested the following
35. A machine generates all the possible five-digit
automobile license number format: each number

should consist of two letters followed by three
digits. If the first digit could not be zero and there
are 21 letters in the Italian alphabet, could this
format be used to register 400 000 vehicles?
numbers from the digits in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

6, 7}. How many of them are divisible by 25 if
28. How many two-digit numbers can we form using
a. repetition is allowed?
b. repetition is not allowed?
36. How many different numbers with nonrepeating
the elements of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} if
digits from 4000 to 6000 can be produced using

the digits {0,1,3,4,5,6,9} if
a. repetition is allowed?
a. the numbers must be odd?
b. repetition is allowed and the number must be

even?
b. the numbers must be divisible by 9?
29. In an experiment, a die is rolled 5 times and the

numbers obtained are written as digits in order.
How many different five-digit odd numbers greater
than 40 000 can be produced in this way?
37. The controls on Anton's spaceship are activated

with a password. Anton has forgotten the password
but he knows that password is a number from 5
digit to 7 digit length which does not begin with
zero. At most how many different passwords must
Anton try?
30. How many different three-digit odd numbers can

be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 with no
repetition?
38. A security password consists of 7 characters and

each character must be either a digit or a
using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 if no two odd

digits must be next to each other?
lower-case letter. The password must contain at

least one letter and at least one digit. If there are 26
possible letters, how many different passwords can
be set?
32. How many numbers between 500 and 1000
39. Bahadr wants to set a password for his computer.
31. How many three-digit numbers can be formed
inclusive contain repeated digits?
33. How many four-digit numbers have at least one

odd digit?
The password must be between 3 and 5 letters long

and the first and last letters must be vowels. If
there are 26 possible letters, how many different
passwords can Bahadr set?
34. A machine generates all the possible four-digit
40. A monogram is a symbol made up of a persons
numbers using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4. In how

many numbers is the digit 4 on the left of (but not
necessarily next to) 2 if repetition is not allowed?
initials. Explain why in a group of 700 people at

least 2 people have a monogram made from the
same two-letter monogram.
416
Algebra 10
We can define a permutation as an ordered arrangement of some or all of the elements in a

given set. The way a set of books is arranged on a shelf, the seating positions of a group of
people at a table or the way the players in a football team line up for a team photo are some
examples of permutations since in each case, the order of the elements is important.
A. PERMUTATION FUNCTIONS
permutation function
Definition
Let A be a non-empty set. A one-to-one and onto function from A to A is called a permutation
function in A.
For example, consider the function f: A A with A = {0, 1, 2, 3}
and f(0) = 1, f(1) = 3, f(2) = 0, f(3) = 2.
f is shown in the Venn diagram opposite. We can see that it is a
one-to-one and onto function, and so it is a permutation function.
f = {(0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 0), (3, 2)}.
.0
.0
.1
.1
.2
.2
.3
.3
0 1 2 3
.
Alternatively we can write it in the form f =
1 3 0 2
This is a common way of writing a permutation function.
Note that f is not the only permutation which can be defined in A in the example above. In
fact, we can define n! different permutation functions in a set with n elements. So in this example we can define 4! = 24 different permutation functions in A.
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
, f3 =
f2 =
3 2 0 1
2 1 0 3
functions.
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Probability
0 1 2 3
and f4 =
0 1 2 3
are three examples of such permutation
List all the permutation functions defined in K = {p, q, r}.

p q r
p q r
p q r
p q r
p q r
, f2 =
, f3 =
, f 4 =
, f5 =
, f =
f1 =
p q r
p r q
q p r
q r p
r p q 6
p q r
r q p
417
1. Identity Permutation Functions

identity permutation function
Definition
Let I be a permutation function defined in a set A. If I(x) = x for every x A then I is called
the identity permutation function in A.
For example, if I is the identity function defined in the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4} then I(1) = 1,
I(2) = 2, I(3) = 3 and I(4) = 4.
1 2 3 4
We can write this identity permutation function as I =
.
1 2 3 4
2. Composite Permutation Functions

We have already stated that a permutation function in a set A must be a one-to-one and onto
function. If f and g are two permutation functions defined in A, then f g and g f are also
permutations in A.
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
are two permutation functions defined
For example, suppose f =
and g =
3 2 4 1
3 1 4 2
in the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then the composite function f g is f g(x) = f(g(x)), so
f
g(1) = f ( g(1)) = f (3) = 4
f g(2) = f ( g(2)) = f (2) =1

, i.e. f
f g(3) = f ( g(3)) = f (4) = 2
f g(4) = f ( g(4)) = f (1) = 3
We can visualize this as f o g = f
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
1 2 3 4
.
g=
4 1 2 3
g=
3 1 4 2
1 2 3 4
3 2 4 1
1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3
a b c d
a b c d
are two permutations defined in H = {a, b, c, d}. Show
and g =
f =
b c a d
d b a c
that f g g f.
a b c d
f g=
d b a c
a b c d a b c d
b c a d b a d c
a b c d a b c d a b c d

=
g f =
b c a d d b a c d c b d
418
1 2 3 4
gg
Algebra 10
Notes
x A means for all

elements x in A.
1. The composition of permutation functions is not commutative: f
gg
f.
2. The composition of permutation functions is associative: ( f

( f g) h = f( g(h(x))) = f ( g h).
h=f
(g
g)
3. For any permutation f and identity permutation I in a set A, f

x A, f
I=I
h) because
f = f since
f(x) = I(f(x)) = f(x).
I(x) = f(I(x)) = f(x) and I
3. The Inverse of a Permutation Function

Since a permutation f in a set A is both one-to-one and onto, by reversing the ordered pairs
of f we get the inverse permutation function of f, denoted by f 1.
For example, if P = {0, 1, 2, 3} is a set and
0 1 2 3
f =
3 1 0 2
Note that f
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
22
= f 1
f = I.

then g1 =
.
If g =

=
= I.
g 1 =

1 3 5 7 9
and g are two permutations defined in the set K = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
f =
37 9 5 1
Solution
0 1 2 3
, i.e. f 1 =
2 1 3 0

In a set K = {{,,,,U}, the permutation function g =
is defined.

1
Show that g g = I.
So g
EXAMPLE
3 1 0 2
1
is a permutation in P then f =
0 1 2 3
1 3 5 7 9
is given. Find g.
f =
75 3 9 1
To find g, we have to eliminate f from g

We can achieve this by composing g
(g
f)
f =g
(f
f )=g
f.
f with the inverse of f, since
I = g.
1 3 5 7 9
1 3 5 7 9
then f 1 =
So we must find f 1. If f =
.
37 9 5 1
9 1 7 3 5
So g = (g
f)
1 3 5 7 9
=
75 3 9 1
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
=
.
9 1 7 3 5 1 7 9 5 3
given
Probability
419
Check Yourself 4
0 1 2 3
1. f =
3 2 1 0
1
is defined in K = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Find f .
2 4 6 8
2. g =
6 2 8 4
is defined in P = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find g
g.

3. g =
and f are defined in H = {, , , }. g

is given. Find f .
f =

Answers
0 1 2 3
1.
3 2 1 0
2 4 6 8
2.
8 6 4 2

3.
B. PERMUTATIONS OF n ELEMENTS
We have defined a permutation as ordered arrangement of a set of elements or items. In a
permutation, the order of the items is important. We considered some permutation problems
in our study of the multiplication principle.
Here is another example of a permutation problem: in how many different ways can the three
students Faruk, Oleg and Evgeny be seated at a desk?
420
Algebra 10
permutation
Definition
An ordered arrangement of some or all of the elements of a given set is called a permutation.
The number of permutations of all of the n distinct elements in a set is denoted by P(n, n),
where P(n, n) = n(n 1) (n 2) ... 2 1 = n!.
In our library seating problem we can see that there are six ways for three students to sit at
a desk. Using the permutation notation described above, we can write P(3, 3) = 6.
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
What is the number of permutations of 5 different math books piled on a table?

By the definition above, the answer is P(5, 5) = 5! = 120
permutations because there are five distinct books.
We can check this answer using the counting technique we
learned when we studied the multiplication principle:
First book
5
Second book Third book Fourth book

4
Fifth book
1
Again we find that there are 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 ways to put the books in a pile.
EXAMPLE
24
Solution
EXAMPLE
25
Solution
Probability
How many different eight-letter permutations are there of the letters in the word
ISTANBUL?
Notice that there are eight letters and each letter is distinct. So we can use the formula for
P(n, n) using n = 8: P(8, 8) = 8! = 40320 permutations.
A football league has 18 teams. How many different rankings from first to last are possible in
the end-of-season league table, assuming that there are no ties?
Since each football team is distinct we can use the permutation formula. Therefore the
answer is P(18, 18) = 18! possible rankings.
421
EXAMPLE
26
Murat has 5 different math books, 3 different biology books and

4 different physics books. In how many different ways can
Murat arrange his books
a. on a book shelf?
b. in three different file holders, if each holder is for a
different subject?
Solution
a. There is no restriction on the order of the books on the shelf so we do not need to
consider the subjects. Since there are twelve books, the answer is P(12, 12) = 12!
different ways.
b. In this case we need to consider the subjects separately.
P(5, 5) P(3, 3) P(4, 4) 3! = 5! 3! 4! 3! = 120 6 24 6 = 103 680 arrangements.
math
biology
physics
Check Yourself 5
1. In how many different ways can 5 students form a queue?
2. Rasim, Togrul and Elnur are going to establish a company whose name will be a
combination of their initials. How many company names are possible?
3. There are 10 desks in a classroom and each desk has two seats. In how many different
ways can 20 students sit in the classroom?
Answers
1. 120
2. 6
3. 20!
These toys are some

interesting samples for
permutation puzzles.
422
Algebra 10
C. PERMUTATIONS OF r ELEMENTS SELECTED FROM n

ELEMENTS
Many permutation problems ask us to consider arrangements of r things chosen from n things
(0 r n), i.e. permutations of r elements chosen from a set of n elements.
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
How many different two-letter combinations can we form from the letters of the word KANO
if a letter cannot be used more than once?
The order of the letters is important and a letter cannot be used more than once. By the
multiplication principle, the number of combinations is: 4 3 = 12. These combinations are
KA
KN
KO
AK
AN
AO
NK
NA
NO
OK
OA .
ON
In this section we will use a new formula to solve problems of this type.
permutation of r elements selected from n elements
Definition
The number of permutations of r elements selected from a set of n elements is

n!
P( n, r ) =
( n, r and 0 r n).
( n r )!
If we apply this formula to Example 39, we can write the answer as
Some books use nPr or
Pnr to mean P(n, r).
P(4, 2) =
4!
4!
= =12.
(4 2)! 2!
Note
Any question which can be solved using this permutation formula can also be solved using
the multiplication principle.
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
Probability
Calculate P(5, 3) P(7, 2).

P(5, 3) P(7, 2) =
5!
7!
5! 7!
= 7 6 5 4 3 = 2520
(5 3)! (7 2)! 2! 5!
423
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
Evaluate the expressions.

a. P(7, 3)
b. P(n, n)
c. P(n, 0)
a. P(7,3) =
7!
7! 7 6 5 4!
= 210
=
=
(7 3)! 4!
4!
b. P( n, n) =
n!
n! n!
=
=
= n!
( n n )! 0! 1
c. P( n,0) =
n!
n! n!
=
=
=1
( n 0)! n! n!
P(n, 3) 5 = P(n, 4) is given. Find n.

P(n, 3) 5 = P(n, 4)
n!
n!
5=
( n 4)!
( n 3)!
5
1
=
( n 3) ( n 4)!
( n 4)!
5= n 3
n=8
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits in the number 13567 if a digit
cannot be used more than once?
We are choosing three digits from five digits. So there are
P(5, 3) =
5!
5 4 3 2!
= 60 different three-digit numbers.
=
(5 3)!
2!
Notice that we could have solved the same question using the multiplication principle:
5 4 3 = 60.
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
Three raffle tickets will be selected in order from a box containing 30 tickets. The
person holding the first ticket will win a car, the person with the second ticket will win a
computer, and the person with the third ticket will win a CD player. In how many different
ways can these prizes be awarded?
Since the question is about an ordered arrangement of three tickets selected from thirty
tickets, we can use the formula:
P(30, 3) =
424
30!
30! 30 29 28 27!
=
=
= 24360.
(30 3)! 27!
27!
Algebra 10
Remark
The number of permutations of r elements selected from n elements is the product of r

successive numbers less than or equal to n:
P( n, r ) = n ( n 1) ( n 2) ... ( n r +1).
r factors
For example,
P(5, 4) = 5 4 3 2 = 120, P(10, 3) = 10 9 8 = 720 and P(20, 1) =
3 factors
4 factors
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
20
= 20.
1 factor
A fighter plane has seats for a pilot and a copilot. In how many
different ways can these be selected from a squadron of 18 soldiers?
P(18, 2) =18 17 = 306
2 factors
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
Mutually exclusive cases

are cases which cannot
happen at the same time.
How many different combinations of at least 3 letters can be formed from the letters in the
word MATHS if no letter can be used more than once?
At least 3 letters means the combination can have 3 letters, 4 letters or 5 letters. So we need
to consider three mutually exclusive cases: combinations of 3 letters, 4 letters and 5 letters.
Then we add the number of permutations in each case:
P(5, 3) + P(5, 4) + P(5, 5) = (5 4 3) + (5 4 3 2) + (5 4 3 2 1)
3 - letter words
4 - letter words
5 - letter words
= 60 + 120 + 120 = 300.
So there are 300 possible combinations.
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
Kemals bookcase has three shelves. Kemal has 5 different math books, 6 different biology
books and 7 different physics books. He wants to arrange 3 math books, 4 biology books and
5 physics books on the shelves so that each shelf is for one subject only. In how many different ways can Kemal arrange his books?
There are P(5, 3) possible ways to arrange the math books. There are also P(6, 4) and P(7, 5)
different possible ways to order the biology and physics books respectively.
However, Kemal can choose the shelves for the subjects in 3! ways. As a result there are
P(5, 3) P(6, 4) P(7, 5) 3! = 60 360 840 6
math
biology
physics
shelves
= 108 864 000 ways for Kemal to arrange his books.

Probability
425
EXAMPLE
36
A three-digit number is formed by choosing elements from the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}

without repetition.
a. How many numbers do not contain the digit 5?
b. How many numbers contain the digit 5?
c. How many numbers contain 1 or 7 or both 1 and 7?
Solution
a. The problem is the same as finding the number of three-digit permutations of the set
{1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9} (5 excluded): P(6, 3) = 6 5 4 = 120.
b. The total number of three-digit permutations of the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9} is
P(7, 3) = 7 6 5 = 210. From part a, 120 of these permutations do not contain the digit 5.
So there are 210 120 = 90 three-digit numbers which contain the digit 5.
c. We begin by calculating the number of three-digit permutations in which 1 and 7 are not
used: P(5, 3) = 5 4 3 = 60 permutations. So there are 210 60 = 150 three-digit
numbers which contain 1 or 7 or both 1 and 7.
Check Yourself 6
1. There are 7 different pieces of fruit on a tray. We will choose 3 of them and arrange them
in a row on a plate. How many different arrangements are possible?
2. The students in a class are photographed in pairs such that each student is photographed
with every other student. If there are 90 photos, how many students are there in the class?
3. A machine generates all the possible two-letter combinations of the letters ABCDE,
without using a letter twice. What percentage of the combinations do not contain a
consonant?
4. How many of the four-digit numbers formed from the digits of the number 12345
without repetition do not begin with the digit 2?
5. A group A contains 6 students and a group B contains 8 students. In a class photo, two
students who are to sit in the front will be from A and three students who are to stand at
the back will be from B. How many arrangements are possible?
Answers
1. P(7, 3) = 210
426
2. 10
3. 10%
4. P(5, 4) P(4, 3) = 96
5. P(6, 2) P(8, 3) = 10080

Algebra 10
D. PERMUTATIONS WITH RESTRICTIONS

1. Permutations with Grouped Elements
Sometimes a permutation problem states that we should not separate two or more elements
in the set. In this case we count the elements as a single element. Then we apply the
ordinary permutation rules. However, we need to consider the number of arrangements
within the group of combined elements. By the multiplication principle, we multiply the
results to get the answer.
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
How many five-letter words can we form using all the letters in the word MERAK if A and K
must be next to each other?
First we count the group of letters A and K as a single element. Then the problem is to find
the number of permutations of four elements, namely M, E, R and (A, K). However, for each
permutation of these four elements there are two arrangements within the group (A, K).
Therefore the answer is
(
M , E, R
EXAMPLE
38
Solution
) ! 2!
group of
A and K
= 4! 2! = 24 2 = 48 words.
A, K
Solve the roller-coaster problem in Example 11 by using grouping and permutation.

Since Ahmet and Cemal must sit together, we count them as single element.
(
Berk and Deniz
1
group of
Ahmet and Cemal
)!
2!
= 3! 2!
Ahmet , Cemal
=12. This is the answer we found in Example 11.
EXAMPLE
39
Solution
In how many ways can the children Anar, Maksat, Sasha, Dilshat, Catalin and Mehmet sit in
a row if Maksat and Catalin must not sit together?
The total number of possible arrangements of six children is 6! = 720.
From these, the number of permutations in which Maksat and Catalin sit together will be
(4 + 1)!
2!
= 5! 2! = 240.
Maksat , Catalin
So the number of permutations in which Maksat and Catalin are not together is
720 240 = 480.
Probability
427
EXAMPLE
40
In Example 38, Murat had five different math books, three different biology books and four
different physics books. In how many ways can Murat arrange his books on a shelf if
a. the math books must be kept together?
b. the biology and physics books must be kept together in two different groups?
c. all the books on the same subject must be kept together?
Solution
a. Since the math books must be together we consider them as a single book.
So the answer is
(
group of
math books
b. (
math
books
1
group of
biology
books
EXAMPLE
41
Solution
group of
math books
3!
biology
books
1 )!
group of
physics
books
= 8! 5!.
math
books
1 )!
group of
physics
books
)! 5 !
physics
books
group of
biology
books
c. (
3
biology
books
= 7! 3! 4!
4!
physics
books
3!
biology
books
4!
5!
physics
books
= 3! 3! 4! 5!
math
books
In the My Documents folder on my computer there are

3 files with the extension jpg, 5 files with the extension
txt, and 6 files with the extension hzm. In how many
ways can the files be listed if the files are ordered by
type, ignoring alphabetical order?
group of
hzm files
1
group of
jpg files
1
group of
txt files
6!
hzm files
3!
jpg files
5!
= 3! 6! 3! 5!
txt files
Check Yourself 7
1. A company owns 3 different green cars, 2 different red cars, one blue car and one yellow
car. In how many different ways can they be parked in the companys parking lot so that
cars of the same color are parked together?
2. Five different countries each send 3 people to an international meeting. A photographer
wants to photograph all the people in a row such that people from the same country stand
together. How many different photographs are possible?
Answers
1. 4! 3! 2!
428
2. 5! 3! 3! 3! 3! 3!
Algebra 10
2. Permutations with Identical Elements

Remember that order is important in a permutation: for three objects A, B and C, the
permutations (A, C, B) and (B, A, C) are different.
Now suppose that we are asked to find the number of permutations of the letters A, A, B, C,
D. The number of permutations of five objects is P(5, 5) = 5! = 120. However, some
of these of these permutations will be the same because there are two As in the list. For
example, let A1 and A2 be the two As. Then the permutations (A1, B, A2, D, C) and
(A2, B, A1, D, C) are indistinguishable. In order to find the number of distinguishable
permutations we can use the following formula:
distinguishable permutations of a set with identical elements
Theorem
Let A be a set of n elements which has n1 of one kind of element, n2 of a second kind, n3 of
a third kind, and so on, where n1 + n2 + n3 + ... +nr = n .
Then the number of distinguishable permutations in A is
EXAMPLE
42
Solution
n!
.
n1 ! n2 ! n3 ! ... nr 1! nr !
What is the number of permutations of the digits in the number 5711?

By the formula above, there are
4!
= 12 different permutations.
2! 1! 1!
To check our answer let us list the possible permutations. To avoid confusion between the
two 1 digits we will name them 11 and 12.
571112 511712 511127 751112 711512 711125 115712 115127 117512 117125 111257 111275
571211 512711 512117 751211 712511 712115 125711 125117 127511 127115 121157 121175
We can see that the permutations in the bottom row are the same as those in the top row. In
the bottom row, we have simply swapped the positions of the two identical digits. So there are
indeed 12 different permutations.
EXAMPLE
43
Solution
How many distinguishable permutations are there of the letters in the word NAHCIVAN?
The letters A and N each occur twice.
By the formula, the answer is
Probability
8!
8 7 6 5 4 3 2!
= 8 7 6 5 3 2 = 10080.
=
2! 2!
2! 2 1
429
EXAMPLE
44
Solution
EXAMPLE
45
Solution
In a kitchen there are 3 identical porcelain dishes, 2 identical metal dishes and 4 identical
glass dishes. In how many ways can they be piled up?
n!total
9!
=
= 1260
n!porcelain n!metal n!glass 3! 2! 4!
A teacher has 5 identical math books, 3 identical biology books

and 4 identical physics books. In how many different ways can
the teacher arrange her books on a shelf if books about the
same subject must be together?
The books are identical.
(
1
group of
biology
books
1
group of
math books
1
group of
physics
books
)!
3!
3!
biology
books
4!
4!
physics
books
5!
= 3! 1 1 1
5!
math
books
= 6 different ways.
As an extension to this example, try calculating the number of possible arrangements if books
on the same subject do not have to be kept together.
EXAMPLE
46
Solution
How many three-letter words can be formed from the letters in the word NARIN if each word
must contain both Ns?
We have three possible sets of letters: {A, N, N}, {R, N, N} and {I, N, N}.
For each set, the number of words that we can form is 3! = 3.
2!
Since there are 3 sets, there are 3 3 = 9 possible words:
ANN, NAN, NNA, RNN, NRN, NNE, INN, NIN, NNI.
EXAMPLE
47
Solution
430
I toss a coin successively 7 times. In how many ways can I get 4 heads and 3 tails?
Let H represent heads and T represent tails. Then we can write the result of 7 tosses as a
sequence of 7 letters. So the problem is equivalent to finding the number of seven-letter
words which contain 4 H letters and 3 T letters, such as HHTHTTH, HTTHHTH or
TTTHHHH.
7!
7 6 5
So the answer is
=
= 35 different ways.
3! 4! 3 2 1
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
48
Solution
Every day, Lazar walks from his house to school. Lazars

neighborhood has streets laid out in a grid system, as shown
by the grid lines opposite. If Lazar is only allowed to walk
eastward and northward along the streets, in how many
different ways can he walk to school?
school
North
house
East
There are 3 northward paths and 5 eastward paths. Let N

stand for a northward path and E stand for an eastward
North
path. Then, since Lazar can walk only northward and
eastward, any of Lazars routes can be represented by any
word formed of 3 Ns and 5 Es. For example, the word
house
EENEENEN represents the path opposite.
8!
So the total number of ways will be
= 56.
3!5!
school
East
Check Yourself 8
1. In a competition, 2 students will receive a gold medal, 3 students will receive a silver
medal and 4 students will receive a bronze medal. In how many ways can the medals be
awarded to 9 students?
2. A restaurant prepares a shish kebab with 5 identical pieces of meat,
3 slices of tomato and 2 identical pieces of pepper. In how many
different ways can these pieces be put on the skewer
3. Esra is writing a test of multiple choice questions. Each question has 5 possible choices,
and the test will include 20 questions. Esra will also prepare an answer sheet. How many
different possible answer sheets can she prepare if the number of correct choices are
equally distributed?
Answers
1. 1260
2. 2520
3.
20!
4!4!4!4!4!
3. Circular Permutations
Consider the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 and
look at two different ways of arranging
them in a line:
Probability
Now imagine that we connect the ends of each

line to make the arrangements circular.
We can see that the linear arrangements are completely 4
different, but the second circular arrangement is simply a
rotation of the first. Provided we do not mark a particular
3
position as the top of the circle, we can say that the two
circular arrangements are identical.
2
2
1
2
3
5
431
Let us look at another example. In how many ways can we arrange the letters A, B and C in
a line and in a circle?
Linear arrangements
Circular arrangements
A
ABC
ACB
BAC
BCA
CAB
CBA
There are 3! = 6 linear arrangements. To calculate the number of circular arrangements, we

keep one letter in the same position and permute the rest. For example, let us keep A at the
top and consider the linear permutations of the remaining letters B and C:
A
2! = 2 ways
So there are two circular arrangements.

This is a simple example of a circular permutation of three things. What about the general
case for n things?
Let us try to see a pattern. In the following circles, each arc represents a possible place for
an object around the circle:
1st object
1 possible arc (place)

(1 1)
2nd object
3rd object
4th object
1 possible place
(2 1)
2 possible places
(3 1)
3 possible places
(4 1)
14444444444424444444444443
nth object
n 1 possible places
Total number of permutations of three objects = 1 1 2 = (3 1)!
144444444444444424444444444444444443
Total number of permutations of four objects = 1 1 2 3 = (4 1)!
14444444444444444444444244444444444444444444443
Total number of permutations of n objects = 1 1 2 3 ... (n 1) = (n 1)!
Conclusion
The total number of circular permutations of n distinct objects is (n 1)!.
432
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
49
Solution
EXAMPLE
50
Solution
In how many different ways can 5 girls sit around a circular table for
dinner?
Since there are 5 distinct people, the number of possible
arrangements is (5 1)! = 4! = 24.
In how many different ways can a family of 2 parents and 4 children sit around a circular
dining table if the parents must sit together?
Four children together with the parents make 6 people. In this question we can think of the
parents as a single member of the group. So there are 5 members.
There are (5 1)! = 4! = 24 ways of sitting 5 people around a table. However, within the
group of parents there will be 2! = 2 different possible linear arrangements. So the family
can sit in (5 1)! 2! = 24 2 = 48 ways around the table.
EXAMPLE
51
Solution
In how many ways can 3 Turkish, 5 Kyrgyz and 4 Turkmen diplomats be seated around a
circular table if diplomats from the same country must sit next to each other?
There are 3 groups of diplomats so the groups can be seated in
(3 1)! different ways around the table. However, we must
also consider the linear permutation of the diplomats in each
group.
So there are (3 1)! 3! 5! 4! = 2 6 120 24 = 5760
different possible ways of seating the diplomats.
EXAMPLE
52
Solution
Probability
A room contains a circular table with 5 chairs and a bench for 3 people. In how many ways
can 8 students be seated in the room?
Let us first sit 3 students on the bench. This is a linear permutation, so there are P(8, 3) ways
to do this. Then the remaining 5 students can be arranged around the circular table in
(5 1)! different ways. So the total number of arrangements is P(8, 3) (5 1)! = 8064.
433
EXAMPLE
53
Solution 1
In how many different ways can 3 girls and 3 boys be seated around a circular table with 6
chairs if no two girls must sit together?
If no two girls can sit together, the students must sit alternately:
B
G
B
G
We can seat the boys in (3 1)! different ways. However, if we fix the position of one boy
(say B1), we can think of the rest of the seats as a linear arrangement:
B1
G
In this linear arrangement, the boys can be seated in 2! ways and the girls can be seated in
3! ways. So there are a total of 2! 3! = 12 different ways to seat the students.
Solution 2
Alternatively, we can make use of circular permutation. The boys can sit in (3 1)!
different ways and the girls can also sit in (3 1)! different ways. However, a certain girl (say
G1) can sit in three different positions with respect to a certain boy (say B1):
B1
B1
G1
B1
G1
G1
In conclusion, the children can be seated in (3 1)! (3 1)! 3 = 12 different ways.

434
Algebra 10
Some permutation problems ask us to arrange objects on a chain or on a circular string, for
example: arrange a set of beads on a necklace, or arrange a set of keys on a key ring. In these
problems we must divide the total number of circular permutations by 2 since two
permutations can simply be the same arrangement viewed from the front and back.
EXAMPLE
54
Solution
In how many ways can a red bead, a blue bead, a green bead and a yellow bead be arranged
on a necklace?
(4 1)!
= 3 ways. We divide by 2 because there are two different points of view,
2
from the front and from the back.
The answer is
For instance,
are the same arrangement viewed from
and
the front and the back.
Check Yourself 9
1. The construction department on Planet Zop is building a new flying saucer with 5
windows equally spaced around it. Each window will have a different color. In how many
different ways can the windows be arranged?
2. In how many different ways can we put 6 keys on a key ring?
3. Three families will have a supper at a large round table. Each family has 2 parents and
the families have 1, 2 and 3 children respectively. In how many different ways can all the
people be seated around the table if members of the same family must sit together and
the children must sit between their parents?
Answers
1. (5 1)! = 24
Probability
2.
(6 1)!
= 60
2
3. 192
435
EXERCISES
6 .2
A. Permutation Functions

is a permutation function
1. g =

8. Seven people will be in a group photograph. In

how many different ways can the photograph be
set up if 3 people must be in front and 4 must be
at the back?
defined in Q ={, , , }. Find g1.
9. A group photograph will be taken of 5 boys and 5

1 2 3
1 2 3
and g =
are
2. The functions f =
3 1 2
3 2 1
1
defined in A = {1, 2, 3}. Find f g
3. Two permutation functions f and g are defined in

D = {1, 2, 3, 4} such that f(x) = 5 x and
g(x) = x. Write ( f g)(x) as a permutation function.
girls. Five people must be in the front and 5

people must be at the back. If the girls must sit
together, in how many ways can the photograph
be taken?
C. Permutations of r Elements Selected

from n Elements
a. P(11, 2)
a b c d e
and g are defined in
d a e c b
a b c d e
.
S = {a, b, c, d, e} such that ( f g) =
b e a d c
Find g.
4. The functions f =
c.
P( n, 4)
P( n, 3)
e.
P(5, 5)
P(7, 7)
b. P(8, 3) P(5, 4)
d.
P(4, 3) + P(8, 3)
P(6, 3)

B. Permutations of n Elements
5. How many different five-digit numbers can be
formed by using the digits in the number 75491
once?
a. P(n + 2, 2) = 12
b. P(n, 4) = 12 P(n, 2)
c. P(x, 2) = 72
d.
P( n +1, 2)
=2
P( n, 3)
12. In how many ways can the first, second and third
6. In how many ways can a group of 7 students be
seated in a row of 7 chairs if a particular student
insists on being in the first chair?
places be decided in an 8-horse race if there is no

tie?
13. In a computer shop, 7 out of 10 different laptop

7. In how many different ways can we name a
regular pentagon using letters P, Q, R, S, T?
436
computers can be displayed in a row in the shop

window. Find the number of possible window
displays.
Algebra 10
14. Three students will be selected from a group of 10
22. A computer is generating palindromic sequences of
students such that one student will study physics,

one will study math and the other will study
chemistry. If any student can study any subject, in
how many ways can the students be selected?
letters using the 26 letters of the English alphabet.

Each palindrome must be at least 7 letters long and
at most 9 letters long with no repeated letters. How
many different palindromes can be formed?
15. How many different three-digit numbers can be

formed using the digits in the number 8479235
without repetition?
16. How many combinations of at most 5 letters can

be formed using the letters in the word CHARITY
without repetition?
17. Murat set a password on his e-mail account using

the letters of the English alphabet. The password
is between 1 and 3 letters long and does not
contain repeated letters. How many possible
passwords are there?
18. In how many different ways can 2 parents and 3

children be seated in a car if one of the parents
must be in the drivers seat and the children sit in
the back while the parents sit in front?
23. A meeting room has 5 seats in the front row and

4 seats in the back row. In how many different
ways can 3 friends be seated in the two rows if
they must all sit together?
24. A shopkeeper has 7 different pairs of slippers. She

wants to display 4 pairs of slippers on a shelf so
that the pairs are kept together. Each pair can be
placed facing the wall or facing out. In how many
ways can she display them?
D. Permutations with Restrictions

25 . How many six-digit numbers can be formed from
the digits {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9} if the digits 5 and 7
must be together and no digit is repeated?
19. A four-letter password will be set up of the

letters in the set {A, B, C, K, V, X}. How many of
the possible passwords contain repeated letters?
20. Iona, Florica, Anton and their four friends are in

a group. Four students are selected from the
group to line up in a row. How many of the
possible rows
a. do not include Iona and Florica?
26. Mulan has 4 different types of rose bulb, 6

different types of lily bulb and 7 different
types of violet seed. In how many different ways
can she plant them in a flower bed row if
a. she can plant them in any order?
b. flowers of the same type must be planted
together in a row?
b. include Anton?
21. In how many different ways can 5 students be
27. Jabari, Valery and their four friends need to be
seated in a row of 8 chairs if there must be no

empty chairs between them?
seated in a row. In how many ways can this be

done if Jabari and Valery refuse to sit together?
Probability
437
28. In a class photograph of 9 students, 4 students
36. Find the number of eight-letter words that can be
must be in front and 5 must be at the back. In

how many different ways can the students be
seated if the 3 friends Mariam, Katyusha and
Nataly want to sit next to each other?
formed by using each of the letters of the word

AMUDERIA once if each word must begin with
DER.
37. A rabbit is trained to

move only down and
right through the
maze opposite. In
how many different
ways can the rabbit
reach the carrot?
29. A car dealer has 3 identical red cars, 4 identical

blue cars and 2 identical white cars. In how many
different ways can he display them in a row?
30. How many different permutations of the letters in

the word GALATASARAY are possible if the
vowels must be kept together?
38.
31. How many ten-letter words can be formed from

the letters in the word TAKLAMAKAN if each
letter is used only once?
32. Mulan has 3 identical rose bulbs, 4 identical lily

bulbs and 6 identical violet seeds. In how many
different ways can she plant them in a row in a
flower bed?
33. How many different seven-digit even numbers

can be made by rearranging the digits in the
number 2352547?
The figure above shows the road network in a part

of Ankara. Nuran must go from point A to point B
on foot via point C using the shortest possible
route. Find the number of routes that Nuran can
take.
34. How many different six-digit numbers can be
39. A child has 4 different math books, 5 identical
made by rearranging the digits in the number

335505?
dictionaries and 3 different story books. In how

many different ways can she put them on a
bookshelf if
35. Humuhumunukunukuapua
is the native Hawaiian name
for the triggerfish.
Find the number of different
permutations of the letters
in this word.
438
a. they can be put in any order?

b. books of the same kind must be kept together?
40. A restaurant offers a breakfast of 5 different items

arrranged in a circle on a plate. How many
different breakfast plates can be made?
Algebra 10
41. Three Turkish and 5 German diplomats will have
47. 3 identical wooden horses, 4 identical cars and 2
a meeting around a circular table. In how many

ways can they be seated if diplomats from the
same country must sit together?
identical swans are arranged on merry-go-round.

In how many ways can this be done?
48. A lion, a parrot, a wolf, a dragonfly and a rabbit

42. A hot air balloon is made up of
24 pieces of material and each
piece is a different color. How
many different balloons can be
made?
are attending a meeting. In how many ways can

they be seated around a circular table if the wolf
and the rabbit must not sit together?
49. In how many different ways can Aygerim put 7

different keys on his key ring?
43. In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls be

seated around a circular table if children of the
same gender must not sit next to each other?
Mixed Problems
50. How many zeros are there at the end of
(4!)! + (5!)! + 240!?
44. A group contains 5 boys and 5 girls. In how many

different ways can the boys and girls be seated
around 2 different circular tables if each table has
5 seats and the boys and girls must sit at
separate tables?
45. A company is making a

merry-go-round with 3
different wooden horses,
2 different miniature
cars and 3 different
miniature planes. In how many ways can these
things be arranged on the merry-go-round if the
planes must be kept together?
51. In how many different ways can the letters in the

word MATHEMATICS be arranged if the vowels
must be kept together?
52. A ferris wheel has 22 cars and each car has 2

seats. 22 couples will ride on the wheel so that
each couple rides in different car. In how many
different ways can they do this?
53. Faruk has 5 different neckties. On condition that

he doesnt wear the same tie on two consecutive
days, in how many ways can Faruk wear his ties
an his five days at the office?
46. A Formula 1 racetrack is a simple closed curve.

Seven racing cars are racing round the track. If
there is no tie and without considering which car
is first, second, third, etc., in how many ways can
the cars be arranged on the racetrack?
Probability
54. A group of 20 people includes 2 brothers. In how

many ways can this group be seated in a circle
such that there is exactly one person between the

brothers?
439
When the order of the elements chosen from a set is important, we use permutation.
However, order is not always important when we are choosing elements. For example, we
may want to choose a certain number of people from a group to form a committee. The order
of the chosen members is not important since the result is a group of people, not an ordered
set. An unordered selection of elements like this is called a combination.
An r-element subset is a
subset with r elements.
When we talk about a combination of n objects taken r at a time, we mean the r-element
subsets of a set with n elements. We write total the number of such combinations as
n
C(n, r) or (n, r ] and 0 r n).
r
For example, if we are asked to choose two digits from the set {2, 3, 5}, we might choose
{3, 5} or {5, 3}. These are the same combination. This is very different to the problem of
forming a two-digit number using the digits 3 and 5 because 35 and 53 are two different
outcomes.
A. COMBINATIONS OF r ELEMENTS SELECTED FROM n

ELEMENTS
Consider the set K = {1, 2, 3}. Let us compare the
two-element combinations with the two-element
permutations of the set K in a table:
K = {1, 2, 3}
Combinations
with 2 elements
Permutations
with 2 elements
{1, 2}
12
21
{2, 3}
23
32
{1, 3}
13
31
We can see that the number of permutations with two elements is twice the number of the
combinations with two elements: 2 C(3, 2) = P(3, 2).
If we now consider the
three-element combinations
Combinations
with 3 elements
and permutations of the set
{a, b, c}
abc
acb
bac
bca
cab
cba
A = {a, b, c, d}, we get the
{a, b, d}
abd
adb
bad
bda
dab
dba
{a, c, d}
acd
adc
cad
cda
dac
dca
{b, c, d}
bcd
bdc
cbd
cdb
dbc
dcb
following table:
440
A = {a, b, c, d}
Permutations with 3 elements
Algebra 10
There are four combinations and 24 permutations. We can see that the number of permutations with three elements is 3! times the number of combinations with three elements: 3!
C(4, 3) = P(4, 3).
If we repeated this exercise for two-element permutations and combinations we would find
2! C(4, 2) = P(4, 2).
We can generalize this pattern as
C( n, r )

ways of choosing
a group
with r elements
r!

= P( n, r ), which gives us the formula
ways of arranging
arranging those
elements
C( n, r ) =
P( n, r )
=
r!
n!
( n r)!
r!
n!
.
( n r )! r !
combination
Definition
Let n and r be non-negative integers such that 0 r n.

element combination
A subset of r elements chosen from a set of n elements is called an r-e
of that set.
C(n, r) is sometimes
written as Crn ,
n
C , n Cr or n Cr .
r
C
n r is sometimes read as
n, choose r.
EXAMPLE
55
Solution
EXAMPLE
56
Solution
Probability
The number of r-element combinations of a set of n elements is

n!
( n, r ] and 0 r n).
C(n, r) =
r ! (n r)!
Calculate C(8, 3).

By the formula, C(8, 3) =
8!
8!
8 7 6 5!
=
=
= 56.
3! (8 3)! 3! 5!
3! 5!
Evaluate C(12, 5) C(7, 2).

C(12, 5) C(7, 2) =
12!
7!
12!
7!
12!
=
5! (12 5)! 2!(7 2)! 5! 7! 2! 5! 5! 2! 5!
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5!
= 11 2 9 2 7 6 = 16632
5 4 3 2 2 5!
441
EXAMPLE
57
Solution
EXAMPLE
58
Solution
EXAMPLE
59
Solution
Find the number of groups of 3 students which can be chosen from a class of 10 students.
The number of such groups is C(10, 3) =
10!
10 9 8
=
= 120.
3! (10 3)! 3 2 1
There are 8 fruit pieces of different kinds including an

apple on a tray. How many selections of 4 pieces of fruit
can we make if we have to include the apple?
If we have to include the apple, we need to select three
pieces of fruit from the seven remaining: C(7, 3) = 35.
There are 10 players in a list. A basketball coach will choose 6 players from the list for a
school team and make one of them the captain. In how many ways can the coach form the
team?
10!
= 210 .
The coach can choose 6 players in 210 ways C(10, 6) =
6! (10 6)!
Additionally, any one of these six chosen players can be the captain. By the multiplication
property, the coach can form the team in C(10, 6) 6 = 1260 ways.
EXAMPLE
60
Solution
In a group of 9 children, 4 children will be given apples, another 3 children will be given
oranges and the rest will be given peaches. In how many ways can these fruits be given?
9
We can choose four children from nine in ways and from the remaining five children we
4
5
can choose three in ways. There will only be one way to choose the other two children.
3
9 5
So the total number of possible groupings is 1 = 1260.
4 3
Note that we can also solve this problem by treating it as a permutation with some identical
elements.
442
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
61
Solution
A cafe offers chocolate, lemon, sour cherry and vanilla

flavors of ice cream. A customer can choose one, two or
three scoops but the flavours must all be different. How
many different possible ice creams can a customer
order?
There are four types of ice cream.

4 4 4
The number of possible ice creams is + + = 4+6+ 4 =14.
1 2 3
Notice that
4
4
4
4
4!
= .
and are equal: =
1
3
1 1! 3! 3
EXAMPLE
62
Solution
Classes 10A and 10B have 12 and 18 students respectively. A basketball team of 5 players will
be formed by choosing 2 students from 10A and 3 students from 10B. How many different
teams can be formed?
The basketball team has five players.
12
We can choose 2 students from 12 students in ways.
2
18
We can choose 3 students from 18 students in ways.
3
12 18
So the team can be formed in = 66 816 = 53856 ways.
2 3
EXAMPLE
63
Solution
Probability
How many three-digit numbers abc can we write which satisfy the condition c < b < a?
Notice that the digits a, b and c must all be different. So any three-element set of digits
{a, b, c} will be enough to form a valid number, because we can just arrange the digits to
satisfy the condition. For example, the digits set is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and from the
chosen subset {3, 5, 8} we can form the number 853. So we just need to find the total
number of three-digit subsets of the set of digits: C(10, 3) = 120 different numbers can be
formed.
443
EXAMPLE
64
Solution
A watchmaker has 7 different jewels. He wants to

choose four of them to decorate the quarters
(3, 6, 9, 12) on the face of a clock. How many
different decorations are possible?
7
The watchmaker can choose four jewels in different ways and set them around the quarters
4
7
on the dial in 4! different ways. So the total number of possible decorations is 4! = 840.
4
(Notice that we cannot use circular permutation in this problem. Can you see why?)
EXAMPLE
65
Solution
A room contains a circular table with 5 chairs and a bench for 3 people. In how many ways
can 8 students be seated in the room?
We studied this problem in Example 64. In that solution we began by sitting three of the students on the bench. Now let us begin by sitting five students at the circular table. We can
8
choose these students in different ways. Then they can be arranged around the table in
5
(5 1)! ways. Finally, we have 3! ways for the remaining students to sit at the bench. So the
8
total number of arrangements is 4! 3!= 56 24 6 = 8064.
5
EXAMPLE
66
Solution
In a queue of 5 students at the canteen, 2 students are from class A and the rest are from
class B. If we know that there are 7 students in class A and 9 students in class B, find the
total number of possible ways to form the queue.
7
In a queue, the order is significant. There are possible two-student groups from class A
2
9
and possible three-student groups from class B. Those five students can form a queue
3
in 5! different ways.
7 9
So the total number of possibilities is 5!= 21 84 120 = 211680.
2 3
Remark
The number of r-element subsets of a set of n elements is equal to the number of

(n r)-element subsets: C(n, r) = C(n, n r) (n, r ] and 0 r n).
Check: C( n, n r ) =
444
n!
n!
n!
=
=
= C( n, r ).
( n r )! [ n ( n r )]! ( n r)! [ n n+ r]! ( n r)! r!
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
67
Solution
The number of 3-element subsets of a set is equal to the number of 6-element subsets of the
same set. Find the number of 7-element subsets of this set.
We know that C(n, r) = C(n, n r) and we have C(n, 3) = C(n, 6). So n = 9.
9
So the number of 7-element subsets of this set is = 36.
7
EXAMPLE
68
Solution
There are 9 students in a class. Four of them will be chosen to go on a picnic and the rest of
the students will form a basketball team. In how many ways can the picnic group be
chosen?
Let us calculate the number of ways of establishing the basketball team, since each student
is only involved in one activity:
9!
9 8 7 6 5
9
=
=126.
5 =
5! (9 5)! 5 4 3 2 1
Note that would have found the same answer if we had begun by considering the picnic group.
EXAMPLE
69
Solution
On Planet Zop there are 7 Zozos and 5 Yoyos. The army wants to form a crew of 3 members
for a spacecraft. How many different crews can be formed if there must be at least one Yoyo
in the crew?
12
The number of groups with three members is 3 . This number is the sum of the

7
number of groups with only Zozos ( ) and the number of groups with at least one Yoyo.
3
Let us call this second group y. Then we can write
12 7
12 7
3 = 3 + y, so y = 3 3 which means y= 220 35 =185.

So there are 185 crews which contain at least one Yoyo.

As an exercise, try to develop an alternative way of solving this problem.
EXAMPLE
70
Solution 1
Probability
Esma has 4 pigeons and 5 parrots. How many different pairs

containing a parrot and a pigeon can Esma choose?
We can solve this question by using the multiplication principle:
First bird
Second bird
4
1

5
1

4 5 =20.
445
Solution 2
9
4
Alternatively, there are ways of choosing a pair of birds. Of these, pairs contain only
2

2
5
pigeons and pairs contain only parrots. Let d be the remaining number of mixed pairs.
2
Then 9 = 4 + 6 + d, so d = 9 4 + 5 = 36 (6 +10) = 20.
2 2 2
2 2 2
This second solution may seem a bit longer than the first one. However, the strategy we have
just used will be helpful in other questions.
EXAMPLE
71
Solution
EXAMPLE
72
A football team is made up of 10 players plus a goalkeeper. Five more players are reserves. The
team coach wants to substitute 2 team players (not including the goalkeeper) with 2 reserves
and then choose 3 forward players from the resulting team. If each player can play any
position, in how many ways can the coach choose the 3 forward players?
10
The coach can choose the players to substitute in different ways. He can choose the
2
5
reserve players in different ways. Finally, he can arrange the forwards in 10 different
3
2
10 5 10
ways. So the forwards can be chosen in = 54000 different ways.

2 2 3
In how many different ways can 10 people be separated into 2 equivalent groups if
a. one group travels to Izmir and the other group travels to Kayseri?
b. the two groups play basketball together?
Solution
10
a. The group which goes to Izmir can be chosen in = 252 ways.
5
The rest of these ten people will go to Kayseri. So the answer is 252 ways.
10
b. There will be two teams of five players each. We can choose the first team in = 252
5
ways and the rest of the people will be in the second team.
However, half of these 252 possible teams will be the same as the other half.
10
5
= 126
So the ten people can be separated into two teams in
ways.
2
In the same way, 15 people can be separated into three teams of five members in
15 10 5
5 5 5

ways.
3!
In how many ways could 12 students be separated into four equal teams?
446
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
73
Solution
Derive a formula that gives the number of diagonals in a convex polygon with n sides.
A polygon with n sides has n vertices A diagonal is a line segment which joins two
non-adjacent vertices. The total number of line segments which join any of the vertices is
n!
n ( n 1)
n
determined by the two-element subsets of all the vertices: =
=
.
2
2 2! ( n 2)!
However, line segments which join two adjacent vertices are not counted as diagonals. They
are the sides.
If we subtract n sides from the first formula, the formula for the number of diagonals is
n ( n 1)
n ( n 3)
n
n =
.
2 n =
2
2

For example, in a hexagon there are
EXAMPLE
74
Solution
6 (6 3)
= 9 diagonals.
2
I toss a coin successively 7 times. In how many ways can I get 4 heads and 3 tails?
We have already solved this question as a permutation in Example 59. Now we can solve it
as a combination. Let the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 represent each toss of the coin. Then
any four-element subset chosen from this set will represent a group of outcomes in which the
coin is heads. For example, 1, 2, 4, 6 means heads on the first, second, fourth and sixth toss.
2, 3, 4, 5 is another possibility.
7
There are = 35 such groups, so can get the result in 35 ways.
4
EXAMPLE
75
Solution
A canteen has 2 circular tables with 4 seats each and a bench with 5 seats. In how many
different ways can 13 students chosen from a class of 15 students sit in the canteen?
15
We can choose 13 students in 13 different ways.

13
From these students, students will sit at the first circular table and
4
sit at the second circular table. These students can be seated in 3! and 3!
9
4 students will

ways respectively.
The remaining five students can sit on the bench in 5! different ways.
So the total number of possible arrangements is a product:
15 13 9
13 4 4 3! 3! 5!=105 715 126 6 6 120 = 40 864 824 000.

Probability
447
EXAMPLE
76
There are 13 bulbs in a box. Five of the bulbs are defective.

We will select a set of 4 bulbs from the box. In how many
ways can we do this if
a. none of the bulbs must be defective?
b. we want at least half of the set to be defective?
Solution
8
a. There are eight working bulbs, so we must select four bulbs from eight bulbs: = 70
4
possible sets.
b. There are four bulbs in the set. If the set contains at least two defective bulbs, there must
be 2 or 3 or 4 defective bulbs and 2 or 1 or zero working bulbs in each set:
5 8
5 8
5 8
2 2 + 3 1 + 4 0 =(10 28)+(10 8)+(5 1) = 365.

groups with 2
defective bulbs
EXAMPLE
77
Solution
EXAMPLE
78
groups with 3
defective bulbs
groups with 4
defective bulbs
There are 11 points on a circle. How many triangles can we form using any three of these
points as the vertices?
Any three points on the circle are not collinear. So any three points will
11
make a triangle. So the total number of triangles is =165.
3
Seven points are given as shown in the adjacent figure.
a. How many lines can be draw which pass through at
least two of the points?
b. How many triangles can be formed using the points
as vertices?
Solution
a. Two lines are already given. There are three collinear points on the top line and four
collinear points on the bottom line. Other lines can pass through one of the top and one
of the bottom points. There are 3 4 = 12 such lines. Including the top and bottom line,
there are 12 + 2 = 14 possible lines.
b. For any triangle we want to draw, there are two cases:
Case 1: A side is on the upper row and the vertex is a
point on the lower row. Since two points determine a
3
side, there can be 4 =12 such triangles.
2

Some of them are shown in the figure.
448
Algebra 10
Case 2: A side is on the lower row and the vertex is on

4
the upper row. There are 3 = 18 such triangles.
2
Some of them are shown in the figure.
In conclusion, we can form 12 + 18 = 30 triangles.
EXAMPLE
79
There are 4 permanent members and 9 elected members on a companys board of

directors. For a decision to be passed, there must be at least 8 votes in favor of the decision
and all of the permanent members must vote in favor. In how many ways can a decision be
passed by the board, assuming that all members vote?
Solution
For a decision to be passed, all the permanent members must vote in favor. This is possible
4
in = 1 way.
4
But this is not enough. At least four more votes are necessary since at least eight votes are
needed in favor. These four or more votes can be provided by the nine elected members of
the board in 9 , 9 , 9 , .... or 9 different ways.
4 5 6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
So there are + + + + + ways in which at least four of the nine
4 5 6 7 8 9
elected members can vote in favor of the decision. As a result, a decision can be passed in
4 9 4
+
4 4 4
9 4
+
5 4
9 4 9 4
+ +
6 4 7 4
9 4
+
8 4
9

9
4 9 9 9 9 9 9
= + + + + +
4 4 5 6 7 8 9
=1 (126+126+84+ 36+9+1) = 382 ways.
EXAMPLE
80
Solution
Probability
n n 1 n 1
Prove that =
+
, where n, r ` with r n.
r r 1 r
This solution is left as an exercise for you.

449
number of subsets of a set
Theorem
The total number of subsets of a set with n elements is 2n:

n n n
n
n
0 + 1 + 2 + + n = 2 , n ] (0 n).

Proof
For a given subset there are two possibilities for each element of the main set: either it is in
the subset or not in the subset. If the n elements are a1, a2, a3, ..., an we can construct the
following table:
a1
a2
a3
...
an
...
n elements
So the total number of subsets is 2n.

EXAMPLE
81
Solution
EXAMPLE
82
Solution
Find the total number of subsets of the set K = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}.

Since the set K has 8 elements, the total number of subsets is 28 = 256.
How many subsets of the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} contain 2 or 6 or both 2 and 6?
The total number of subsets of P is 27. The subsets which do not contain either of the digits
2 and 6 are in fact the subsets of the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7}, which has 25 subsets.
So the number of subsets that contain 2 or 6 or both is 27 25 = 128 32 = 96.
Check Yourself 10
1. P(n, 3) = (n + 1) C(n, 3) is given. Find n.
2. Find the number of subsets of the set {a, b, c, d, e} which contain at least 3 elements.
3. There are 12 people in a room. Each person shakes hands with all the other people. How
many handshakes are there?
4. In how many different ways can Hunfrid distribute 9 different toys among 3 children so
that each child gets 3 toys?
5. A box holds 7 red cards and 5 green cards. How many different groups of 6 cards can be
selected from the box if the selection must contain at least 3 red cards?
Answers
1. 5
450
5 5 5
2. + +
3 4 5

3. 66
9 6 3
4.
3 3 3

5. 812
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
6 .3
A. Combinations of r Elements Selected

from n Elements
combination for an operation in a program. For

this purpose, he will use two of the keys Shift, Ctrl
or Alt together with one of 26 letters. How many
different key combinations can he choose from?
b. C(6, 2) + C(8, 3)
P(7,4)
C(7,4)
d. 9 + 9 + 9 + 9 +...+ 9
0 1 2 3
9
e. 13 + 13 + 13 +...+ 13
0 2 4
12
c. C(n, 2) + C(n, n 2)
b. n + 20 = 8
2
3
c. n +1 = n 1 +17
n 1 2
Assuming that an arc is represented by two letters

and the order of the letters is important, how
many different arcs can we define?
G = {k, l, m, n, r}.
5. How many subsets of at least 4 elements does the

set K = {, z, , , , X,
the set {2, 3, 4, 5, 6,}. How many three-digit

numbers abc can be formed in this way such that
a < b < c?
13. In an aquarium there are 5 different white fish, 7
4. List all the three-element subsets of the set
} have?
6. How many of the three-element subsets of the set

H = {a, b, c, d, e, f} include the letter e?
7. In how many different ways can one novel, one

biography and one poetry book be chosen from 3
novels, 4 biographies and 5 poetry books?
Probability
with everybody else. How many handshakes are

there?
12. Three different digits a, b and c are chosen from

a. C(n, 2) = 15
10. In a group of 10 people, everybody shakes hands
11. A, B, C, D and E are 5 distinct points on a circle.

C( n, 3)
a. 2C(4, 2) b.
P( n, 2)
clean her house. How many different groups can

she choose?
9. A computer programmer wants to set a key
a. C(4, 2)
c.
8. Snow White wants to choose 3 of the 7 dwarfs to
different goldfish and 4 different black fish. Four

of the fish must be moved to a different
aquarium. In how many ways can this be done?
14. Joo-Chan is making a 6 8 crossword puzzle in

which he wants to put 12 black squares. How
many different crossword patterns can he make?
15. In an attempt to travel around the world, you

must visit 36 out of 40 predetermined cities
which are all located near the Equator. In how
many ways can you choose the group of cities you
will not visit?
451
16. There are 11 children of different heights in a
23. In a group of 7 people, 3 people have a drivers
class. We want to choose any 4 children and line

them up according to their height. In how many
different ways can this be done?
license. How many different groups of 5 people

can be chosen to travel in a car if the group must
have at least one driver?
17. Junko must choose two courses from the list M,
24. A research group of 4 people will be chosen from
N, Q, P and R for this semester. How many

choices does he have if the lessons for M and Q
are given at the same time?
a board of 3 professors and 5 research managers.

If the group must include at least one professor,
how many different groups can be chosen?
18. A ship has 12 different barrels of oil. Eight of
25. An urn contains 5 green marbles and 7 red marbles.
them will be unloaded at a port. Of these 8

barrels, 3 barrels will be painted. In how many
ways can the 3 barrels be chosen?
19. In a class of 55 students, the number of

possible pairs which can be formed by the girls is
equal to the total number of boys in the class.
Find the number of boys in this class.
20. Two basketball teams of 5 players each are

playing a match. We want to choose 2 players
from each team and seat them around a
circular table after the match. In how many
different ways can this be done?
21. In classes 9A, 9B and 9C there are 12 students,
A student takes a sample of 7 marbles from the urn.

How many different samples are possible if
a. the sample must contain exactly three green
marbles?
b. the sample must include at least five red marbles?
26. There are 5 candidates for the presidency of a

school committee. A voter is allowed to vote for at
most 3 candidates. In how many different ways
can a student prepare her vote?
27. There are 7 points on a circle. How many

pentagons can we form by joining 5 of the points?
28 . The figure below shows nine points on the

perimeter of a triangle.
10 students and 9 students respectively. A football

team will be formed by choosing 5 students from
9A, 4 students from 9B and 2 students from 9C.
How many different football teams can be
formed?
22. Ali and his 7 friends are in group. Three people are
chosen from the group to form a committee. How
many of the possible committees include Ali?
452
a. How many different lines can be drawn which

pass through at least two of the given points?
b. Using the given points as vertices, how many
different triangles can be constructed?
Algebra 10
29. How many parallelograms are formed by the intersection of the parallel lines in the figure below?
d1
35. Find the number of different non-negative
integer solutions to a + b + c + d 2006.
d 2 d 3 d4
l1
l2
l3
l4
l5
l6
l7
30. a, b, c and d are 4 digits such that a < b < c < d.
36. Fifty identical marbles are to be distributed among

6 children. If each child must get at least one
marble. How many possible distributions are possible?
37. Twenty-five identical red marbles and 33 identical

yellow marbles are to be distributed among 5
children so that each child should take any kind,
how many different distributions are there?
If we write all the possible four-digit numbers

abcd in ascending order, in which position will
the number 3458 appear?
38. A chocolate shop sells 12 different types of
31. A student must select 4 out of 6 essay questions
chocolate. A customer wants to buy a selection of

20 chocolates. How many different selections are
possible?
and 10 out of 15 multiple-choice questions in his

mid-term examination. In how many different
ways can the student select the 14 questions?
32. A company has 4 workers who can build a wall, 5

workers who can paint a wall and 2 workers who
can do both. A job requires 3 builders and 3
painters. In how many ways can the company
choose the workers for the job?
B. Combinations with Identical Elements

33. Find the number of different positive integer
solutions to a + b + c + d + e = 27.
34. Find the number of different non-negative

integer solutions to a + b + c + d = 18.
Probability
39. A teacher wants to distribute 20 identical gifts

among his 16 students. In how many different
ways can he do this if
a. he must give each student at least one gift?
b. there is no restriction on the number of gifts a
student can receive?
Mixed Problems
40. If P(n + 1, 4) = 40 C(n 1, 2), find n.
41. In how many ways can 4 people be seated on a

sofa for 6 people?
42. In how many ways can 4 out of 6 people be

seated on a sofa for 4 people?
453

seated on 5 chairs in a row?

seated around a circular table?
45 . In how many ways can we arrange 4 out of 5

different math books and 4 out of 6 physics books
on a shelf if
a. the books can be put in any order?
b. books on the same subject must be together?
48. Five countries each send 4 diplomats to an

international meeting. After the meeting, 2
diplomats from each country are chosen for
another meeting around a circular table. How
many different seating arrangements are possible
around the table if diplomats from the same
country must sit together?
49. Jandos has 6 rubber stamps

and a circular holder that
can hold 12 rubber stamps.
In how many ways can
Jandos put his stamps in the
holder?
46. A software package consists of 7 programs
50. A scuba diving school has 7 teachers and 2
including an antivirus program and a word

processor. Alis computer has 3 available hard
drives. Ali must install 4 different programs from
the package, two of which must be the antivirus
program and the word processor. In how many
different ways can Ali do this?
student teachers. Five of these people will dive in

a coral reef and the rest will teach in a classroom.
In how many ways can the groups be arranged if
the two student teachers must be kept together?
51. Ali, Veli and their 6 friends are in a sports club. A

47. A restaurant offers
a self-service buffet
lunch. For lunch
there are 3 choices
of soup, 6 choices
of main meal and 5
choices of dessert.
Customers can also make a salad from 3 out of 18
things served at the salad bar. In how many
different ways can a customer make a four-course
meal of soup, a main meal, salad and dessert?
454
teacher wants to choose a group of 3 people from

the club so that Ali is chosen but Veli is not
chosen. In how many ways can she do this?
52. Four women and 7 men are at a restaurant. One

of the men is married to one of the women. In
how many different ways can 5 people from this
group be seated around a circular table if the
group must contain the couple and the couple
must sit together?
Algebra 10
A. PASCALS TRIANGLE AND BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Look at the picture opposite. A mouse is moving from
circle to circle from left to right across the page. After

1
each circle there are two ways for the mouse to

proceed: right and up or right and down. The
number in each circle is the number of

ways in which the mouse can
reach that circle.
Start
The numbers in the circles
show a pattern which is known
as Pascals triangle. This triangle
has many interesting properties. To
understand them, let us move the
triangle to an upright position.

1
Row
Sum
0
1
Probability
5
6
28
15
56
4
5
35
70
32
1
6
21
56
16
15
20
10
35
1
3
10
21
7
28
64
128
1
8
256
455
First notice that each row begins and ends with 1.

Secondly, notice that the sum of any two consecutive terms in a row gives us the term
between them on the next row. For instance, the number 15 marked in red in the sixth row is
the sum of the 10 and 5 located above it. We can extend the triangle infinitely downwards by
using this rule.
Notice also that the first row is row zero. For convenience, when we count the positions of
the numbers in each row we also begin with zero (not 1). For example, number 21 marked
in green is the second entry (not the third entry) in the seventh row. The entries in Pascals
triangle are related to the coefficients of the expansion of a binomial with a non-negative
integer power. To understand the relationship, look at some binomial expansions with the
first few powers and notice their coefficients.
( a + b )0 = 1
( a + b)1 = a + b
= 1a + 1b
( a + b)2 = a2 + 2 ab + b2
= 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2
( a b )3 = a3 3a2 b + 3ab 2 b 3
= 1a3 3a2 b + 3ab2 1b3
( x + 2 y)4 = x4 +8 x3 y + 24 x2 y2 + 32 xy3 +16 y4
= 1x4 + 4x3(2 y)+ 6 x2(2 y)2 + 4x(2 y)3 + 1(2 y)4
We can see that the coefficients in each expansion are the same as the entries in the
corresponding row of Pascals triangle.
Remark
The expansion of a binomial expression to the nth power has the following properties:
There are n + 1 terms in the expansion.
The coefficients of the terms in the expansion correspond to the entries in the nth row of
Pascals triangle.
The power of the first term in the binomial expression begins at n in the expansion and
decreases by 1 in each term down to zero.
The power of the second term in the binomial expression begins at zero in the expansion
and increases by 1 in each term up to n.
In the expansion of (x + y)n, the sum of the exponents of x and y in each term is n.
A constant term in an
expression is a term that
does not change with the
variable.
456
The sum of the coefficients of an expansion can be found by substituting 1 for each variable
in the binomial expression.
If the binomial expression is a polynomial then substituting zero for each variable in the
binomial expression gives us the constant term of the expansion.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
83
Solution
EXAMPLE
84
Solution
How many terms are there in the expansion of (x + y)12?

Since the power is 12 (n = 12) there will be n + 1 = 13 terms.
Expand (2x + y)6.

The primary coefficients of the terms in the expansion will be the entries in the sixth row of
Pascals triangle: 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1.
The first term of the binomial is 2x. To avoid any mistakes, let us keep 2x in parantheses to
begin with:
(2x + y)6 = (2x)6 + 6(2x)5y + 15(2x)4y2 + 20(2x)3y3 + 15(2x)2y4 + 62xy5 + y6
= 64x6 + 6(32x5)y + 15(16x4)y2 + 20(8x3)y3 + 154x2y4 + 62xy5 + y6
= 64x6 + 192x5y + 240x4y2 + 160x3y3 + 60x2y4 + 12xy5 + y6.
EXAMPLE
85
Solution
Expand (x2 3y)4.

We will use the entries in the fourth row as the coefficients: 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. If we write
consider (x2 3y)4 as (x2 + (3y))4 then
(x2 3y)4 = (x2)4 4(x2)3(3y) + 6(x2)2(3y)2 4(x2)(3y)3 + (3y)4
= x8 12x6y + 6x49y2 4x227y3 + 81y4
= x8 12x6y + 54x4y2 108x2y3 + 81y4.
EXAMPLE
86
Solution
Expand n + 1 .
n
Use the seventh row:

7
7
6 1
5 1
4
n + = n +7 n + 21n + 35 n
n
n
n
= n7 +7 n6
87
Solution
Probability
1
2
+ 21n
n
1
1
1
+7 n +
n
n
n
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ 21n5 2 + 35 n4 3 + 35 n3 4 + 21n2 5 +7 n 6 + 7
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
= n7 +7 n5 + 21n3 + 35 n +
EXAMPLE
1
3
+ 35 n
n
35 21 7
1
+ + + .
n n3 n5 n7
Find the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (3x + y2)6.

If we substitute 1 for each variable in (3x + y2)6 we get (3 1 + 12)6 = 46 = 4096.
457
EXAMPLE
88
Solution
Find the constant term in the expansion of (7x + 3)5.

Substitute zero for each variable in (7x + 3)5: (7 0 + 3)5 = 35 = 243.
Check Yourself 11
Expand the binomials.
4
1. (3x + y)
1
2. x
x
3. (2 2)5
Answers
1. 81x4 + 108x3y + 54x2y2+12xy3 + y4
B.
3
2. x 3x +
3 1
x x3
3. 232 1642
FINDING BINOMIAL TERMS USING COMBINATION

A laboratory mouse has been exposed to five types of virus. A scientist wishes to find out how
many viruses are now present in the mouse. In how many ways could the mouse have been
infected?
Infected with no viruses: C(5,0) = 1 (mouse is clean)
Infected with 1 type of virus:
C(5,1) = 5
Infected with 2 types of virus:
C(5,2) = 10
C(5,3) = 10
C(5,4) = 5
C(5,5) = 1.
Can you see the similarity between the number of combinations and the entries in the fifth
row of Pascals triangle?
Perhaps one of the most interesting characteristics of Pascals triangle is its relationship with
combination. We can describe this relationship simply: entry number r in row n is the
number of subsets of r elements which can be taken from a set with n elements.
This gives us another interesting characteristic of Pascals triangle: the sum of the terms in
the nth row of the triangle is 2n (can you see why?).
The symmetrical property of Pascals triangle can also be related to the combination rule
n n
=
( n, r ] and 0 r n).
r n r
458
Algebra 10
For example, the third entry in the eighth row of the triangle is the same as the fifth entry in
the same row since C(8, 3) = C(8, 5) = 56.
Let us now redraw Pascals triangle using combination:
Row
0
0

2
1

2
0

3
1

3
0

3
4
0

6
0

6
1

3
2

5
2

6
2

2
2

4
2

4
1

5
1

5
0

5
6
1
1

1
0

3
3

4
3

5
3

6
3

4
4

5
4

6
4

5
5

6
5

6
6

Using the above triangle, we can generalize the expansion of a binomial to any power n as
n
n
n
n n 1 n n
( x + y)n = xn + xn 1y + x n 2 y2 +. . .+
xy + n y
0
1
2

n 1

Notice that the coefficient 1 in the first and last terms of the expansion is obtained from
and n respectively.
n
EXAMPLE
89
Solution
n
0

Expand (x + y)6 using combination.

6
6
6
6
6
( x + y)6 = x6 + x6 1y + x6 2 y2 + x6 3 y3 + x6 4 y4 + x6 5 y5 + y6
1
2
3
4

5
= x6 + 6x5y + 15x4y2 + 20x3y3 + 15x2y4 + 6xy5 + y6

Probability
459
EXAMPLE
90
Solution
Expand (2a b)5.

5
5
5
(2a b )5 = (2 a)5 + (2 a)5 1( b)+ (2 a)5 2( b) 2 + (2 a) 5 3( b) 3 +
1
2

3
5
5 4
4
5
4 (2 a) ( b) +( b)

= 32 a5 5 16 a4 b +10 8 a3 b2 10 4 a2 b3 +5 2 ab4 b5
= 32 a5 80 a4 b +80 a3 b2 40 a2 b3 +10 ab 4 b5
EXAMPLE
91
Solution
Expand x + 1 .
x
7
7
7
1
7
6 1
5
+
x
=( x ) + ( x ) + ( x )
x
x
1
2
2
1 7
4
+ ( x )
x 3
3
1 7
3
+ ( x )
x 4
1

x
5
6
7
7
7
1
1 1
+ ( x )2 + ( x ) +
5
6
x
x x

= x7 +7 x6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ 21 x5 2 + 35 x4 3 + 35 x3 4 + 21 x2 5 +7 x 6 + 7
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
= x3 x +7x2 + 21 x +
35 35 x 21 7 x 1
+
+ 4+ 6 + 7
x
x3
x
x
x
The relation between combination and Pascals triangle helps us to calculate any particular
term in a binomial expansion without writing out the entire expansion.
For example, suppose that we are asked to find the third term in the expansion of (x 2y)3.
Using our knowledge of the properties of binomial expansion, we can say that 2y will have
exponent 2 in this term and x will have exponent 1 since the sum of the exponents must be
3
3. Now we only need to find the coefficient, which we can calculate as = 3.
2
3
2
2
2
So the third term is x(2 y) = 3x 4y = 12 xy . We can easily check this against the full
2
expansion: (x 2y)3 = x3 6x2y + 12xy2 8y3.
We can formulize our findings as follows:
460
Algebra 10
Remark
n n( r 1) r 1 n n r+1 r1
The rth entry in the expansion of (x + y)n is
y =
y .
x
x
r 1
r 1
EXAMPLE
92
Solution
EXAMPLE
93
Solution
Find the ninth term in the expansion of (a + b)12.

12 12 9 +1 9 1
Substitute n = 12 and r = 9 in the formula:
y = 495a4 b8 .
x
9
1
Find the sixth term in the expansion of (2x + y)9.

We will use n = 9 and r = 6. So r 1 = 5 and the sixth term is
9
9 5 5
4 5
4 5
5 (2 x) y = 126 16 x y = 2016 x y .

EXAMPLE
94
Solution
Probability
What is the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (2x 4y)7?
7
r = 4 means r 1 = 3. So the fourth term is (2 x)73( 4 y)3 = 35 16 x4( 64) y3. From this
3
we can calculate the coefficient to be 35840.
461
EXAMPLE
95
Solution
EXAMPLE
96
Solution
Find the middle term in the expansion of (2x3 + 3y)8.

Since there are nine terms in the expansion of a binomial to the eighth power, the middle
12 4
8
3 8 4
4
term will be the fifth term. So the middle term is (2 x ) ( 3y) = 90720 x y .
4
27xy3 is a term in the expansion of (ax + 2y)4. Find a.

The exponent of y is 3 and this is one less than the order of the term. Using r 1 = 3 in the
4
43
3
formula gives the term as ( ax) (2 y) .
3
If we equate this with the given term we have
4
43
3
7
3
3 ( ax) (2 y) = 2 xy

4(ax)43(2y)3 = 27xy3
4(ax)23y3=27xy3
25(ax)y3 = 27xy3. So a is 22 = 4.
EXAMPLE
97
Solution
10
3
What is the constant term in the expansion of 2 + x ?
2
2
x
10 2 10 r +1 x3 r 1
Let the constant term be
.
r 1 x2
2
10 11 r 5 r 25
x
r 1 2
This becomes
after simplification.
2 r 1
If this is the constant term then the power of x must be zero. This gives us 5r 25 = 0 and
r = 5. In other words, the constant term is the fifth term.

10
2115 x5525
5 1
26 210
=
= 840, which is
Substituting r = 5 in the expression gives us
51
24
2
the constant term.
462
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
98
Solution
Evaluate 5 + 2 5 + 2 2 5 + 2 3 5 + 2 4 5 + 2 5 5 .
0
1
2
3
4
5
n
n
n
Notice that the expression is the same as ( x + y)n = xn + xn 1y +...+ yn
0
1
n
for n = 5.
5
Since there is nothing but the coefficient in the first term, the first term in the
0
5
binomial is 1. The term with the coefficient is 25.
5
We can rewrite the expression as follows:
5 5 5 4 1 5 3 2 5 2 3 5
5 5
4
0 1 + 1 1 2 + 2 1 2 + 3 1 2 + 4 1 2 + 5 2 .

By the formula we have (1 + 2)5 = 35 = 243.
EXAMPLE
99
Solution
A rational term is a term

that contains no irrational
expressions.
7
What is the rational term in the expansion of ( 3 x + 2 x ) ?
Let us write the rational term as 7 ( 3 x )7 r+1(2 x )r 1 and try to solve for r.
r 1
7 r 1
Simplifying gives us
2 x
r 1
make this rational.
In 7 2 r 1 x
r 1
13+r
6
However, x
rational term.
13+r
6
8r
3
r 1
2
13+r
6
7 r 1
=
2 x
r 1
. We need to find a value of r to
7 and 2r1 have rational values for any integer r.

, the factors
r 1
13+5
6
is only rational for the value r = 5, so 7 251 x

5 1
= 560 x3 is the
Check Yourself 12
1. What is the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (x+b)15 ?
2. What is the seventh term in the expansion of (3x+y)11?
9
3. What is the constant term in the expansion of x4 + 2 ?

x
Answers
15
1. = 455
3

Probability
2. 112266x5y5
3. 5376
463
EXERCISES
6 .4
A. Pascals Triangle and Binomial

Expansion
1. Expand each expression.

a. (3x + 5)5
b. (2x2 5)4
B. Finding Binomial Terms Using

Combination
c. (4x3 3y2)5
7. 3 + 2 x =...+( a x)+... is given. Find a.

x
2. What is the constant term in the expansion of

(2x 3)5?
8. Evaluate
3. Find the middle term in the expansion of
9
9
9
9
9
+ 4 + 42 + 43 +...+ 4 9 .
0
1
2
3
9

(2x 5y)4.
4. Find the sum of the coefficients in each expansion.

a. (3x + 2)4
b. (3x2 + 2y)15
9. What is the constant term in the expansion of

10
3 1
2x + 2 ?
x
5. Find the twelfth term in the expansion of (3x + 1)15

when the terms are written in order of decreasing
powers of x.
6. Find the sixth term in the expansion of (3x4 + y3)8
10. The sum of the coefficients in the expansion of
when the terms are written in order of decreasing

powers of x.
(x + y)n is 1024. What is the greatest coefficient

in this expansion?
464
Algebra 10
In this section we will learn some rules of probability which are frequently used for solving
problems.
rules of probability
Rule
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For every event E, 0 P(E) 1.

For a sample space S, P(S) = 1.
For two mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A B) = P(A) + P(B).
For any two events A and B, P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B).
For any event A, P(A) +P(A) = 1. In other words, P(A) = 1 P(A).
Note
Many problems in probability are written in natural language. The key word for recognizing
the union operation () in a written problem is or. When we use the word or (A or B) in
mathematics, we mean A or B or both.
The key word for recognizing the intersection operation () in a written problem is and.
When we use the word and (A and B) in mathematics, we mean both A and B.
EXAMPLE
100 A die is rolled. Find the probability that it shows 3 or 5.
Solution
Let T mean the die shows 3 and F mean the die shows S. Then 3 or 5 means T F.
Since T and F are mutually exclusive events, by the rules of probability we can write
P(T F) = P(T) + P(F)
1 1 1
1
= + = . So the probability is .
6 6 3
3
EXAMPLE
101 A die is rolled. Find the probability that it shows an even number or a prime number.
Solution
The possible prime numbers are 2, 3 and 5 and the even numbers are 2, 4 and 6. Showing
an even number (E) or a prime number (P) are not mutually exclusive events, since the
outcome is in both events.
1
1
Since P(2) = , P( E P) = .
6
6
So the probability of E or P is P( E P ) = P( E) + P( P ) P( E P )
1 1 1
= +
2 2 6
5
= .
6
Probability
465
EXAMPLE
102 An urn contains five blue marbles, four red marbles and six yellow marbles. We want to take
one marble from the urn. What is the probability of taking a red or a yellow marble?
Solution 1
Since a marble cannot be both red and yellow, drawing a red

marble and drawing a yellow marble are mutually exclusive
events.
So the probability is
4
6
10 2
+ =
= .
15 15 15 3
We can also solve the problem in another way. Let E be the event
that a red or yellow marble is drawn. Then the complement of
E (written E) is the event that neither a red nor a yellow marble is drawn. In other words,
E is the event that a blue marble is drawn.
P( R Y ) = P( R)+ P( Y ) =
Solution 2
P( E ') =1.
We also know that P( E)+

drawing
a blue marble
So the probability of drawing a red or yellow marble is P( E) =1 P( E ') =1
EXAMPLE
5 10 2
=
= .
15 15 3
103 We have twenty cards numbered from 1 to 20. A card is drawn at random. What is the
probability of drawing an even number or a number divisible by 3?
Solution
Let the event that an even number is drawn be E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20} and
the event that a number divisible by 3 is drawn be T = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}. We can see that
E T = {6, 12, 18}.
So we can write P( E T ) = P( E)+ P( T ) P( E T ) =
EXAMPLE
10
6
3
13
=
+
.
20 20 20 20
104 A coin is tossed four times. What is the probability that the coin shows tails at least once?
Solution
The sample space contains 24 = 16 outcomes. If E is the event that we

get tails at least once then E is the event that we get no tails. In other
words, E is the event that we get heads three times (can you see
1
why?). Since there is only one way to do this, P( E ') = .
16
1 15
=
So P( E) = 1 P( E ') = 1
.
16 16
We can check this result with the sample space:
S = {HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH, HHTT, HTHT, THHT, TTHH, HTTH, THTH,
HTTT, THTT, TTHT, TTTH, TTTT}.
466
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
105 A
Solution
group of 6 people is selected at random. What is the

probability that at least two of them have the same birthday?
First let us assume that there are 365 days in a year. Then the
sample space for one persons birthday has 365 outcomes because
there are 365 possible dates for a contains. Let the desired event be A.
Then A is the event that none of these six people have a common
birthday.
So A contains 365 364 363 362 361 360 outcomes.
Let E be the sample space for the experiment. Then E contains 3656 possible outcomes,
because there are six people.
n( A ')
365 364 363 362 361 360
= 1
0.05.
So the probability of A is 1
n( E)
3656
Check Yourself 13
1. A die is rolled. What is the probability that the die shows a number greater than 3 or an
even number?
2. A number is drawn at random from the set A = {1, 2, 3, ... ,100}.
a. What is the probability that the number is divisible by both 2 and 3?
b. What is the probability that the number is divisible by 2 or 3?
Answers
1. 2
2. a. 4
25
3
b. 67
100
A patient is talking to his doctor about a

necessary operation.
Im worried about this operation,
Doctor. They say its 99 per cent risky.
Thats true, but you neednt worry.
Why?
Because you are the hundredth
patient. The other 99 have already
died!
Probability
467
In our probability studies up to now, we have considered sample spaces with only a small
number of outcomes. These outcomes can be listed easily. But sometimes the sample space of
an experiment has a large number of outcomes. Determining this number might not always be
easy or practical. In such cases we can use the counting methods we learned in Chapter 1 to
determine the number of outcomes in a sample space and an event.
EXAMPLE
is selected at random from the three-digit numbers formed using the digits
106 A{1,number
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} without repetition. Find the probability that the selected number is an
even number.
Solution
EXAMPLE
The number of outcomes in the sample space is 7 6 5 = 210. There are also three even
numbers in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. So there are three possible choices for the units digit.
There are then six possible choices for the hundreds digit and five possible choices for the
tens digit.
90
3
= .
So the number of outcomes in the event is 6 5 3 = 90 and the desired probability is
210 7
machine generates all the three-letter sequences of the letters in the word KAHVE, with
107 Arepetition
allowed. Each sequence is written on a card and the cards are put in a box. mer
draws a card. Find the probability that he draws a sequence beginning with the letter H.
Solution
EXAMPLE
There are 5 5 5 = 125 possible sequences, so n(S) = 125. If H is the event that the
n( H ) 25 1
=
= .
sequence begins with H, n(H) = 1 5 5. So the probability is P( H ) =
n(S) 125 5
108 Six people including Murat and Saim are to be seated around a circular table. Find the
probability that Murat and Saim are seated next to each other.
Solution 1
We can use the formulas for circular permutation. The number of outcomes in the desired event
Solution 2
is (5 1)! 2! = 4! 2! and the number of outcomes in the sample space is (6 1)! = 5!.
So the probability is 4! 2! = 2 .
5!
5
Alternatively, let us seat Murat first. Then we need to seat five
more people in the remaining chairs, as shown opposite. Saim
Murat
can sit in any one of these chairs, so there are five possible
places for him. But only two of the chairs are next to Murat, so
2
the probability that he sits in one of these chairs is .
5
468
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
109 A box contains 4 yellow marbles and 6 red marbles. Two marbles are drawn at random from
the box. What is the probability that both marbles are yellow?
Solution
We can draw any two marbles from ten marbles

10
without restriction in ways.
2

Similarly, we can draw two yellow marbles from
4
four yellow marbles in ways.
2

4

2
2

So the desired probability is
= .
10 15

2

EXAMPLE
110 A box contains 18 light bulbs. 5 of these bulbs are defective.

We choose 3 bulbs at random. What is the probability that
a. two of the chosen light bulbs are defective?
b. at least one of the chosen light bulbs is defective?
Solution
a. We need to choose 2 defective bulbs from 5 bulbs and one

working bulb from 13 bulbs.
5 13
So the number of outcomes in the event is =130.
2 1
The number of outcomes in the sample space for selecting 3
18
bulbs from 18 is =186.
3
5 13

2 1 = 65 .
So the probability is
408
18

3

b. Let the event be E. Then E is the event that no defective bulbs are selected. In other
words E is the event that three working bulbs are selected.
13

3
265
So the answer is P( E) =1 P( E ') =1 =
.
18
408

3
Probability
469
EXAMPLE
111 A coin is tossed eight times. What is the probability of getting 5 heads and 3 tails?
Solution 1
The number of outcomes in the sample space is n(S) = 28 = 256. The number of outcomes
in the desired event is n(E) = C(8, 5) C(3, 3).
8 3

n( E) 5 3
7
Therefore the probability is P( E) =
=
= .
n(S)
256
32
Solution 2
Alternatively, we can think of the desired event as an arrangement of the letters in

HHHHHTTT. By permutation with repetition, n( E) =
So P( E) =
EXAMPLE
8!
8 7 6
=
= 56.
5! 3! 3 2 1
56
7
= .
256 32
112 In a group of 13 people, 4 people speak English, 6 people speak Turkish and 3 people speak
German. A committee of 5 people is chosen at random from the group. What is the
probability that the committee contains 2 English speakers, 2 Turkish speakers and one
German speaker?
Solution
We can choose 5 people from 13 in C(13, 5) different ways without any restriction. So the
number of outcomes in the sample space is C(13, 5). However, the desired selection can be
achieved in C(4, 2) C(6, 2) C(3, 1) different ways.
4 6 3
4!
6! 3!

2 2 1
n( E) 2! 2! 2! 4! 2!
30
.
=
=
=
So the probability is P( E) =
13!
n(S)
143
13

5! 8!
5

EXAMPLE
student is taking a test which has 15 true-or-false

113 Aquestions.
If the student guesses every answer, what is the
probability that he or she will answer exactly eleven
questions correctly?
Solution
There are two possible answers (true or false) for each

question. Therefore the sample space has 215 outcomes
15
and the desired event has outcomes because the
11
event is the same as selecting 11 questions among 15.
15

1365
11
,
So the probability is P( E) = 15 =
2
32768
or approximately 0.04.
470
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
114 A machine generates a random four-letter sequence of letters from the letters in the word
KARTAL. What is the probability that the word begins and ends with A?
Solution
Let us find the sample space. We have three cases:

Case 1: 4! possible sequences do not contain an A, since there are four other letters to choose
from {K, R, T, L}.
4
Case 2: 4! possible sequences contain only one A.
3
4
4!
Case 3:
possible sequences contain two As.
2 2! 1! 1!
4
4
4!
.
So the sample space is 4 + 4!+
3
2
2!
1! 1!

4
The number of outcomes of the desired event is 2! because there are four letters left to
2
choose from if the two As have to be chosen.
4
2!
1
2
= .
So the required probability is
16
4
4
4!
4! +
4!+

3
2
2!
1!
1!

sequences

with no A
sequences
with one A
sequences
with two A's
Check Yourself 14
1. A student will choose 4 courses at random to study next term. There are 14 courses in
the list. Six of them are science courses. What is the probability that the student chooses
all science courses?
2. A machine generates a three-letter sequence of letters from the elements in the set
{a, b, c, d, e}, with repetition. What is the probability that the letters in the word are all
different?
3. Ahmet, Kemal and their seven friends are called randomly to sit in 9 chairs placed side
by side. What is the probability that Ahmet and Kemal are seated next to each other?
4. Set A has 6 elements. Each subset of A is written on a card and all the cards are put in a
box. A student chooses a card at random. What is the probability that he selects a card
which shows four elements?
Answers
1.
Probability
15
1001
2.
12
25
3.
2
9
4.
15
64
471
A STICKY PROBLEM!
A box contains seven sticks which are respectively 2 cm,
3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm, 8 cm and 11 cm long.
Find the probability that any three

sticks chosen at random from the box
will form a triangle.
Two mathematicians were talking about how important their jobs were.
My dear friend, our country is not taking math seriously. I think the government
should tax people who cant do math, complained one mathematician.
That is what the lotto is for! said the other.
472
Algebra 10
Many countries hold a 6/49 lottery. 6/49 means that you must correctly guess
six numbers from the first 49 positive integers to win the first prize. Does it
sound easy? Only six numbers!
In fact, it is not very easy to win a lottery like this. There are so many possible
combinations of six numbers that the chances of choosing the right
combination is very small indeed.
Here are two sets of six lottery numbers: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and
B = {5, 12, 18, 23, 33, 41}. Which set of numbers do you think is more
likely to win? Some people think that set B is more likely than set A. In fact, both
sets of numbers have an equal chance, since six numbers are chosen from 49
at random.
So what is the real probability that you will win the lottery with one ticket? The
answer is
1
. In other words, about one in 14 million! Can you believe
13983816
it? Think about the math:
49
.
6
The number of different ways to choose six numbers from 49 is

This is equal to
49!
49 48 47 46 45 44
=
= 13983816. Your
(49 6)! 6!
6 5 4 3 2 1
lottery ticket is only one of these sets of six numbers, so the probability that you
will win the lottery with one ticket is
1
0.00000007.
13983816
To be sure of winning the lottery, you would therefore need to fill in 13983816 tickets, using each possible
combination of numbers just once. If it takes you 15 seconds to fill in one ticket, you would need approximately
58265 hours to complete them all. This is the same as 2427 days, or 6.65 years with no break. And of course, you
would have to pay for all the tickets.
Do you still want to play the lottery?
EXERCISES
6 .5
1. Ahmet, Berk, Can, Deniz and Engin are seated at
9. 5 boys and 4 girls are seated at random in a row
random around a circular table. What is the probability that Ahmet and Can are seated next to
each other?
of 9 seats. What is the probability that the boys

and girls are seated alternately?
2. Two integers are randomly selected from the set

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} without repetition. What
is the probability that the sum of the numbers is
10?
3. Five math books and 4 physics books are arranged

randomly on a bookshelf. What is the probability
that books about the same subject are all together?
4. An integer is randomly selected from the set

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and then replaced. Then
another integer is selected. What is the probability
that the sum of the two integers is 10?
5. Nine people want to be seated around a circular

table. What is the probability that two particular
people will not be seated next to each other?
10. Two dice are rolled together 900 times. How

many times would you expect to get a sum of 7?
11. There are 4 different letters and 6 different

mailboxes. Each letter will be put in a random
mailbox. What is the probability that all four
letters will be put in the same mailbox?
12. 200 patients were treated with a new medicine. 32

of them were not cured. Four patients from the 200
are selected at random. What is the probability that
three of them were cured?
13. The first 5 positive integers are written randomly in

a row. Find the probability that the numbers are
written in either ascending or descending order.
14. A four-digit number is formed using the digits

6. Two numbers are drawn at random from 5
positive and 3 negative numbers. What is the
probability that the product of the selected
numbers is positive?
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} without repeating the digits.

Find the probability that the number is an even
number.
15. A box contains 4 red marbles and 8 other marbles

7. Two numbers are selected randomly from 6 odd
numbers and 5 even numbers. What is the
probability that the product of the selected
numbers is even?
of different colors. What is the probability that 4

marbles selected at random from the box are not
red?
16. Seven points A, ..., G are arranged in a circle. A

8. In a lottery game, a player must pick 4 winning
numbers from 42 numbers to win the prize. Find
the probability of winning the prize.
474
triangle is drawn by connecting three points

chosen at random. What is the probability that
point E is a vertex of the triangle?
Algebra 10
17. Three hundred people apply for 4 jobs. Ninety of
24. A committee of 4 men and 3 women is chosen at
the applicants are women. Four people are selected

at random for the jobs. Find the probability of each
event.
random from a group of 8 men and 5 women that
a. all the selected people are men
25. A teacher distributes 20 questions before an exam
b. exactly two people are men
includes Sami and Dilara. What is the probability

that both Sami and Dilara are chosen?
and tells her students that 10 of them will be in
exam. Mehmet can solve 15 of the questions. In

order to pass the exam a student must answer at
least 6 questions correctly. What is the probability
that Mehmet will pass the exam?
c. exactly one person is a man

d. no men are selected
18. A standard piano keyboard has 88 different keys.

A cat jumps on 6 keys of the keyboard at random
(possibly with repetition). Find the probability
that the cat will strike the first six notes of
Beethovens Fifth Symphony.
19. The square in the figure is

divided into 9 smaller squares.
A quadrilateral is chosen
at random from all the
quadrilaterals in the figure.
What is the probability that the quadrilateral is a
square?
20. An urn contains 3 red, 3 blue and 4 yellow
26. Abraham and Bill are in a group of 12 people.
Seven people are chosen randomly from the group
and seated in a row. Find the probability that

Abraham and Bill are seated next to each other.
27. Three numbers are selected from the set
{1, 2, 3, ..., 15}. What is the probability that the
sum of the selected numbers is divisible by 3?
28. We draw two numbers at random from the set
{1, 2, 3, ..., 100}. What is the probability of
drawing a pair of consecutive numbers?
29. A committee of 4 people is chosen from 6 men

and 5 women. What is the probability that the
committee contains at least one man?
marbles. Three marbles are drawn at random.

Find the probability no red marbles are drawn.
21. A box contains 4 red, 5 yellow and 4 white marbles.
We draw 3 marbles at the same time. What is the

probability that only one of them is a red marble?
22. Three numbers are selected from the set
{1, 2, 3, ..., 15}. What is the probability that the

product of the numbers is divisible by 3?
30. A group of 4 people is chosen at random from 6
couples. What is the probability that there is no
couple in the group?
31 . A chessboard has 64 squares and the length of the
side of each square is 1 unit. A rectangle is
drawn at random on the chessboard. What is the

probability that the perimeter of the rectangle is
greater than 4 units?
23. A subset is drawn from all of the four-element
subsets of the set A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. What

is the probability that the selected subset does not
contain the element d?
Probability
32 . Two numbers are drawn at random from the set

{1, 2, 3, ..., 100}. Find the probability that one of
the drawn numbers is half of the other.
475
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
6A
5. A box contains 5 different green balls and 9
1. There are 3 routes

from city A to city A
B
C
B, 4 routes from
city B to city C and
2 direct routes from A to C. In how many
different ways can Serkan travel from A to C?
A) 7
B) 9
C) 10
D) 12
E) 14
different blue balls. In how many different ways

can Salim pick out a green and a blue ball in any
order?
A) 54
B) 45
C) 40
D) 35
E) 9! 5!
6. In how many ways can we name the vertices of a

pentagon using any five of the letters O, P, Q, R,
S, T, U in any order?
2. In each sequence below, L represents one of the
A) 2520
letters in the 26-letter English alphabet and D

represents a digit. A factory wants to register 10
million different product items. Which sequence
shows a possible registry format?
A) LLDDD
B) LDDL
D) DDDLLL
C) DDDDL
B) 9040
D) 4880
C) 5140
E) 3600
1 2 3 4
and
1 3 4 2
7. The permutation functions f =
1 2 3 4
are given. Find the permutation
g=
4 2 3 1
E) DDLLL
function h such that f D g = h.
3. How many two-digit odd numbers can be formed

from the digits {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} if repeated
digits are allowed?
A) 14
B) 42
C) 28
D) 21
E) 49
1 2 3 4
A) h =
3 4 2 1
1 2 3 4
B) h =
2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4
C) h =
3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4
D) h =
2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4
E) h =
4 2 1 3
4. Evaluate
( n + 2)!( n 2)!
.
( n +1)!( n 1)!
A) (n 3)
B) (n 1)
D)
476
( n + 2)
( n 1)
8. How many six-digit numbers can be formed from

C)
E) 49
( n +1)
( n + 2)
the digits {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8} without repetition if the

digits 3 and 7 must be together?
A) 120
B) 180
C) 144
D) 96
E) 240
Algebra 10
9. How many eight-letter sequences can be formed

from the letters in the word ALTAYLAR?
A) 2120
B) 2480
D) 3360
C) 3200
E) 3640
13. There are 11 students of different heights in a

class. We choose any 4 students and line them up
from tallest to shortest in order. How many
different orders are possible?
A) 280
B) 330
C) 480
D) 660
E) 7920
14. What is the middle term in the expansion of

(2x + 5y)4?
A) 600x2y2
D) 6x2y2
10. In how many different ways can 5 couples be

seated around a circular table if the couples must
not be separated?
A) 768
B) 724
C) 844
D) 696
E) 576
11. Which one of the following is a mathematical

combination?
B) 120xy2
C) 5000xy3
E) 160x2y2
15. There are 8 different math books, 4 different

biology books and 6 different geometry books on a
table. Nuran wants to select 4 math books, 3
geometry books and 2 biology books and then
arrange them on a bookshelf so that books on the
same subject are together. How many different
arrangements are possible?
8 4 6
A) 9! 3! 4! 2!
4 2 3
8 4 6
B) 3! 3! 4! 2!
4 2 3
A) a social security number

B) the key for a combination lock
C) a committee chosen from a group of 10 people
8 4 6
C)
3!
4 2 3
8 4 6
D)
9!
4 2 3
D) the PIN code for a cellular phone

E) your name and surname
E) 3! 4! 2!
16. A company in Ankara will send a group of 10
blue balls in a box. In how many different ways

can Salih pick out two balls?
managers to participate in a seminar in Istanbul.

However, only 6 plane tickets are available. The
rest of the managers will go by bus. Two people
are afraid of flying so they do not want to go by
plane. In how many ways can the group be
divided for the journey to Istanbul?
A) 132
A) 18
12. There are 5 different green balls and 9 different
B) 124
C) 111
D) 104
E) 91
B) 24
C) 28
D) 42
E) 56
477
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
6B
6. Fatma has 5 different history books and 4
1.
different math books. In how many ways can she

arrange them all on a shelf so that the history
books are together and all the books are between
two math books?
A) 2640
B) 2880
D) 8640
C) 5160
E) 12520
In how many different ways can the mouse in the

picture get to the cheese without passing by a cat
if all the gates allow only one direction pass?
A) 48
B) 36
C) 24
D) 44
E) 60
7. In how many ways can we exhibit 5 of 8 different

new cars in a row if a certain car must be the first
on the right?
2. What is the sum of all the four-digit numbers which

can be made from the elements of the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
with no repeated digits?
A) 66660
B) 62600
D) 48800
A) 720
B) 760
C) 840
D) 900
E) 960
C) 57420
E) 36000
3. How many three-digit even numbers smaller than
8.
550 can be formed from the digits in the set

{0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} if no digit can be used more
than once in a number?
A) 24
4. Solve
B) 32
C) 35
D) 42
E) 45
(2 n)!
n!
= 28 for n.
(2 n 3)! ( n 2)!
from the letters in the sequence THISWORD if

no letter can be used more than once?
The cube in the figure is made up of 27 sticks. An

ant is trained to walk up and right along the
sticks, relative to the cube. If it starts at point A
and walks only along the sticks, in how many
different shortest ways can it get to piece of the
sugar at point S?
A) 1680 B) 1540 C) 1420 D) 136 E) 1260
A) 90
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
E) 6
5. How many four-letter sequences can be formed
478
B) 120
C) 144
D) 150
E) 180
Algebra 10
9. How many seven-digit odd numbers can be formed
14. What is the coefficient of the term containing
by rearranging the digits in the number 5321233?
x12y6 in the expansion of (x3 2y2)7?
A) 144
A) 84
B) 168
C) 196
D) 225
E) 240
B) 280
C) 560
D) 448
E) 35
10. How many different necklaces can we make by

threading 3 different red beads, 3 different green
beads and 3 different yellow beads onto a chain if
beads of the same color must be kept together?
A) 240
B) 216
C) 196
D) 164
E) 144
11. The figure shows ten

points. Three of the
points are chosen at
random to form a
triangle. How many different triangles can be
constructed?
A) 80
B) 90
C) 100
D) 110
15. A group of 5 people will be selected from 4

doctors and 7 nurses such that the group
contains at least one doctor. After the selection,
the group will hold a meeting around a circular
table. How many different seating arrangements
are possible around the table?
4 7
A)
4!
1
4
11
B) 4!
5
C) 7 4!
5
11
7
D) 4!
5
5
7
E) 4
4!
2 3
E) 120
12. Six women and 8 men are in a table tennis club.

If each game needs 2 players for each team, how
many different games between men and women
can be arranged?
A) 240
B) 276
C) 360
D) 420
E) 480
13. A committee of 4 people will be selected from 8

girls and 12 boys in a class. How many different
selections are possible if at least one boy must be
selected?
A) 2865
D) 4455
B) 3755
C) 4225
E) 4775
16. A group of 12 people booked tickets to the theater.

When they arrive they find that 5 places in the
front row and 7 places in the back row have been
reserved for them. 3 people do not want to sit at
the front and 2 of them do not want to sit at the
back. In how many different ways can the 12
people be seated?
10 7
A)
3 4
B) 5! 1!
C) 7 12!
3
9
D) 12
4
3

E) 7 5! 7!
3
479
EXERCISES
1. a. f:
b.
b. g:
[1, 4) c.
1 .1
{5}
c. h:
3. a. [11, 7] b. (3, 5]
(0, 5]
6. a. g(x) = x + 1, h(x) = x, t(x) =

b. f 1:
{2}
{3}, f 1(x) =
3
9. a = , b = 4
2
{0}
2. a. [13, 13]
{3} d. t: (4, ) {1} (2, 3]

c. [5, 8)
4. a. [0, 2] b. [0, 4]
1
, r(x) = 5 x, f(x) = r(t(h(g(x)))) 7. a. f 1:
x
5. a. (x + 1)2 b.
3x 3
x 1+ 2
c. f 1: [1, +) [1, +), f 1(x) =
x+ 2
2
11. a. ( ,
10. a. increasing b. increasing c. decreasing
7
]
4
x2 +1
, f 1(x) = 2 5x
8. a.
7
b. [ , )
4
1
b. 2
2
12. a. odd b. even
c. odd d. odd e. odd
EXERCISES
1. 2
2. a.
1 .2
y = f(x)
1
O
b.
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
2
O
1
O
1
x + 3 if x 3
3. a. f ( x) =
x 3 if x < 3
2 x if x 0
b. f ( x) =
0 if x < 0
x<2
2 x +5 if
d. f ( x) = 1
if 2 x < 3
x>3
2 x 5 if
2 x
e. f ( x) = 2
2 x
480
c.
if
x2 x 2 if x (1, 2)
c. f ( x) =
x2 + x + 2 if x (1, 2)
x < 1
if 1 x < 1
if
x 1
2 x2 + 2 x if
f. f ( x) =
if
6 x
x 4
x < 4
Answers to Exercises
4. a.
b.
c.
y = |x|
2
e.
1
21
1 O
b. x < 1
c. x {1, 0, 1}
1 O
d. x {1, 0, 1}
3
y = |5x + 4| + 2x 1
5. a. x > 0
4
5
y = |x2 4x 5|
5
1
f.
3 2 1
y = x|x + 1| + 3
y = |x2 1|
y = |2 4x|
d.
2
3
6. a.
b.
y
y = sgn(x2)
y = sgn(x 1)
c.
O
1
1
1 O
b.
y = f(x)
2
2 11
O1 2
1
y = f(x)
c.
5
4
3
2
5
7
) e. x ( , 1]
2
3
y
4
1
2
1 1
2
O
d.
y
y = f(x)
1
3 2 1 O
7. a. x [2, 1) b. x [2, 3) c. x [3, 2) d. x [1,

8. a.
1
y = sgn(xx +
2)
y = f(x)
2
1
2 1 O
1 2
e.
2 1
2
3
x2 + 2 x if x > 1
9. x {1, 4} 10. f ( g( x)) = 3x + 4 if 0 < x 1
3x +7 if x 0
x 1 if x > 1
12. a. f ( x) =
1 x if x 1
11.
f 1 :
y = f(x)
4
3
2
1
O1 2
1
2
3
4
x +1
if x > 3
, f 1( x) =
x1
if x 3
x2 3x 4 if x (0, 3)
b. f ( x) =
x2 + 3x 4 if x (0, 3)
x3 x if x 0
c. f ( x) =
3
x x if x < 0
481
x2 if x 0
13. a. f ( x) =
2
x if x < 0
2 x +1 if x < 0
d. f ( x) =
1
if 0 x < 1
2 x 1 if x 1
EXERCISES
1. 17
y
8.
2. 24
3. 27
y = f(x)
x<2
1
if
e. f ( x) = 2 x 5 if 2 x < 3
x3
1
if
4. 17
y
6. 2a3 + a2
5. 2k + 1
9.
f. f ( x)=
x2 x 1
x 1
if
x x +1 if 1 < x < 0
0 x <1
x2 + x +1 if
2
x +x 1
x 1
if
2 .1
7. b2 2b + 1
a. 0 b. 4 c. 4
y = f(x)
4
3
2x + 3
if x (1, 3)
c. f ( x) =
2 x2 2 x 3 if x (1, 3)
2 x 1 if x 1
b. f ( x) =
if x < 1
1
10.
c. 2
x
O 2
a. 2 b. does not exist
2 y = f(x)
4
7
11. (11.7, 12.3)
5
5.1
4.9
13. (3.99, 4.01)
17. p {2, 1, 0, 1, 3} 18. a. lim+ f ( x) = 0,
e. 1 f. 2
lim f ( x) = 0
b. x = 1, x = 1
22. 28
x1
23. a. 1 b. 0 c. 1 d. 1 e. 1 f. 1
c. 1
d. 2
e. 2
f. 2
31. 6
16. a. 3 b. 1 c. 1 d. 0
lim f ( x) =1, lim+ f ( x) =1,
x 0
x 1
20. x = 0
21. a. does not exist
15
e. 11 f. 0
8
26. a. 2 b. 0 c. d. does not exist e. 1
28. a. b. c. d. does not exist e.
f. g. h. 0 30. a. b. c. d.
EXERCISES
b. x = 2
24. a. 5 b. 1 c. 0 d.
b. does not exist c. 1 d. 2 e. does not exist f. 0 g. 31

b. 1
x0
19. a. lim f ( x) = 4, lim f ( x) = 3

x0
14. (4.95, 5.05)
lim f ( x) =1, lim+ f ( x) =1,
x 1
x 1
x 1
b. 1
12. (5.1, 4.9)
32. a.
25. a. 4
27. a.
2
3
29. a. 0 b. c. d. e.
3
1
6
b. 16 c. 0 d. 23 e.
3
2
2 .2
1. a.
1
5
b.
c. 7 d. 15 e. 6 f. 2 g. 1 h. m i. 16
10
3
2. a.
1
5
1
1
2
b.
c. 3 d.
e.
f.
g. 1 h. 1 i. 2
2
7
2
2
2
j. 6
3. a. 3 b. 0 c. d. e. 0 f. 1 g. 1 h. 2
4. a.
6
7
6. a.
b. 5 c. 3 d.
2
5
5. a.
1
5
1
b.
c. 2 d.
7. a. e2 b. e9 c. e3 d. e1/3 e. e4/3 f. e6/5 g. e14/5 h. e18 i. e1 j. e4
2
2
2
482
4
9
b.
1
1
c. d.
2
2
EXERCISES
2 .3
1. continuous at x = 2, x = 1, x = 0, x = 2, discontinuous at x = 3, x = 1, x = 3
3. discontinuous
c.
{1} d.
4. x = 1, x = 2
{1, 6} e.
5. continuous
{0} f.
c. {x | 2k x (2k + 1), k } d.
EXERCISES
g.
7. m = 0, n = 2
6. 3
2. continuous
8. a {1, 2}
9. a.
b.
b. {x | x = 2k, k }
[1, 4] 10. a.
5
3
[2, 2] g. [ , ] 11. 6 12. 4
2
4
h.
(2, 2)
{2} e. [3, 5] f.
3 .1
1. a. fourth b. third c. third d. third e. third f. second 2. a. 0.785 b. 1.832 c. 1.221 d. 1.346 e. 16.336
24
3. a. 154 b. 359 c. 10 d.
19
9
4. a. (1, 0) b. 2 , 2
2
2
5. 108
6. a. x = 105 + (k 180)
34
2
k 2
d. x = +
7. a. 17 b.
c.
8. 91 9. 6 10. 8+ 2 3 11. 13
6
6
3
3
729
9
12. a.
b. 12 13.
units 14. a. sec x b. 1 c. csc x sec x d. sin x e. sin x f. cot x 15. a. 1 sin x b. 1 sin
32
4
b. x = + 24k
c. x = k 90
x c. sin2 x d. cot x e. 1 f. (sec x + 1)2 18. a. 1 b. 3
EXERCISES
1. a. 0
e.
b. 0
c. 1
2 k
{ + }, k
3 3
c. [7, 1]
b.
c. +
3 .2
d. 3
e. 0
2. a.
b.
5 k
{ + }, k
18
3
f.
d. [2, 6] e. [0, 6]
d. + e. +
19. 2
f.
d. , e. , f. ,
f. [4, 0]
g.
g.
g.
h. +
h.
h.
i.
1 k
{ + + }, k
2 8 4
c.
j. +
k
n
{ + } { }, k, n
4 2
5
i. (, 0] [2, )
k. +
l.
{1 + k}, k
d.
3. a. [1, 1]
j. (, 3] [1, )
5. e, f, j, k
6. a. 7, 1
k.
b. 2, 2
7. a. cos 299 b. sin 66 c. tan 88 d. cot 30 8. a. y < x < z
b. [5, 5]
4. a. +
c. 4, 6
b. b < a < c < d
c. r < m < n d. y < x < z < k e. b < a < c 9. a, b, c, d, f

10. a, d, e, f
11. a, b, d
13. a. 0 b. 1
14. a. 12 b. 68 c. 32 d. 48 e. 50 f. 30 g. 70 h. 10 15. a. 25 b. 40 c. 65 d. 55 e. 5 f. 85 g. 80
h. 40 16. a. 80 b. 36 c. 60 d. 30 e. 20 f. 51 g. 80 h. 5 17. a.
11
g. 5 h. 2 18. a.
b. 3 c.
d. 5 e. f. g. 5 h. 2
8
12
15
12
19
14
6
9
17
10
2
1
1
15
3
19
f.
g.
h.
21. a.
b.
c. 1 d. 1 e.
f.
7
2
2
2
73
2
99
c. 3
d. 3
e. 1
2
f.
2
2
g. 1
h. 3
3
23. a. 1
2
b. 1
2
b. 5 c. 5 d. 3 e. 2 f. 2
12
13
5
13
14
19. a.
b. c. 3 d. 4 e.
6
3
7
13
15
g. 1
h. 3
c. 1 d. 3 e. 2
2
22. a.
2
2
b. 3
2
f. 1 g. 1 h. 3
2
483
2
24. a. 1 b. 1 c. 1 d. 3 e.
f. 1 g. 1 h. 3 25. a. 2 b. 0 c. 6 26. a. tan + cot 2sin b. 0
2
2
2
2
2
, tan = 1, cot = 1 c. sin = 5 , cos = 4 , cot = 4
27. a. cos = 1 , tan = 3 , cot = 3 b. sin =
2
2
3
5
41
41
3
3
2
28. a. cos =
, tan = 1, cot = 1
2
13
13
2
7
7
24
4
1
1
, cot =
, cos =
, cot =
b. sin = , tan =
c. sin =
25
24
7
4
17
17
2
3 17
7 2
1
1
1
7
3
cos =
, tan =
d. sin =
29. a.
b.
c.
d. 4 30. a. cot =
b. cos =
10
13
10
7
3
13
4
25
d. sin =
c. sec =
, cos =
, tan =
31. a. 57 b. 3 3 32. P = 26, A = 213 33. a. 48 30 b. 136 12 c. 21345 d. 313 47 34. a. 121.25
3
2
b. 346.8 3 c. 198.32 d. 23.94 35. a. 0.3971 b. 0.5842 c. 2.9208 d. 0.4975 36. a. 0.8549 b. 0.9737 c. 1.1323
2
2
d. 0.0032 37. a.
b.
c. d.
e.
f.
38. a.
b.
c. 5
d.
39. 22
40. a.
3
5
2
5
5
5
3
3
b. 2 c. 2 d. 2 e. f. g. 2 h. 2 i. j. 3
41.
42. 2
2
43. a.
y
3
p
6
p
2
1
p
6
p
3
b.
5
p
3
2p
3
c.
1
p
d.
p
2
p
2
3p
2
2p
p
2
p
3
p
6
p
6
p
3
p
2
y
p
p p
3p
4 2 4
p
4
p
2
3p
4 p
3p
2
2p
x
2
4
484
e.
44. a.
y
1
p
2
p
3p p
2 2 4
p
8
p
4
p
8
3p
8
p
2
p
6
p
3
5p
6
2p
3
1
4
b.
c.
y
p
4
d.
3p
4 p
p
2
2
x
p
2
p
2
e.
y
3
3
2
p
45. III, V, VI
e. 0
b.
3
2
c. 22
46. a. y = 2 sin x
f. 150
c.
1
2
d.
g. 90
d.
1
3
12
13
e.
h. 180
e. 0 f.
17
17
b. 1, c. [2, 4] d.
3
48+ 25 3
60.
61. 0
11
3
4
f. 3
c. y = 3+sin x
b. y = sin 3x
48. a.
50. a.
52. a.
2 4
5 , 5
e.
62. 1
63.
4
7
b.
3
2
b.
64.
c.
2
2
5
2
c.
54.
b.
f.
d.
c.
3
2
3
3
47. a. 0
e.
5
6
f.
d.
d.
24
7
e.
56.
5
6
55. 0
e.
3 7
7
57.
b. 45
f.
4
g.
f.
120
169
17 13
65
c. 90
h.
2
3
d. 45
49. a. 1
24
4
b.
25
5
3
5
53. a. ,
2
2
4
58.
59.
3
5
51. a.
5
2
485
3 .3
EXERCISES
13 6 3 b. 3+ 37 c. 1 + 13 d. 2 5 2 3 2. a.
2
1. a.
113 b.
13 c.
3
14 d.
2
19 e.
2 f.
2
79 3.
120
2
14 3
d. 2 7.
units 8. a. 56 cm b. 52 cm
3
3
17
9. 6 cm 10. m(A) = 30, m(B) = 60, m(C) = 90 11. 84 cm2 12.
units 13. a. 2 ( 3 +1)
2
4
10
7 3 15
4. 135 5. a. 2 + 6 b. 2 c. 9.6 6. a. 5 b.
c.
10
16
6
b.
2
2
2
1 5 3
(1 3) e. 3 2 f. 2 3 g.
(1 3) h. 2 3 14. a. +
( 3 1) c. 2 + 3 d.
4
4
4
6
12
1 5 3
51
3 34
5
5
51
c.
3 d.
+ 3 e. 55 (9 3 + 32) f. 71 (9 3 + 32) 15. a. 1 b. 34
6 12
6 2
6 2
2
47
17
4
17
c.
d.
e. 0 f.
16. a. cos x b. 2cos x cos y c. 3 sin x
d. 2sin y cos x
2
289
17
3tan tan 3
24
7
24
18. a. sin 2 x = , cos 2 x = , tan 2 x=
17. cos 3 = 4cos3 3cos , tan 3 =
2
25
25
7
1 3tan
b.
b. sin 2 x =
120
119
120
, cos 2 x =
, tan 2 x=
169
169
119
d. sin 2 x =
15
7
15
, cos 2 x = , tan 2 x=
8
8
7
19. a. sin
5
x
x 2 5
x 1
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
5
2
5
2 2
c. sin 2 x =
e. sin 2 x =
b. sin
336
527
336
, cos 2 x =
, tan 2 x=
625
625
527
12
5
12
, cos 2 x =
, tan 2 x=
13
13
5
x
5
x
2 5
x
1
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
5
2
5
2
2
c. sin
1
2 2 +3
1
x
x
x
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
2
2
2 2 +3
18+12 2
18+12 2
d. sin
1
x
x
=
, cos =
2
2
4+ 2 2
f. sin
x
1
x
5+ 26
x
1
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
2
2
5+ 26
52+10 26
52+10 26
e.
2 f. g. 2 h.
0
2
2
e. 2 cos
26.
8
11
35. 6
5
486
2 sin
2 +1
4+ 2 2
, tan
x
= 2 1 e. sin x = 6 , cos x = 30 , tan x = 5
2
2
6
2
6
2
5
21. a. 2sin 4x cos x b. 2 cos
20. a.
2
2
b.
6
2
c.
2
2
d.
2
( 3 1)
2
5x
3x
11x
7x
sin
c. 2sin 5x sin x d. 2 cos
cos
2
2
2
2
3x
9x
5x
7x
x
33
f. 2 sin
g. sin 11x + sin 9x = 2sin 10x cos x h. 2 sin
sin x 24. 25 25.
cos
sin
2
65
2
2
2
2
19
27.
3 10
10
36. 26
37.
28.
2
( n +1)2
1
16
38.
29. 3
4
3 + 2x
4
30.
33
56
39. 3
4
2
31. sin 40 = 2 x 1 x
40. 2
4
32.
55
24
33.
3
4
34. 23
41. 1
3 .4
EXERCISES
1. a.
3
+ 2 k, + 2 n, k, n
4
4
c. ( 1)k +1
k
+ , k
12 2
c.
11 k
+ , k
60
5
b.
k
+ , k
24 4
b.
c. 1620
k
+ , 2 n, k, n
8 4
d.
k
, k
3
8. a.
e.
k
+ , k
18 6
f. + 2 k,
b.
f.
10.
3
,
4 4
9. a.
k
, k
2
12
+ 2 k, k
5
d.
+ 2 k, + 2 arctan 2+ 2 n , k, n
2
2
c.
+ k, arctan 2+ n, k, n
4
i. 0
e.
b.
e.
3. a. + k, k
4
b.
k
+ , k
12 2
+ k, k
2
4. a.
+ k, k
4
f.
g.
b. ( 1)k
k
+ , k
4 2
h.
c.
f. 2arccot 2 + 2k, k
+ , + n, k, n
4 2
3
3
+ k, arccos + 2 n , k, n
2
4
+ 2 n, k, n
3
2 k
+
, k
18
3
d. no solution
3
+ 3k, k
4
k
+ , + n, k, n
8 4 2
e.
k
+ , k
30 5
k, ( 1)n+1 + n, k, n
6
c.
k n
+ ,
, k, n
8 4
2
+ , ( 1)n +1 + n, k, n
4 2
6
k
+ , k
4 2
2 k 5 2 n
+
,
+
, k, n
18
3
18
3
d.
b.
k
+ , k
6 2
k
+ , k
36 2
7 k
+ , k
36 3
12. a. no solution
7
+ 2k,
+ 2 n, k, n
12
12
e.
11.
f.
k
+ , k
3 3
+ k, arctan 2+ n, k, n
4
+ 2 n, k, n
2
+ 2 k, k
6
c. arctan
d.
7. a. k,
2 4
,
3
3
3 9 11
,
,
,
8 8 8
8
d.
6. a.
+ 2 k, + 2 n, k, n
3
2 k
+ +
, k
20 20
5
e. 3arccot 2 + 3k, k
3 k
+ , k
8
2
c.
c.
h.
k
+ , k
90 3
d.
f.
d.
5
+ 2 k, k
6
2k
+
, k
30
5
g.
5. a. 4340 b. 3420
c.
or ( 1) k +1 + k , k
3
d. ( 1)k
2. a. + 2k, k
4
+ k, k
6
2
b. + 2k,
+ 2 n, k, n
3
3
k
3
k

e. ( 1)k +1 + + k, k
f.
g. +6 k, k
+ , k
, k
9 3
3 5
5
4
2
( 1)k +1 arcsin
3 + k , k j. + 4k, k
i.
k. ( 1)k +1 + 2 k, k
l. no solution
4
4
2
h. + k, k
3
f.
or ( 1) k + k , k
4
1
13. a. arctan + k, k
2
d. + k,arctan3+ n, k, n
4
b.
e.
+ k, k
4
c.
+ k, k
4
4
b. arctan + 2 k, k
3
+ 2k, + 2 n, k, n
3
+ k, k
6
14. a. 5, 5 b. 2, 2
c. 3, 3
d. 2, 2
487
15. a. [0, 26] b. [2, 4] c. [5, 1]
3
, ,
, 2
2
2
18. 0,
22. ( x, y) = (2 k,
24.
19. k,
25. a.
d.
26. a. + k < x < + k, k

3
3
k
k
b. +
< x<
+ , k
8 4
24 4
c.
5 k
k
+
< x< + , k
18
3
3 3
21. 0
7 2k
2k
+
< x<
+
, k
18
3
18
3
5
+ k < x <
+ k, k
2
6
+ 4k < x < + 4k, k

3
c. ( , 0), (0, )
4
4
23. ( 1)k +1 + k, ( 1)n + n , k, n Z

3
3
17 2 k
8 2 k
+
+
, k
x
45
3
45
3
b.
b. ( , 0)
2

17. a. ( , )
6 6
20. 34 a 34
2 k) or ( + k , k ), k Z
4
4
c. + k x
+ k, k
8
8
28. a.
+ k, n, k, n Z
2
+ 2 n, k, n Z
2
+ k, arccot2+ n, k, n Z
4
d. no solution e.
16.
b. + 2k < x < + 2k , k
2
6
e. x
c.
2 k
+
10
5
9
9
+6 k x
+6 k , k
4
4
k
k
27. a. +
< x< + , k
6
3
12 3
2
23
+ 2k x <
+ 2 k , k
9
18
b. 2k < x
d.
k
k
+
< x< + , k
15 5
10 5
3
+ 2k , k
2
7
3

29. a. + 2k, + 2k + 2 n,
+ 2 n , k, n
4
6
6

b. + 2k, + 2k + 2 n, + 2 n , k, n
6
3
6
3
d. + k, + k , k
6
3
e. ( k,
30. a. [ + 2k, 2k], k
b. (
c. (
c. + 2 k,
+ 2 k + 2 n , + 2 n , k, n
3
3
3
3
+ k) ( + k , + k ), k, n
4
4
2
4
+ 2 k,
+ 2 k), k
3
3
2
1
1
2
+ 2 k, arccos + 2 k ) (arccos + 2 n ,
+ 2 n ), k, n
3
3
3
3
e. ( + k,
+ k), k
4
4
31 a. ( + k, + k), k
3
3
b. ( + k, arctan 2+ k) ( + n , + n ), k, n
2
4
2
488
d. + k, + k , k
4
4
c. + k, + k + n ,
+ n , k, n
6
4
4
6
2k 2k
32. a. +
,
+
, k
3
12
3
12
d. (
+ k,
+ k), k
12
12
c. + k,
+ k , k
12
12
e. ( + 2 k,
+ 2 k) ( + 2 n , 2 n ), k, n
6
6
k
k
+ ,
+ ), k
12 6
36 6
5
c. ( + k,
+ k), k
3
12
k k
b. ( + , + ), k
4 2 2 2
33. a. (
EXERCISES
7 2 k 2 k
b. +
,
+
, k
3
18
3
18
34. a.
4 .1
1
1
5
4
g. h.
2. a. y = 2x + 5 b. y = 3x c. y = 11x 16 d. y = x + 2 3. 2
4
2
4
9
1. a. 5 b. 7 c. 2 d. 2 e. 0 f.
16
6. 9;11 7. a. rate of change of fuel consumption with respect to change in velocity b. if velocity
9
4. 30; 40 5.
8. a. x10; 1 b.
increases by 20 km/h, oil consumption decreases by 0.05 litres per hour

9. a. 2x 2 b.
3
( x 1)2
c.
d.
2x x
2 3x +1
12. 2, 0, 6 : discontinuity; 1, 3 : corner

16. 2
17. (2, 8), (2, 8)
EXERCISES
1. a. 0 b. 0 c. 0 d.
m.
1
2 x
1
3
3 x
18. a. 50
b. 60
10. no; f (8) f (8+) 11. does not exist
19. a = 1, b = 6, c = 0 20. 0
21. 9.95
2 7
1
x e. 1.6x0.2 f. x 5 g. 0 h. 0.21x0.3 i. 84 x13 j. 10x 3 k. 2 x + 2 + 2 l. 16t5 + 9t4 2t2
3
x
1
5
5 x
n.
1
2 x
x x
l. 3 3x + 2 x + 3
2 x(3x 1)2
1
3
1
o. 2
2. a. 15x2 5 b. 12x + 1 c. 300x 20 d. 4x3 + 3x2 1
x
x2
2x x
3 21
t
2
g.
6
(2 x + 4)2
h.
3
(2 x +1)2
3. a. 8 b. 2 c. 9 d. 1
4.
g. 3( x +1+ x )2 (
1
2 x +1
1
2 x
4
h. 4( x 1) (4 x +1)
(3x +1)
2
3
i.
1
2 x
6. a. 6(3x 1) b. 10x(x2 + 2)4 c. 7(x5 3x2+6)6(5x4 6x) d. 3(x2)4 e.
x; 8 c. 3x; 4 d. cos x;
4 .2
x2 2 x 2
( x2 + x +1)2
13. no; discontinuity at x = 1 14. does not exist 15. D, E, C, A, B
e. 5x4 4x3 + 9x2 6x + 2 f. 5t 2 + 4t

k.
b. ( + k, + k), k
4
2
+ 2 k, k
4
5
(1+ 3x)2
j.
1 3x2
2 x( x2 +1)2
5. a. 1 b. 8 c. 8 d. 8
40 x +12
4x
f.
(5x2 + 3x 1)3
(4 x2 +1)3
i. (3x 1) (18 x + 29)

(2 x +1)5
2
j. 405( x 3)
4
8( x + 2)
489
k.
d.
c.
5
2x 1
3
2
3
2
3
2
l. 3 + [2 x + ( x +1) ] 4 [4 x + 2( x +1)3 x ]
4
2(2 x 1)(3 x +1) 3 x+1
2( x x) x x
81
8(3x 1)
3x 1
d. 384x 576 11. y = 7x 5
12. 2 x + 27
25
50
5
x x f ( x)+ x2 x f ( x )
2
13. a.
2
3
b. 3x2[f(x)]2 + 2x3f(x)f (x) c. 3x f ( x) x f ( x) d. 2 xf ( x)+ f ( x)+1

2
[ f ( x)]
2 x
16. a. C (t ) =
3x2
( x3 1)2
2
1
12
9. a. 6 b. 14(x2 + 1)5(13x2 + 1) c. ( x 1)3 d.
10. a. 120x 18 b. 4
(2 x 1) 2 x 1
x
(2 x 1)( x2 x 1)
2
7. 12 8. a. 8x + 4 b. 2x c.
14. use the product rule twice 15.
63
25

0.2 0.2 t2
b. 0, 3 17. 6 18. f g( x)h( x) ( g ( x)h( x)+ g( x)h ( x))m( n( x)) 2g( x)h( x)m ( n( x))n ( x)
2
2
(t + 1)
125
( m( n( x)))
m( n( x))
19. 3 + 43
21. 15
4
20. 1
EXERCISES
22. ( 1)n
1 n!
2 xn+1
4 .3
1. a. 3cos(3x 5) b. 2xsin(x2 1) c. cos x + sin x d. sec2x(2 + sin x) e. sin x(sec2x + 1)

f. cos x + 2tan x + 2xsec2x + xsin x g. 2 cos(2 x3 3 x)sin(2 x3 3 x) (6 x2 3)
i.
1 cos x 9 2 sin x
cos x(cos x + sin 2 x+1)
)
j. 10(
2
2
1+
cos x (1+ cos x)2
sin x(cos x + 1)
m. 5( x2 sin( x 1))4(2 x sin( x 1)+ x2 cos( x 1)) n.

3. 2 + 2 k, k
3
g.
4. a. 0 b.
b.
3t 3 t 2
4t
x + 3x x
c.
490
2
4
8. a.
10. a.
2 x +1
1
x
d.
e.
+
1+( x2 + x 1)2
1+ x2
1 x2
13. a. sin x b. 299cos 2x c. 35sinx xcosx

15. y = 2x 2 16.
20 sin x(1 cos x) 9

(cos x +1)11
l. 9x2cot2(x3 1)csc2(x3 1)
2. y = x
2x
6 x3 + y
2
3x2 + 2x y
5
y
2 x +5 y
c. 2 d. 0 5. 5 6. a. b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
3y
x
3
x
4
1 x
5x + 3y2
4
17
f. 5 cot t 9. a. y = x 1 b. y = x
3
3
4
x2 +1
x3
x3
tan 2
x 1
x 1
( x2 1)2
(2 x4 6 x2 )sec 2
y 2 xy3
y xy 6xy
h.
7. a. y = x 3 b. y = x
x + 3x2 y2
4xy2 x xy
e.
2
2
k. (2 x 1)sec x x 1
2 x2 x 1
h.
14. a.
t2 +1
2t 2
2t + 3
b. 2
c.
d. (4t +6) t +1
t (2t +1)
3
3t 2 2t
6( t2 t 1)
6
b. 2 c. 0 11. a.
(2t 1)3
t
1
4 x2
12. y = 3x + 3
3
6
3
2 cos x cos x
4
2 xy + 2y2
27 x4 3x
3 2
6y
3
b.
c.
d. 2 y + 2 y
3
7
3
2
( x + 2 y)
16 y
2y
x
3x 3 x 3x 3 x2
17. sec2x 18. 48 19. (, 0)\{1} 20. 2

EXERCISES
1. a. 0 b.
5 .1
6 5
1
3
1
5
3
1
1
2
1
c.
d. 3 e.
f. 3 g. h.
i. 2 3 j.
k. cos a l. 1 m. n.
o.
6
2
2
6
4
3
5
48
4
9
b. 1 c. 1 d.
p.
1
2. a. 0
4
5
1
3
1
4
e.
3. a.
b. 1 c. 0 d. 0 e. f. 0 g.
3
3
2
EXERCISES
5 .2
1. a. increasing: (, 2) and (0, 2); decreasing: (2, 0) and (2, ) b. increasing: (, 3); decreasing: (3, 0) and (0, )
2. a. decreasing: (, ) b. increasing: (0, ); decreasing: (, 0)
c. increasing: (, 2); decreasing: (2, )
d. increasing: (, ) e. increasing: (, 0) and (4, ); decreasing: (0, 4) f. increasing: (2, 0) and (1, ); decreasing:
(, 2) and (0, 1) g. increasing: (, 2) and (2, ) h. increasing: (0, ); decreasing: (, 0) i. increasing: (, 0)
5
and (10, ); decreasing: (0, 10) j. increasing: (, ) k. increasing:

+ 2 k, + 2 k , k ; decreasing:
6
6
5
1
7
) 4. f ( x) =
> 0 for all x, so f is increasing 5. 2 < m < 2 6. 1 < a < 4
+ 2 k , k 3. ( ,
+ 2 k;
4
4
1+
x2
6
6
7. 1 < a < 3
8. 8
9. a. decreasing b. increasing c. decreasing d. increasing 10. a. decreasing b. increasing
c. increasing 11. local max.: x2, x4, x6; local min.: x3, x5, x7, x8; absolute max.: x6; absolute min.: x1, 12. a. no critical point
b. 1 c. 1 13. a. f (a) = f (b) = f (c) = 0, f (d) and f (e) do not exist. b. local max.: a, d; local min.: b; neither: c, e
14. a. min.: x = 4 b. max.: x = 1; min.: x = 1 c. no local extrema d. min.: x = 3, x = 1; max.: x = 1
e. no local extrema f. min.: x = 2 g. max.: x = 0; min.: x = 2, x = 2 h. min.: x = 7 + 2 k, x = 11 + 2 k;
6
6
max.: x =
+ k, k
2
15. 6 16. a = 2, b = 4 17. k = 4 18. a = 3 , b = 6

2
19. m = 3 20. ab < 0
21. 1 < m < 0 22. max.: x = 2, x = 7; min.: x = 3 23. a. f min =1, fmax = 3 b. f min = 9, fmax = 0
c. f min = 88, fmax = 7 d. f min =19, fmax = 30 e. f = 3, f = 9 4 3 f. f min = 255, fmax =1
min
max
g. f min = 0, fmax = 20
h. f = 5, f = 3 i. f min = 0, fmax =
min
max
l. f min = 0, fmax = 4 m. f min = 7, fmax = 3
8
3
j. f min = 0, fmax = 3
1
24. 24 25. 2 26. a = , b = 3
4
k. f min = 1, fmax =
3
5
27. 2
28. a. increasing: (2, ); decreasing: (, 2) b. min.: x = 2 29. a. increasing: (, 4) and (4, 6); decreasing:
(4, 4) and (6, ); b. min.: x = 4; max.: x = 4, x = 6 30. x = 2 32. (, 6] [16, ) 33. a 3
491
EXERCISES
5 .3
1. a. positive: (0, ); negative: (, 0) b. positive: (, 3), (3, 1), (2, ); negative: (1, 2) 2. a. concave up: (, ),
1
1
no inflection point b. concave down: (, ), no inflection point c. concave up: ( , ), concave down: ( , ),
3
3
inflection point x = 1 d. concave up: (1, ), concave down: (, 1), inflection point: x = 1 e. concave up:
3
5
5
5
(, 1), ( , ), concave down: (1, ), inflection points: x = 1 and x = f. concave up: (, 2), (2, ),
3
3
3
concave down: (2, 2) inflection points: x = 2 and x = 2 g. concave up: (1, 0), (1, ), concave down: (, 1), (0, 1)
inflection points: x = 1, x = 0, x = 1. h. concave up: (, 0), (0, ), no inflection point
i. concave down: (1, ), no inflection point j. concave up: (5, ), concave down: (, 5), inflection point: x = 5
k. concave up: (1, 2), concave down: (2, 3), inflection point x = 2 l. concave up: (2k, + 2k), concave down:
3. a = 6, b = 0 4. (1, 19) 5. concave up: (1, 3),
( + 2k, 2 + 2k), inflection point x = + k, k
concave down: (, 1), (3, ), inflection points: x = 1, x = 3 6. a. minimum b. maximum c. minimum d. minimum
7. a. max.: x = 3, min.: x = 1 b. max : x = 3+ 5 , min : x = 0, x = 3 5 c. max.: x = 0, min.: x = 4
2
2
d. min.: x = 3 e. max.: x = 0 f. no extremum
8.
a
9. consider the second derivative of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 10. consider the second
y
b
derivative of f(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e 11. y = x + 3 12. a = 1, b = 0, c = 3
13. c = 2 14. 2f (a) f(a)
EXERCISES
5 .4
512
1. 15 and 15 2. 2 and 2 3. 50 4. 2m 5. m = 1 6. 50 m by 50 m 7. 30 m by 60 m 8.
cm 3 9. 2, 2 and 1 m
3
5
6
10. 3888 cm3 11. 3
m 12. 250 13. 2R2 14. 22 15. (1, 0) 16. 24 17. y = 22 18. 13 19. r = 2 cm, h = cm
3
20. 1 hour 21. 9
EXERCISES
1. a. x = 1, y = 0
g. x = 3, y = 1
3. a.y
5 .5
b. x = 1, y = 0
h. x =
b.
32
c.
6 x
3
5/3
d. x = 4, y = 3
f. x = 1, y = 1
e. x = 3, y = 0
3
3
i. x = 6, x = 1, y = 0 j. y = x k. x = 1, y = x + 3
, x = 3, y =
2
2
c. no asymptotes
1 x
50
27
1
3
d.
1
e.
y
2
4 1
2. ,
9 4
f.
x
1
1 x
2
12
492
4.
4
27
8 a.
5. a =
3
7
, b=
14
2
b.
c.
d.
e.
1/3
x
1
1/3
3
f.
1
1
1
6. 0 7. y = ( x 2)2 ( x +1)( x + 2)
2
5/3
3
3
3
2
9 a.
b.
y
2
2
c.
10. 1 solution if a (, 4) (23, ),

2 solutions if a {4, 23},
3 solutions if a (4, 23)
p/2
EXERCISES
6 .1
1. 12 2. 10 ways
3. 4 5. 12 6. 6 7. {MMM, MMF, MFM, MFF, FMM, FMF, FFM, FFF}
Windows
1
Doors
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A
1B 2B 3B 4B 5B
8. 12 9. 13 10. 4 11. 624 12. 46 13. 24 14. 6 15. 14 16. 412 17. a. 412 b. 512 18. 240 19. 28800
20. 264 = 456976
21. 5000
22. 4 000 000
23. a.10 b. 210 = 1028
24. 5850
25. 74360
26. No
27. No
28. a. 25 b. 10
29. 1944
30. 48
31. 135
32. 159
33. 8500
34. 12
35. a. 1792
b. 320 36. a. 140 b. 36 37. 9990000 38. 367 267 107 = 70322353920 39. 52(26 + 262 + 263) = 456950
40. Hint: Apply to the pigeonhole principle
EXERCISES
6 .2
1. g1 =

1 2 3
2.
2 1 3
9. 5! 5! 2! = 28800 10. a. 110
1 2 3 4
3.
4 3 2 1
b. 81
c. n 3
a b c d e
4.
e c b a d
d. 3
e.
1
42
5. 5! = 120
11. a. 2
b. 6
6. 720
c. 9
7. 120
8. 5040
d. 3 12. 336
13. P(10, 7) = 604800 14. P(10, 3) = 720 15. P(7, 3) = 210

16. P(7, 1) + P(7, 2) + P(7, 3) + P(7, 4) + P(7, 5) = 3619 17. P(26, 1) + P(26, 2) + P(26, 3) = 16276
18. 2! 3! = 12
19. 64 P(6, 4) = 576
22. 2 P(26, 4) + P(26, 5)

26. a. 17!
23. 2 3! + 3 3! = 30
b. 3! 4! 6! 7! = 522547200
20. a. 120
b. 4 P(6, 3) = 480
24. P(7, 4) 24
27. 6! 5! 2! = 480
21. 4 5! = 480
25. 5! 2! = 240
28. (2! 3! 5!) + (3! 3! 4!) = 2304

493
9!
=1260
3! 4! 2!
20!
35.
9! 2! 2! 2! 2! 2!
29.
41. 3! 5! = 720
47.
37. 126
c. 24
32.
44. 2! 4! 4! = 1152
48. 12 49. 360 50. 4 51.
EXERCISES
b. 71
36. 60
42. 23! 43. 4! 5! = 2880
8!
=140
3! 4! 2!
1. a. 6
13!
33. 540 34. 50
= 60060
3! 4! 6!
8! 4!
12!
38.
b. 3! 4! 3!
= 168 39. a.
6!
2!
2!
2!
5!
30. 7! = 5040 31. 75599
8! 4!
= 6 8!
2! 2! 2!
45. 5! 3! = 720
46. 6! = 720
52. 21! 222 53. 5 44 = 1280
d. 29 = 512
e. 212 = 4096
2. a. 12 b.
16
7. 60 8. 35 9. 78 10. 45 11. 20 12. 10 13. =1820
4

n2
6
c. n2 n
3. a. 6
48
14. = 69668534468
12
b. 9
7 3 4 3 4 3 4
23. or + + = 21
5 1 4 2 3 3 2
7 5 7 5 7
b. + + = 246
5 2 6 1 7
19
39. a. = 3876
15
5
43. P(5,3) = 600
3
5 5 5 5
26. + + + = 26
3 2 1 0
8 7
30. + + 3 = 94
3 3
2010
35.
= 678072034710
4
35
b. = 3247943160
15
7
44. 4!= 504
5
494
6
40. 4 41. 4! = 360
4
48. 65 4! 25 = 5971968
6. 10
12 10 9
21.
5 4 2
9 3 4
27. 21 28. a. 29 b. = 79
3 3 3
29 37
37. = 7843173975
5 5
5 6
45. a. 8!
4 4
5. 64
5 7
25. a. = 350
3 4
26
31. 45045 32. 600 33. = 14950
4
49
36. = 1906884
5
3 6 5 18
47. = 146880
1 1 1 3
51. 15
8 5
24. = 65
4 4
c. 9
40
15. = 91390
4
5 5
3 3 3
12 8
11
16. = 330 17. + + = 9 18. = 27720 19. 45 20. 3! = 600
2 2
2 1 1
8 3
4
7 4
29. = 126
2 2
54. 2 18!
6 .3
4. {(k, l, m), (k, l, n), (k, l, r), (k, m, n), (k, m, r), (k, n, r), (l, m, n), (l, n, r), (l, m, r), (m, n, r)}
7
22. = 21
2
40. 4! = 24
21
34. = 1330
3
19
38. = 75582
11
42. P(6, 4) = 360
5
b. P(5, 4) P(6, 4) 2! = 86400 46. 34 = 810
2
12
49. 5! = 110880
6
7 7
50. + = 56
3 2
9
52. 3! 2! = 1008
3
EXERCISES
6 .4
1. a. 243x5 + 2025x4 + 6750x3 + 11250x2 + 9375x + 3125
b. 16x8 160x6 + 600x4 1000x2 + 625
c. 1024x15 3840x12y2 + 5760x9y4 4320x6y6 + 1620x3y8 243y10

15
5. (3x)4
11
b. 515
4. a. 625
EXERCISES
1.
1
2
2.
2
9
3.
1
63
4.
1
4
5.
13.
3
4
1
60
6.
13
28
14.
7.
3
7
210 90

1 3 = 9968
c.
133653
300
4 5 4 4 5 4 4
+ +
1 1 1 1 2 1 2 = 72
21.
143
13

3
99
1
=
100 50
5

4 = 65
29. 1
11 66

4
8
11
8.
9. 3360
1
1
=
42 111930

4
4

4
15. 1
12

4
90

4
5162
d. =
300
668265
10

3
67
22. 1 =
15
91

3
15 5 15 5 15 5 15 5 15
+ + + +
6 4 7 3 8 2 9 1 10
25.
20

10
28.
8. 59
7. 240
10. 252
6 .5
32 168

1 3 = 12419456
12.
32342475
200
210 90

2 2 11837
=
b.
44551
300
8
6. (3x4 )3 ( y3 )5
5
3. 600x2y2
2. 243
18.
31. 1
5! 4!
9!
10. 150
11.
1
88 6
19.
7
18
7

3
7
20. =
10 24

3
7 4

3 2
3
24. =
8
5
10

4 3
5 5 5 5
3 +
3 1 1 1 = 31
27.
91
15

3
64
77
=
9 9 81

2 2
1
63
210
4 = 532
17. a.
300 2235
3
7
7

3
1
23. 1 =
8
2

4
10
6! 2!
1
5
=
26.
11
12
7!
7
6 4
2
16
4
=
30.
33
12

4
16.
9.
32.
50
1
=
100 99
495
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A
D
E
B
D
B
D
A
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
E
B
B
A
C
A
A
D
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
C
E
C
D
A
E
C
A
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
E
D
C
D
496
TEST
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
C
E
C
C
B
C
D
C
3C
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
A
A
E
B
C
E
E
B
TEST
C
E
E
C
A
C
B
C
4A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
D
A
E
D
B
A
D
C
TEST
B
C
C
C
B
A
A
E
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A
E
E
C
E
C
E
B
TEST
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
A
E
C
C
E
B
E
A
3D
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
E
B
A
D
D
C
B
A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
B
D
C
D
A
C
E
D
TEST
C
C
E
E
B
D
D
B
6A
5.
6.
7.
8.
E
A
B
E
E
E
A
E
TEST
4B
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
B
C
A
E
E
E
D
A
TEST
B
A
B
E
9.
10.
11.
12.
D
A
C
E
13.
14.
15.
16.
D
A
B
C
1.
2.
3.
4.
A
A
E
C
3A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
TEST
E
C
C
D
A
B
D
C
3E
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
D
B
D
B
C
D
D
E
TEST
B
C
A
A
D
E
B
C
5A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
3B
3F
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
B
D
C
D
E
A
C
A
TEST
E
B
E
C
A
D
C
D
D
B
C
E
B
C
A
5B
B
C
C
D
B
A
D
E
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
E
D
B
A
E
D
E
A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
C
D
B
E
B
A
E
B
A
D
C
A
9.
10.
11.
12.
E
B
D
D
13.
14.
15.
16.
E
B
D
E
6B
5.
6.
7.
8.
497
498
499
500

Algebra Class 10 (Zambak)

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y

A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that maps

A. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION

When the index of a radical expression is odd,

When the index of a radical expression is even,

range of y = x are the set \ {0}.

As we can see in the graph opposite, since the

The solution is left as an exercise for you.

Find the domain and range of the function f ( x) = x2 +5 x +6.

The radicand is non-negative in the intervals (, 3] and [2, +).

The image set I of a

d. f(x) = 2x x2, x [0, 3]

So the image set of f on this interval is

b. The figure shows the graph of the function

the graph on the interval x [1, 2].

Its maximum value on this interval is

c. The figure shows the graph of

d. The solid line in the figure shows the graph

So the image set of the function on this

So the image set of f on this interval is

Find the range of each function for its largest domain.

a. Let us define g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5 and plot

As we can see, the function is positive over

0 f(x) 3. So the range of f is [0, 3].

Find the domain of f ( x) = | x 1| | x + 2|.

The radicand |x 1| |x + 2| must be non-negative, i.e.

We have the radicands 12 x2 and 3 12 x2 , and both of them must be non-negative:

Let us solve each quadratic inequality by constructing its sign table:

The domain of the combined function f ( x) = 3 12 x2 is the intersection of these

The function g(f(x)) is called the composite of g with f.

Given f(x) = x2, g(x) = sin x and h(x) = 2x + 5, find

a. f(g(x)) = f(sin x) = sin2 x

Write each function as a composite function.

To find the inverse of a given function y = f(x)

For example, let us find the inverse of the

Finally, express the inverse function in terms

of the variable x: f 1( x) = x +1.

Let us recall the inverse of some common types of function:

Look at some more examples of inverse functions:

f: {1} {2}, f(x) =

f 1: {2} {1}, f 1(x) =

Find the inverse of the function f : [2, ) [0, ), f (x) = x2 4x + 4.

f 1: [0, ) [2, ), f 1(x) = x + 2.

D. CONSTANT, INCREASING AND DECREASING

f(x) is constant on I = [AB]

2. If f(x1) < f(x2) for all x1, x2 I then f is called

x1 < x2 f(x1) < f(x2).

f(x) increases on I = [AB]

3. If f(x1) > f(x2) for all x1, x2 I then f is called

f(x) decreases on I = [AB]

Given that f(x) = (5 a)x2 + (b + 2)x 3 is a constant function, find a and b.

In both cases f is decreasing, so f is a decreasing function on \ {0}.

Find the interval(s) on which each function decreases and/or increases.

b. f decreases on the interval ( ,

c. f increases on the interval (, 0).

f decreases on the interval (0, +).

Find the value a + b if f ( x) =

Since f is constant, we can write f ( x) =

By the equality of polynomials, we can write

Solution Since f is an identity function, f(x) = x. So

By the equality of polynomials, a 1 = 2 and b + 5 = 1. So a = 3 and b = 4.

2. f(x) = (m 2)x + n + 5 is an identity function. Find m + n.

3. Decide whether each function increases or decreases on the given interval.

E. EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS