Abstract

Keywords
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Symbols
Acronyms
Statement of Original Authorship
Acknowledgement

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

Background to the study

Research problem
Research aims and objectives
Research method

2
3
4
4

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
2.2 The history of earthquakes in South Africa
2.3 Seismic History of the southwestern Cape Province
2.4 Non-linear Static Push-over Analysis
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION

5
6
6
8
8

Chapter 1.

Introduction

1.1 Background to the study

Besides wood, masonry is the most important construction material
in the history of mankind. Masonry has been used, in a wide variety
of forms, as a basic construction material for public and residential
buildings in the past several thousand years: from the Tower of
Babylon, to the Great Wall of China, which is the only man-made
structure visible from the Moon.
Other materials, which developed in modern times, such as concrete
bricks, have replaced the traditional clay brick in the case of multistorey building construction and housing construction in the
developed part of the world. Concrete masonry has evolved into a
functional building material that gives designers the artistic
flexibility to create single and multi-family residences, office
buildings, warehouses, municipal buildings, manufacturing facilities,
learning institutions, hospitals and much more. It is now the
worldwide preference in terms of all masonry requirements.
In recent years, many devastating earthquakes have occurred all
over the world and have caused serious damage, especially in
developing areas. Most damaged houses are commonly conceived
by the owners without following any engineering design principles
and are constructed without following code-recommended practice.
As a result, most unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings fall well
short on the yardstick of modern seismic design requirements.
The southwestern cape can be considered as one of the regions with
the highest level of seismic activity of tectonic origin in South Africa
[1]. On 29 September 1969, the Tulbagh-Ceres area, located about

90 km N-E from Cape Town where the strongest and most damaging
earthquake known in the history of South Africa, was worse affected.
This earthquake measured 6.3 on the Richter scale and was followed
by a long sequence of aftershocks. The small farming communities
of Ceres, Wolseley and Tulbagh, which are located near the
epicentre of the quake suffered extreme damage such as severe
cracking which occurred at wall intersections and in many cases the
external corners collapsed completely; end walls parted from the
return walls and collapsed outwards [2].
Based on the abovementioned findings, it is essential to grasp
actual collapsing procedures when attempting to develop seismic
designs. Most studies on this issue are based on site surveys of
damaged houses after earthquakes; however, dynamic procedures
of collapsing are yet to be clearly identified. In view of the situation
surrounding earthquake disasters and damage mitigation studies,
the research presented in this thesis aims to undertake dynamic
tests on a 3-storey concrete masonry structure built to a usual
design specification, on a shaking table.

1.2 Research problem

Literature studies reveals that although masonry research started
about 40 years ago, it is still considered to have a very limited
number of research activities and publications, compared to other
civil- structural engineering research areas. Also, there have been
very little investigations and publications on masonry, in South
Africa.
One of the least studied issues in the (URM) buildings is out-ofplane-instability of walls, which is one of the most common failure
modes when subjected to loads caused by earthquakes or high wind
pressure.

Therefore, the research presented in this thesis aims to undertake a

comprehensive study on the observed effects of earthquakes on
masonry buildings and obtain reliable information regarding the
global seismic behaviour and failure mechanism [3].

1.3 Research aims and objectives

The research significance of this thesis lies in addressing the
problem of efficient and safe design of masonry structures,
especially in the Milnerton area. It aims to obtain the performance
characteristics of a concrete masonry three-storey structure with
one room in each floor. The following objectives will be used to
achieve the research aim:

Determination of damage patterns,

Failure mechanisms, and
Retrofit existing URM structures.

1.4 Research method

An idealized model that represents essential features of a 3-storey
masonry building was constructed on the earthquake simulator
(shaking table) of the Structural engineering laboratory at the
University of Stellenbosch in Cape Town South Africa. Although there
was no prototype building for the model, it possessed characteristics
of a typical, low-rise URM building.

Chapter 2.

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
The following article was published on the Stormchasing website
on 5 March 2013:

4 DECEMBER 1809 MILNERTON EARTHQUAKE

On 4 December 1809 residents of Cape Town were witness to a rare powerful earthquake in the Western Cape, according to reports the 1809 Cape
Town earthquake which occurred beneath what is now Milnerton, took place in the latter period of the night at around 10pm. Hardest hit was the
Jan Biesjes Kraal farm house which was destroyed in the earthquake. Reports from the area also state that water was seen gushing from cracks
within the ground created by the quake. It is said that many of the residents congregated in the streets directly after the quake, unsure of what was
happening. Historians report that many community members at the time thought that the1809 earthquake was in fact an explosion, though this
thought would be debunked when they saw the damage in the ground. Damage was widespread around the Cape Town area with numerous houses
having cracks in their structures, though there was only a single report of any structural collapse, outside of the Jan Biesjes Kraal farm.
The 1809 Cape Town earthquake was not subject to foreshocks, but aftershocks continued for several years after the main earthquake. There were a
series of three aftershocks during the same month, December 1809 and then another couple of weaker aftershocks occurring in June 1811. While
there were no modern instruments at the time to get an accurate reading on the magnitude of the earthquake, estimates based on the damage caused
and the reports from the community members suggests that the earthquake could have been anywhere between an 5.8 and a 6.3 on the Richter
scale.

The writer could not verify the authenticity of this article. However,
mention is made of this earthquake in table 1.

Since 1976 and based on the writers experience, no seismic

guidelines was provided on three storey masonry structures in the
code of practice. As a rule of thumb, the local municipalities
accepted the following regarding three storey masonry buildings:

The walls from ground to first floor need to be built in 1.5 brick

walls and from first to roof, one brick walls, or

The structure from ground to first floor had to be a fully
framed reinforced concrete structure and the remainder to
roof level should be one brick walls.

Due to the fact that thumb rules were used, the writer was never
at ease with this principle. Structural engineers took it for granted
that the code of practice was not clear on this issue. Of special
concern to the writer was the design philosophy for three storey
buildings used by the precast slab manufacturers. Most of these
prototype buildings are built in the Milnerton Areas and some of the
typical characteristics are:
5

The use of maxi bricks (220 x 90 x 90) built with a 50mm

cavity between the two skins.

Precast slabs with no connection between the walls and the
slabs.

2.2 The history of earthquakes in South Africa

Generally, and as stated by the Council for the Geosciences (2010),
the knowledge of early earthquakes in South Africa is based, as in
other parts of the world, on macroseismic phenomena observed by
different people and reported by old chronicles, local papers,
travelling reports and scientific communications and it can thus be
stated that seismic histories are traditionally compiled from three
main sources of information as follows:

Instrumental
Historical and
Geological

2.3 Seismic History of the southwestern Cape

Province
Theron, J.H (1974) indicates in table 1 below, earth tremors that
have been recorded from the southwestern Cape since 1620. From
the statistics in the table, it can be seen that the area experienced
43 shocks of which ten exceeded 4.5 in magnitude and four
exceeded 5.1. The most damaging and strongest earthquake in the
history of South Africa took place on 29 September 1969 in the
Tulbagh area, which is located about 90 km N-E from Cape Town.
Other severe earthquakes took place on 4 December 1809 and 2
June 1811.

SOUTHWESTERN CAPE PROVINCE EARTHQUAKES: 1800 TO 1971

DATE

EFFECTS

INTENSI

MAG

TY

4-12 Dec 1809

26 Dec 1810
7 Jan 1811
2 Jun 1811
19 Jun 1811
24 Jun 1819
14 Apr 1826
Early in 1826
11 Nov 1835
14 Aug 1857
28 May 1902
6 Jul 1911
20 Feb 1912
13 Aug 1920
4 Dec 1920
19 Feb 1921
9 Oct 1921
1924
11-13 Aug 1926
18 Nov 1932
19 Aug 1937
1940?
23 Oct 1941
24 Aug 1944
27 Feb 1947

Three strong quakes, second most

violent on 4th. Another 4 tremors from
5th to 12th, some strong
Genadendal
Not given
Two loud shocks. Location not given
Not given
Piketberg
Not given
Saldanha Bay
Not given
Cape Town
Not given
Oudtshoorn
Koffiefontein. Felt all over South Africa.
Not given
Cape Town, George, Port Elizabeth.
Vanrhynsdorp
Tulbagh
Slight tremble only felt locally

14 Apr 1970
15 Apr 1970 to 19

Series of tremors at Darling

Cape Town
Darling
Wolseley
West of Bitterfontein
Beaufort West
Two very noticeable earth tremors felt at
Cape Columbine and Paternoster.
Cape Town
Swellendam
Cape Town
Cape Town
Boland & Cape Town
Western Cape
Karoopoort-Ceres
Peninsula
Oudtshoorn
Peninsula
Western Cape
Western Cape
Tulbagh
Sea Point
Tulbagh/Ceres area 10 tremors were felt
on 4 Mar 1970; at Ceres at 01:00 a
reading of 4 Richter Scale.
Ceres/Tulbagh. Western Cape
According to newspapers very few

Sep 1971
19 Sep 1971
28 Sep 1971

tremors of great magnitude.

Ceres-Tulbagh-Porterville
Southwestern Cape Province

19 Nov 1950
26 Feb 1952
20 Sep 1957
30 Sep 1957
29 Aug 1960
27 Aug 1963
18 Sep 1963
21 Feb 1964
28 Sep 1965
1 Mar 1966
12 Sep 1969
29 Sep 1969
1 Oct 1969
6 Oct 1969
7 Oct 1969 to 13 Apr
1970

VI-VIII

6.1

III
II-III
VII
V
III
III
VI?
V
IV
IV-V
III-IV
VIII
IV
IV
V
VI
III

3.5-4
3.8
5.5-6
4.8
4
4
5?
4.8
4.5
4.8
4
6
4.5
6.2
4.8
5.0
4

III-IV?
VI
IV
IV
V
II-III
V

4?
5?
4.5
4.5
4.8
3
4.8

III
III
III
III
IV-V
VI
IV-V
IV
IV
IV
IV-V
VIII-IX
III?
III?
III-IV

4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.3-4.8
5.0
4.3-4.8
4.3
4.3
4.3
5.4
6.3
4.2
4.2
4.2

VII

5.7

IV
IV-V

4
4.8

TABLE 1: Reproduced

Source: Geological Survey of South Africa, Seismology Unit.

Theron, J.H., 1974, The earthquake of 29 September 1969 in the southwestern Cape
Province, South Africa. Seismologic Series 4, Geological Survey, p. 12-18.
Fernandez, L.M., & Guzman, J.A., 1979, Seismic history of Southern Africa. Seismologic
Series 9, Geological Survey, 38 pp.

2.4 Non-linear Static Push-over Analysis

2.4.1 Introduction
Nonlinear static analysis, or pushover analysis, has been developed
over the past twenty years and has become the preferred analysis
procedure for design and seismic performance evaluation purposes
as the procedure is relatively simple and considers post-elastic
behaviour. A brief review of previous studies on the application of
the pushover analysis of structures is presented in this section and
will focus on recent contributions related to pushover analysis of
structures and past efforts most closely related to the needs of the
present work.