Rock masses

In this chapter, we will concentrate on extending the ideas discussed in

the previous chapter on discontinuities to provide a predictive model for
the deformability and strength of rock masses. In Chapter 12, we will
be discussing rock mass classification (which is a method of combining
selected geometrical and mechanical parameters) to semiquantitatively provide an overall characterization, mainly for assessing
excavation support requirements.
Deformability
Consider first, as an initial step in the overall development of a
deformability model, the deformation of a set of parallel discontinuities
under the action of a normal stress, assuming linear elastic
discontinuity stiffnesses. This circumstance is illustrated in Fig. 8.1. To
calculate the overall modulus of deformation, the applied stress is
divided by the total deformation. We will assume that the thickness of
the discontinuities is negligible in comparison to the overall length
under consideration, L. Additionally, we will assume that the
deformation is made up of two components: one due to deformation of
the intact rock; the other due to the deformability of the discontinuities.
The contribution made by the intact rock to the deformation, 61, is oL/E
(i.e. strain multiplied by length). The contribution made by a single
discontinuity to the deformation, &, is o/ED (remembering that ED
relates stress to displacement directly). Assuming a discontinuity
frequency of A, there will be AL discontinuities in the rock mass and the
total contribution made by these to the deformation will be L& which is
equal to oAL/ED. Hence, the total displacement, &, is
()
with the overall strain being gven by
()
Finally, the overall modulus, EMASS, is given by
()
A suite of curves illustrating this relation is given in Fig. 8.2 for varying
discontinuity frequencies and stiffnesses. It is simple to extend this
formula for multiple intact rock strata with differing properties,
discontinuity frequencies and discontinuity stiffnesses, and hence
model stratified rock with discontinuities parallel to the bedding planes.

The case illustrated via the mathematics above and shown in Fig. 8.2
only involves loading parallel to the discontinuity normals. Clearly, even
in these idealized circumstances, we need to extend the ideas to
loading at any angle and the possibility of any number of non-parallel
sets. An argument similar to that given above can be invoked in the
derivation of shear loading parallel to the discontinuities, as succinctly
described by Goodman (1989), to give
()
The mathematics associated with further extensions to account for
discontinuity geometry rapidly becomes complex. A complete solution
has been provided by Wei (1988), which can incorporate the four
stiffnesses of a discontinuity (normal, shear and the two cross terms),
any number of sets and can approximate the effect of impersistent
discontinuities.
In the stress transformations presented in Chapter 3, the resolution of
the stress components involves only powers of two in the
trigonometrical terms, because theforce is being resolved and the urea
is also being resolved. However, for the calculation of the deformability
modulus, powers of four are necessary because of the additional
resolution of the discontinuity frequency (explained in Chapter 7) and
the displacements. An example equation from Wei's theory, the roots of
which provide the directions of the extreme values of the modulus, is
()
where A, B, C, D, E and F are constants formed by various
combinations of the discontinuity stiffnesses and a is the angle
between the applied stress and one of the global Cartesian axes. The
reader is referred to Wei's work for a complete explanation.
The utility of this type of analysis is illustrated by the polar diagrams in
Fig. 8.3 representing the moduli variations for two discontinuity sets in
two dimensions. (It is emphasized that this figure is one example of a
general theory.) When k is high, as in the left-hand diagram, the lowest
moduli are in a direction at 45" to the discontinuity sets, and the highest
moduli are perpendicular to the sets. Conversely, when k is low, as in
the right-hand diagram, the minimum moduli are in a direction
perpendicular to the sets, and the maximum moduli are at a direction of
45" to the sets. Like the discontinuity frequency, the directions of
maximum and minimum moduli are not perpendicular.
A most interesting case occurs when k = 1, i.e. the normal and shear
stiffnesses are equal, and the modulus is isotropic. The significance of

even this very simple case of rock mass deformability for in situ testing
and numerical modelling is apparent.