CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
A Composite Material is a macroscopic combination of two or more
distinct materials, having a recognizable interface between them . Composites
are used not only for their structural properties, but also for electrical, thermal,
tribological, and environmental applications. It consists of reinforcing stiffer
phase and the matrix phase. The resulting composite material has a balance of
structural properties that is superior to either constituent material alone.
Composites typically have a fiber or particle phase that is stiffer and stronger
than the continuous matrix phase and serve as the principal load carrying
members. The matrix acts as a load transfer medium between fibers, and in less
ideal cases where the loads are complex, the matrix may even have to bear loads
transverse to the fiber axis. The matrix is more ductile than the fibers and thus
acts as a source of composite toughness. The matrix also serves to protect the
fibers from environmental damage before, during and after composite
processing. A hybrid composite is a FRP composite which has more than one
fiber as a reinforcement phase embedded into a single matrix phase.
Hybridization provides the designers with an added degree of freedom in
manufacturing composites to achieve high specific stiffness, high specific
strength, enhanced dimensional stability, energy absorption, increased failure
strain, corrosive resistance as well as reduced cost during fabrication
Composites made of a single reinforcing material system may not be suitable if
it undergoes different loading conditions during the service life. Hybrid
composites may be the best solution for such applications.Normally, one of the
fibers in a hybrid composite is a high- modulus and high-cost fiber and the other
is usually a low-modulus fiber. The high-modulus fiber provides the stiffness
and load bearing qualities, whereas the low-modulus fiber makes the composite
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more damage tolerant and keeps the material cost low. The mechanical
properties of a hybrid composite can be varied by changing volume ratio and
stacking sequence of different plies. High-modulus fibers are widely used in
many aerospace applications because of their high specific modulus. However,
the impact strength of composites made of such high-modulus fibers is
generally lower than conventional steel alloys or glass reinforced composites.
An effective method of improving the impact properties of high-modulus fiber
composites is to add some percentage of low-modulus fibers. Most composite
materials experience time varying internal disturbance of moisture and
temperature during their service life time which can cause swelling and
plasticization of the resin, distortion of laminate, deterioration of fiber/resin
bond etc. Because of the high performance laminates and composites especially
in aerospace, the effect of moisture/temperature environment has become an
important aspect of composite material behavior. In this project work the
behavior of sisal and banana hybrid composites with epoxy resin was described.

1.1 WHY WE HAVE TAKEN THIS WORK?

The basic reason for working on such a topic arises from the fact that
composites are vulnerable to environmental degradation. A moist environment,
coupled with high or low temperature conditions is extremely detrimental for
composites. There have been several efforts made by researchers in the last few
years to establish the much needed correlation between the mechanical
properties of the material and the moist environment or similar hydrothermal
conditions, subjected to thermal shocks, spikes, ambient & sub ambient
temperatures. But most research has been on the mechanical aspects rather than
the physical & chemical interface and how this brings in change in the internal
mechanical properties and affects a variety of other morphological changes.
The focus of our research has been to understand the physical changes
that take place at the bonding interface between the fibers and the matrix, as it is
of prime importance due to its link to the stress transfer, distribution of load, and
it also governs the damage accumulation & propagation. This has wide
significance in aerospace applications, because the aircraft components are
exposed to harsh moist environment.
Hence our project work aims at the mechanical characterization of the
sisal and banana fiber reinforced hybrid composites.

1.2 COMPOSITE MATERIAL

A composite material is defined as a material system which consists of
two or more distinctly differing materials which are insoluble in each other and
differ in chemical composition.
The ancient Egyptians manufactured composites. Wattle and daub is one
of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old.

Examples:
Wood is a good example of a natural composite, combination of
cellulose fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength and
the lignin is the "glue" that bonds and stabilizes the fiber.
Adobe bricks are a good example for ancient composite. The
combination of mud and straw forms a composite that is stronger
than either the mud or the straw by itself.
Concrete reinforced with steel rebar.

1.3 PHASES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

Composites are combinations of two phases.
Matrix phase.
Reinforcement phase.

Fig 1.1 Phases of composite materials

a)MATRIX PHASE:
It is primary phase, having continuous character.
It holds the reinforcement phase.
More ductile.
Less hard.

Examples:
Polymers.
Metals.
Ceramics.

b)REINFORCEMENT PHASE:
It also called dispersed phase.
Stronger than matrix phase.
Examples:
Fibers.
Particles.
Flakes.

1.4 PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES:

Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in Weight,
so

ratios of strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight are several

times greater than steel or aluminum.

Fatigue properties are generally better than for common
engineering metals.
Toughness is often greater than most of the metals.
Composites can be designed that do not corrode like steel.
Possible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with
metals, ceramics, or polymers alone.

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

 Stronger and stiffer than metals on a density basis for the same
strength, lighter than steel by 80% and aluminum by 60%. Hence
Superior stiffness-to-weight ratios.
Essentially inert in most corrosive environments. Benefits include
lower maintenance and replacement costs.
It can be compounded to closely match surrounding structures to
minimize thermal stresses.
Composites can be formed into many complex shapes during
fabrication, even providing finished, styled surfaces in the process.
The inherent characteristics of composites typically allow
production to be established for a small fraction of the cost that
would be required in metallic fabrication.
Good dimensional stability (extremely low coefficient of thermal
expansion).

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES:

1.6.1 BASED ON MATRIX MATERIAL:
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
a) Metal matrix composites (MMC):
The matrix in these composites is a ductile material. These composites can
be used at higher service temperature than their base metal counter parts. This
reinforcement in these materials may improve specific stuffiness, specific
strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance and dimensional stability. The
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MMCs is light in weight and resist wear and thermal distortion, so it mainly
used in automobile industry. Metal matrix composites are much more
expensive those PMCs and therefore, their use are somewhat restricted.

b) Ceramic-matrix composites (CMC):

One of the main objectives in producing CMCs is to increase the
toughness. Ceramics materials are inherent resistants to oxidation and
deterioration at elevated temperature; were it not for their disposition to brittle
Fracture, some of these materials would be idea candidates for use in higher
temperature and serve-stress applications, specifically for components in
automobile an air craft gas turbine engines. The developments of CMCs has
aged behind mostly for remain reason, most processing route involve higher
temperature and only employed with high temperature reinforcements.
c) Polymer matrix composites (PMC):
The most common matrix materials for composites are polymeric.
Polyester and vinyl esters are the most widely used and least expensive polymer
resins. These matrix materials are basically used for fiber glass reinforced
composites. For mutations of a large number resin provide a wide range of
properties for these materials. The epoxies are more expensive and in addition
to wide range of ranging commercials applications, also find use in PMCs for
aerospace applications. The main disadvantages of PMCs are their low
maximum working temperature high coefficients of thermal expansion and
hence dimensional instability and sensitivity to radiation and moisture. The
strength and stuffiness are low compared with metals and ceramics.

1.6.2 BASED ON MATERIAL STRUCTURE:

Particulate reinforcement composites (PRC)
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 Fiber reinforcement composites (FRC)

Laminar composites (LC)

a) Particulate reinforcement composites (PRC)

Particulate reinforcements have dimensions that are approximately equal
in all directions. The shape of the reinforcing particles may be spherical, cubic,
platelet or any regular or irregular geometry. These composites can be classified
as two sub groups: i) Large particle composites ii) Dispersion strengthened
composites.
b) Fiber reinforcement composites (FRC)
Fibers are the important class of reinforcement, as they satisfy the desired
conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and
enhancing their properties as desired. Fibers fall short of ideal performance due
to several factors. The performance of fiber composites is judged by its length,
shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties
of the matrix.
c) Laminar composites (LC)
Laminar composites are composed of layers of materials held together by
matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category.

1.7 HYBRID COMPOSITES:

Hybrid composites are those composites which have a combination of
two or more reinforcement fibers. The most common hybrid composites are
carbon-aramid reinforced epoxy (which combines strength and impact
resistances) and glass-carbon reinforced epoxy (which gives a strong material at
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a reasonable price). Hybrid composites are usually used when a combination of

properties of different types of fiber wants to be achieved, or when longitudinal
as well as lateral mechanical performances are required.
Hybrid composites are more advanced composites as compared to
conventional FRP composites. Hybrids can have more than one reinforcing
phase and a single matrix phase or single reinforcing phase with multiple matrix
phases or multiple reinforcing and multiple matrix phases. They have better
flexibility as compared to other fiber reinforced composites. Normally it
contains a high modulus fiber with low modulus fiber.The high-modulus fiber
provides the stiffness and load bearing qualities, whereas the low-modulus fiber
makes the composite more damage tolerant and keeps the material cost low. The
mechanical properties of a hybrid composite can be varied by changing volume
ratio and stacking sequence of different plies.

1.7.1 ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID COMPOSITES

They offer better flexibility in the selection of fiber and matrix materials,
which helps in better tailoring of the mechanical properties. For example
the modulus, strength,fatigue performance etc of glass reinforced
composites can be enhanced by inclusion of carbon fibers.
Better wear resistance
Low thermal expansion coefficient
Combination of high tensile strength and high failure strain
Better impact and flexural properties
Reduced overall cost of the composite
Low notch sensitivity
Non catastrophic

1.7.2 TYPES OF HYBRID COMPOSITE

There are several types of hybrid composites characterized as:
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 Interply or tow-by-tow, in which tows of the two or more constituent

types of fiber are mixed in a regular or random manner;
Sandwich hybrids, also known as cor-shell, in which one material is
sandwiched between two layers of another;
Interply or laminated, where alternate layers of the two (ormore)
materials are stacked in a regular manner;
Intimately mixed hybrids, where the constituent fibers are made to mix as
randomly as possible so that no over-concentration of any one type is
present in the material; other kinds, such as those reinforced with ribs,
pultruded wires, thin veils of fiber or combinations of the above.

1.7.3 APPLICATION OF HYBRIDS

Helicopter rotor blades and drive shafts.
Ailerons and floor panels of aircrafts.
In automobile sector they are used in transmission units, chassis
members,Suspensions, and structural body parts of cars and lorries.
CFRP/ARP hybrids are used for making bicycle frames.
In sports industries Tennis racquets, fishing rods, skis, golf club shafts,
yacht hulls,Hockey sticks and paddles
In medical world they are used for making orthoses.

1.7.3 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES

Fiber-reinforced polymer composites have played a dominant role for a
long time in a variety of applications for their high specific strength and
modulus. The manufacture, use and removal of traditional fiberreinforced
plastic, usually made of glass, carbon or aramid fibersreinforced thermoplastic
and thermoset resins are considered critically because of environmental
problems. By natural fiber composites we mean a composite material that is
reinforced with fibers, particles or platelets from natural or renewable resources,
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in contrast to for example carbon or aramide fibers that have to be synthesized.

Natural fibers include those made from plant, animal and mineral sources.
Natural fibers can be classified according to their origin. The detailed
classification.
Animal Fibers
Animal hair

Mineral Fibers
Asbestos

Plant Fibers
Seed fiber

Silk fiber

Ceramic fibers

Leaf fiber

Avian fiber

Metal fibers

Skin fiber
Fruit fiber
Stalk fiber

Table 1.1 Classification of natural fibers

Animal Fiber:
Animal fiber generally comprise proteins; examples mohair, wool, silk,
alpaca, angora. Animal hair (wool or hair) are the fibers taken from animals or
hairy mammals. E.g. Sheeps wool, goat hair (cashmere, mohair), alpaca hair,
horse hair, etc. Silk fiber are the fibers collected from dried saliva of bugs or
insects during the preparation of cocoons. Examples include silk from silk
worms. Avian fiber are the fibers from birds, e.g. feathers and feather fiber.
Mineral fiber:
Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or slightly modified fiber
procured from minerals. These can be categorized into the following categories:
Asbestos is the only naturally occurring mineral fiber. Variations are serpentine
and amphiboles, anthophyllite. Ceramic fibers includes glass fibers (Glass wood
and Quartz), aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, and boron carbide. Metal fibers
includes aluminium fibers
Plant fiber:
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Plant fibers are generally comprised mainly of cellulose: examples

include cotton, jute, flax, ramie, sisal and hemp. Cellulose fibers serve in the
manufacture of paper and cloth. This fiber can be further categorizes into
following as : Seed fiber are the fibers collected from the seed and seed case
e.g. cotton and kapok. Leaf fibe are the fibers collected from the leaves e.g. sisal
and agave. Skin fiber are the fibers are collected from the skin or bast
surrounding the stem of their respective plant. These fibers have higher tensile
strength than other fibers. Therefore, these fibers are used for durable yarn,
fabric, packaging, and paper. Some examples are flax, jute, banana, hemp, and
soybean. Fruit fiber are the fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g.
coconut (coir) fiber. Stalk fiber are the fibers are actually the stalks of the plant.
E.g. straws of wheat, rice, barley, and other crops including bamboo and grass.
Tree wood is also such a fiber. Natural fiber composites are by no means new to
mankind. Already the ancient Egyptians used clay that was reinforced by straw
to build walls. In the beginning of the 20th century wood- or cotton fiber
reinforced phenol- or melamine formaldehyde resins were fabricated and used
in electrical applications for their non-conductive and heat-resistant properties.
At present day natural fiber composites are mainly found in automotive and
building industry and then mostly in applications where load bearing capacity
and dimensional stability under moist and high thermal conditions are of second
order importance. For example, flax fiber reinforced polyolefins are extensively
used today in the automotive industry, but the fiber acts mainly as filler material
in non-structural interior panels Natural fiber composites used for structural
purposes do exist, but then usually with synthetic thermoset matrices which of
course limit the environmental benefits.
The natural fiber composites can be very cost effective material for
following applications:
Building and construction industry: panels for partition and false ceiling,
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partition boards, wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile
or pre-fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural
calamities such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc.
Storage devices: post-boxes, grain storage silos, bio-gas containers, etc.
Furniture: chair, table, shower, bath units, etc.
Electric devices: electrical appliances, pipes, etc.
Everyday applications: lampshades, suitcases, helmets, etc.
Transportation: automobile and railway coach interior, boat, etc.
Natural fibers are generally lignocellulosic in nature, consisting of
helically wound cellulose micro fibrils in a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose.
According to a Food and Agricultural Organization survey, Tanzania and Brazil
produce the largest amount of sisal. Henequen is grown in Mexico. Abaca and
hemp are grown in the Philippines. The largest producers of jute are India,
China, and Bangladesh. Presently, the annual production of natural fibers in
India is about 6 million tons as compared to worldwide production of about 25
million tons. The detail information of fibers and the countries of origin are
presented in table 1.2
FIBERS
Flax
Hemp
Sun

COUNTRIES
Borneo
Yugoslavia, china
Nigeria, Guyana, Siera Leone, India

hemp
Ramie
Jute

Hondurus, Mauritius
India, Egypt, Guyana, Jamaica, Ghana, Malawi, Sudan, Tanzania

Kneaf

Iraq, Tanzania, Jamaica, South Africa, Cuba, Togo

Sisal

East Africa, Bahamas, Antiqua, Kenya,

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Banana

India

Table.1.2 Fibers and countries of origin

Natural fibres such as jute, sisal, pineapple, abaca and coir have been
studied as a reinforcement and filler in composites. Growing attention is
nowadays being paid to sisal and banana fiber due to its availability and its
enhanced properties . Hence, research and development efforts have been
underway to find new use areas for sisal and banana, including utilization of
sisal and banana as reinforcement in polymer composites . Although there are
several reports in the literature which discuss the mechanical behavior of natural
fiber reinforced polymer composites. However, very limited work has been
done on mechanical behavior of sisal and banana fiber reinforced epoxy
composites. Against this background, the present research work has been
undertaken, with an objective to explore the potential of sisal ans banana fiber
as a reinforcing material in hybrid composites and to investigate its effect on the
mechanical behavior of the resulting composites. The present work thus aims to
develop this new class of natural fiber based hybrid composites and to analyze
their mechanical behavior by experimentation.

1.9 SYNTHETIC FIBRE COMPOSITES

Man-made fibres may come from natural raw materials or synthetic
chemicals. Many types of fibres are manufactured from natural cellulose,
including rayon; modal and the more recently developed Lyocell. Cellulose
based fibres are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the
cupro-ammonium process and modified cellulose such as cellulose acetates.
Examples
Glass fibres
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 Carbon fibres
Aramid fibres
The most common types of fibers used in advanced composites for
structural applications are the fiberglass, aramid, and carbon. The fiberglass is
the least expensive and carbon being the most expensive. The cost of aramid
fibers is about the same as the lower grades of the carbon fiber. Other highstrength high-modulus fibers such as boron are at the present time considered to
be economically prohibitive.
Carbon Fibers
The graphite or carbon fiber is made from three types of polymer
precursors polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fiber, rayon fiber, and pitch. The tensile
stress-strain curve is linear to the point of rupture. Although there are many
carbon fibers available on the open market, they can be arbitrarily divided into
three grades as shown in Table 3.

They have lower thermal expansion

coefficients than both the glass and aramid fibers. The carbon fiber is an
anisotropic material, and its transverse modulus are an order of magnitude less
than its longitudinal modulus. The material has a very high fatigue and creep
resistance.
Since its tensile strength decreases with increasing modulus, its strain at
rupture will also be much lower. Because of the material brittleness at higher
modulus, it becomes critical in joint and connection details, which can have
high stress concentrations. As a result of this phenomenon, carbon composite
laminates are more effective with adhesive bonding that eliminates mechanical
fasteners.
Aramid fibers

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These are synthetic organic fibers consisting of aromatic polyamides.

The aramid fibers have excellent fatigue and creep resistance. Although there
are several commercial grades of aramid fibers available, the two most common
ones used in structural applications are Kevlar7 29 and Kevlar7 49. The Youngs
Modulus curve for Kevlar7 29 is linear to a value of 83 GPa but then becomes
slightly concave upward to a value of 100 GPa at rupture; whereas, for Kevlar7
49 the curve is linear to a value of 124 GPa at rupture. As an anisotropic
material, its transverse and shear modulus are an order of magnitude less than
those in the longitudinal direction. The fibers can have difficulty achieving a
chemical or mechanical bond with the resin
Glass Fibers
The glass fibers are divided into three classes , E-glass, S-glass and Cglass. The E-glass is designated for electrical use and the S-glass for high
strength. The C-glass is for high corrosion resistance, and it is uncommon for
civil engineering application.

Of the three fibers, the E-glass is the most

common reinforcement material used in civil structures. It is produced from

lime-alumina-borosilicate which can be easily obtained from abundance of raw
materials like sand. The fibers

are drawn into very fine filaments with

diameters ranging from 2 to1310-6 m. The glass fiber strength and modulus
can degrade with increasing temperature. Although the glass material creeps
under a sustained load, it can be designed to perform satisfactorily. The fiber
itself is regarded as an isotropic material and has a lower thermal expansion
coefficient than that of steel.Among these synthetic fibers, the fiberglass is the
least expensive and carbon being the most expensive. So the glass fiber uses in
most of the applications due its economic factor and its enhanced properties.

1.10 RESIN SYSTEMS

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The resin is another important constituents in composites.

The two

classes of resins are the thermoplastics and thermosets. A thermoplastic resin

remains a solid at room temperature. It melts when heated and solidifies when
cooled. The long-chain polymers do not chemically cross link. Because they
do not cure permanently, they are undesirable for structural application.
Conversely, a thermosetting resin will cure permanently by irreversible cross
linking at elevated temperatures. This characteristic makes the thermoset resin
composites very desirable for structural applications. The most common resins
used in composites are the unsaturated polyesters, epoxies, and vinyl esters; the
least common ones are the polyurethanes and phenolics.
a) Epoxies
The epoxies used in composites are mainly the glycidyl ethers and
amines. The material properties and cure rates can be formulated to meet the
required performance.

Epoxies are generally found in marine, automotive,

electrical and appliance applications. The high viscosity in epoxy resins limits
it use to certain processes such as molding, filament winding, and hand lay-up.
The right curing agent should be carefully selected because it will affect the
type of chemical reaction, pot life and final material properties. Although
epoxies can be expensive, it may be worth the cost when high performance is
required.
b) Vinyl Esters
The vinyl ester resins were developed to take advantage of both the
workability of the epoxy resins and the fast curing of the polyesters. The vinyl
ester has higher physical properties than polyesters but costs less than epoxies.
The acrylic esters are dissolved in a styrene monomer to produce vinyl ester
resins which are cured with organic peroxides. A composite product containing

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a vinyl ester resin can withstand high toughness demand and offer excellent
corrosion resistance.
c) Polyurethanes
Polyurethanes are produced by combining polyisocyanate and polyol in a
reaction injection molding process or in a reinforced reaction injection molding
process. They are cured into very tough and high corrosion resistance materials
which are found in many high performance paint coatings.
d) Phenolics
The phenolic resins are made from phenols and formaldehyde, and they
are divided into resole and novolac resins. The resoles are prepared under
alkaline conditions with formaldehyde/phenol (F/P) ratios greater than one. On
the contrary, novolacs are prepared under acidic conditions with F/P ratios less
than one. Resoles are cured by applying heat and/or by adding acids. Novolacs
are cured when reacting chemically with methylene groups in the hardener. The
phenolics are rated for good resistance to high temperature, good thermal
stability, and low smoke generation.
e) Polyesters
It is produced by the condensation polymerization of dicarboxylic acids
and dihydric alcohols. The formulation contains an unsaturated material such as
maleic anhydride or fumaric acid which is a part of the dicarboxylic acid
component. The formulation affects the viscosity, reactivity, resiliency and heat
deflection temperature (HDT). The viscosity controls the speed and degree of
wet-out (saturation) of the fibers. The reactivity affects cure time and peak
exotherm (heat generation) temperatures. High exotherm is needed for a thin
section curing at room temperature and low exotherm for a thick section.
Resiliency or flexible grade composites have a higher elongation, lower
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modulus, and HDT. The HDT is a short term thermal property which measures
the thermal sensitivity and stability of the resins.
The advantages cited in the unsaturated polyester are its dimensional
stability and affordable cost.

Other advantages include ease in handling,

processing, and fabricating.

Some of the special formulations are high

corrosion resistant and fire retardants. This resin is probably the best value for a
balance between performance and structural capabilities. From the above
statements, the polyester resin is used in this project work.

1.11 COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Composite production techniques utilize various types of composite raw
materials, including resins, fibers, mats, fabrics, prepergs (prepreg is a resinimpregnated fiber, fabric, or mat in flat form, which is stored for later use in
hand lay-up or molding operations), and molding compounds, for the
fabrication of composite parts. Each manufacturing technique requires different
types of material systems, different processing conditions, and Different tools
for part fabrication. Composites manufacturing processes can be subdivided into
two main manufacturing categories: manufacturing processes for thermoset
composites and manufacturing processes for thermoplastic composites. Interms
of commercial applications, thermo set composite parts dominate the composite
market.
There are three basic manufacturing techniques in producing composite
structural products, with many variations and patented processes:
1. The pultrusion process involves a continuous pulling of the fiber rovings
and mats through a resin bath and then into a heated die. The elevated
temperature inside the die cures the composite matrix into a constant
cross-section structural shape.

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2. The filament winding process can be automated to wrap resin-wetted

fibers around a mandrel to produce circular or polygonal shapes.
3. The layup process engages a hand or machine buildup of mats of fibers
that are held together permanently by a resin system.

This method

enables numerous layers of different fiber orientations to be built up to a

desired sheet thickness and product shape. The hand lay-up method is
simple one, easy to handle and low cost to manufacturing. Due to this
advantages, the hand lay-up method is used.
In terms of commercial applications, more than 75% of all composites are
made of thermoset composites. Their uses predominate in the aerospace,
automotive, marine, boat, sporting goods, and consumer markets.

1.12 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

As mentioned, the big advantages of composite products are that they can
be tailored according to the external loads and that single step manufacturing is
possible. To fully utilize these two properties, product design is an integrated
process involving concepts, materials and manufacturing processes; the trinity
essence, see figure. Due to integrated design, the product can be optimized in
terms of costs, manufacturing time, weight, etc. according to market demand.

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Figure 1.2 Design philosophy

For instance, using this integrated design philosophy, a composite
chassis-less trailer is manufactured with a 30 % weight reduction compared to a
conventional trailer provided with a steel chassis. Due to the lower weight and
an aerodynamic shape, fuel consumption is significantly reduced, has a positive
effect on costs and the environment. An example of cost-reduction can be found
in composite bridges. Although manufacturing of such a bridge is more
expensive than of a traditional bridge out of steel and concrete, the lower weight
saves a lot of money on the costs of the foundation and on transport costs.

1.13 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites materials are made by combining two materials where one of
the materials is reinforced fiber and the other material is a matrix (resin).The
combination of the fiber and matrix provide characteristics superior to either of
the materials alone. Some examples of composite material are plywood,
reinforced concrete, fiberglass &polyester resin, and graphite &epoxy resin.
Variables that control the properties of composite can be summarized as
The properties of the fiber reinforcement.
The properties of the matrix in which the reinforcement is placed.
The amount of reinforcement in the matrix.
The orientation of the reinforcement.
The size and shape of the reinforcement.

1.14 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

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A polymeric composite materials is made up of at least two materials: a

fiber and a matrix. These are combined to exploit the individual characteristics,
thereby providing additional qualities that they are unable to provide
individually .They differ markedly from metals in the following ways
Composites are mostly orthotropic and inhomogeneous.
Generally stiffness is less than that of steels leading to greater
attention to local and overall structural stability.
Materials properties are influenced by the manufacturing process,
temperature and the environment.
Furthermore, when comparing composite materials to metals it is found that:
They are lighter, leading to excellent specific strength and stiffness
values.
They have very good environmental resistance and do not corrode
like many metals.
They have readily formed into complex shapes.
They have low thermal conductivity.
A composite material can take a number of different forms. The material
may be orthotropic, such as unidirectional reinforced polymer, where the
strength and stiffness in the fiber direction considerably exceeds that at 90 to
the fiber. It may be planer-isotropic, such as random chopped strand glass mat
reinforced polymer.

1.15 REQUIREMENT OF MATERIALS DESIGN:

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Polymer composite materials consists of laminate of resin impregnated

fibers which are unidirectional or orthogonally aligned angle-ply or randomly
orientated systems. It is also possible to provide a mixture of fiber arrays in
laminate when fabricating a composite material to meet the required loading
situation .This freedom to tailor-make composite materials with specific
required properties introduces an additional complexity in the design analyses
of these systems over those of the conventional ones.
Fiber selection:
The fiber reinforcement provides the structural performance required of
the final part. The fibers or filaments come in many chemical types and forms
and are the primary contributor to the stiffness, strength and other properties of
the composite.
Resin selection:
They are viscous liquids that are capable of hardening permanently. The
resins that are used in fiber-reinforced composites are sometimes referred to as
polymers. Polymers can be classified under two types, according to the effect
of heat on their properties.
Thermoplastic Resins.
Thermosetting Resins (Polyester and epoxy-High elastic model).
Thermoplastics soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again
with cooling. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene, and ABS,
and these can be reinforcement, although usually only with short, chopped
fibers such as glass.

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Thermosetting materials, or thermosets, formed from a chemical

reaction, where the resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then
undergo a non-reversible chemical reaction to form a hard, infusible product.
The determination of whether to use a thermoplastic or thermosetting
resin depends largely on the application. Thermosetting resins are preferred
because of their increased ability to withstand elevated temperatures. It is
expected that the composite spring will be at a working temperature of 100F to
1000F and hence thermosetting resins are chosen as thermoplastic works well
only for cold and ambient working conditions.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Mechanical and water absorption behavior of

sisal/banana fiber reinforced polyester hybrid composites by
N.Venkateshwaran and A.Elayaperumal presented that the
tensile, flexural, impact and water absorption tests were carried out
using banana/epoxy composite material. Initially, optimum fiber
length and weight percentage were determined. To improve the
mechanical properties, banana fiber was hybridised with sisal fiber.
This study showed that addition of sisal fiber in banana/epoxy
composites of up to 50% by weight results in increasing the
mechanical properties and decreasing the moisture absorption
property. Morphological analysis was carried out to observe
fracture behaviour and fiber pull-out of the samples using scanning
electron microscope.
Study on Mechanical Characteristics of Unidirectional
Sisal/Glass Fiber Reinforced Polyester Hybrid Composites by
Sanjay.M.R presented that this paper presents the mechanical
behavior of sisal/glass fiber reinforced polyester hybrid
composites. Sisal fiber has been hybridized with glass fiber
reinforced polyester using hand lay-up process to improve the
mechanical properties. Test specimens were prepared using glass
fiber(GF)/sisal fiber of 30/70, 50/50 and 70/30 weight fraction
ratios as per ASTM standards and mechanical properties like
tensile, impact and flexural strength of sisal /glass fiber reinforced
polyester are evaluated and compared. The results shows that
tensile strength of 30%GF-70%sisal composition and flexural
strength of 70%GF-30%sisal composition and impact Strength of
50%GF-50%sisal composition is found to be better than the
remaining two compositions.
Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Based Hybrid Composites Reinforced
with Sisal/SIC/Glass Fibers by Arpitha.G.R presented that development of
the Polymer Composites with natural fibers and fillers as a sustainable
alternative material for some engineering applications, particularly in aerospace
applications and automobile applications are being investigated. Natural fiber
25

composites such as sisal, jute, hemp and coir polymer composites appear more
attractive due to their higher specific strength, lightweight and biodegradability
and low cost. In this study, sisal/glass/Sic fiber reinforced epoxy composites are
prepared and their mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength are evaluated. Composites of silicon carbide filler
(without filler, 3, 6 & 9Wt %) sisal fiber and glass fiber are investigated and
results show that the composites without filler better results compared to the
composites with silicon carbide filler.
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH WORK
The objectives of the project are outlined below.
To develop a new class of hybrid polymer composites to explore the
potential of sisal and banana fiber.
Evaluation of mechanical properties such as: tensile strength, flexural
strength, tensile modulus, impact strength and water
absorption test.

26

CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS, METHODS AND PREPARATION OF
COMPOSITE
This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
raw materials used in this work are
1. Sisal fiber
2. Banana fiber fiber
3. Epoxy resin
4. Alumina as filler

3.1 SISAL FIBER

Sisal fibre is derived from the leaves of the plant. It is
usually obtained by machine decortications in which the leaf is
crushed between rollers and then mechanically scraped. The fibre
is then washed and dried by mechanical or natural means. The
dried fibre represents only 4% of the total weight of the leaf. Once
it is dried the fibre is mechanically double brushed. The lustrous
strands, usually creamy white, average from 80 to 120 cm in length
and 0.2 to 0.4 mm in diameter. Then we have collected this sisal
fiber from Gopichettyplayam, Erode. Sisal fibre is fairly coarse and
inflexible. It is valued for cordage use because of its strength,
27

durability, ability to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and

resistance to deterioration in saltwater. Sisal fiber is fully
biodegradable, green composites were fabricated with soy protein
resin modified with gelatin. Sisal fiber, modified soy protein resins,
and composites were characterized for their mechanical and
thermal properties. It is highly renewable resource of energy. Sisal
fibre is exceptionally durable and a low maintenancewith minimal
wear

and

tear.

Chemical Composition of Sisal Fiber:

Cellulose

65%

Hemicelluloses

12%
Uses of sisal fibre:

Lignin

9.9%

are

fibres are long and

made into yarns

Waxes

2%

or
or

High grade sisal

(either on their own

in blends with wool

Total

100%

acrylic) and used in

carpets. Medium

grade fibres are made into cordage, ropes and twine, for agricultural and
industrial use; they are particular useful in a marine environment as they are
resistant to deterioration by salt water. Low grade shorter fibres are valued in
the paper industry because of the high content of cellulose and hemicellulose;
they help to strengthen recycled paper.
One of the traditional uses for sisal is baler twine, as the fibre is long
lasting and flexible. This use, however, has greatly decreased as the twine is
28

being replaced by polypropylene and at the same time new harvesting

technology uses much less twine. Sisal is still the best material for making
dartboards. Sisal is used commonly in the shipping industry for mooring small
craft, lashing, and handling cargo.
Sisal is being used in composites instead of fibreglass to reinforce
components if the automotive and aircraft industry. Sisal is also being used in
the construction industry as cement reinforcement for low cost housing, as
plaster reinforcement and for roofing materials, as well as insulation. Sisal is
also great as a buffing cloth as it is strong enough to polish steel, and soft
enough not to scratch it. Another use for sisal is as a geotextile in land
reclamation, stabilisation of slopes and road construction. It also makes good
cat scratching posts.

3.2 Banana fiber

Banana fiber, a ligno-cellulosic fiber, obtained from the

pseudo-stem of banana plant (Musa sepientum), is a bast fiber with
relatively good mechanical properties. Banana plant is a large
perennial herb with leaf sheaths that form pseudo stem. Its height
can be 10-40 feet (3.0-12.2 meters) surrounding with 8-12 large
leaves. The leaves are up to 9 feet long and 2 feet wide (2.7 meters
and 0.61 meter). Banana plant is available throughout Thailand and
Southeast

Asian,

India,

Bangladesh,

Indonesia,

Malaysia,

Philippines, Hawaii, and some Pacific islands. Then we have

collected banana fiber from Gopichettypalayam, Erode for this
research work.
Characteristics

of

Banana

Fiber

Banana fiber is a natural bast fiber. It has its own physical and chemical

29

characteristics and many other properties that make it a fine quality fiber.

Appearance of banana fiber is similar to that of bamboo fiber and ramie

fiber, but its fineness and spinnability is better than the two.
The chemical composition of banana fiber is cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin.
It is highly strong fiber.
It has smaller elongation.
It has somewhat shiny appearance depending upon the extraction &
spinning process.
It is light weight.
It has strong moisture absorption quality. It absorbs as well as releases
moisture very fast.
It is bio- degradable and has no negative effect on environment and thus
can be categorized as eco-friendly fiber.
Its average fineness is 2400Nm.
It can be spun through almost all the methods of spinning including ring
spinning, open-end spinning, bast fiber spinning, and semi-worsted spinning
among others.
APPLICATIONS

OF

BANANA

FIBER

In the recent past, banana fiber had a very limited application and was
primarily used for making items like ropes, mats, and some other composite
30

materials. With the increasing environmental awareness and growing

importance of eco-friendly fabrics, banana fiber has also been recognized for all
its good qualities and now its application is increasing in other fields too such as
apparel garments and home furnishings.

PROPERTIES OF BANANA FIBER

Tenacity
Fineness
Moisture Regain
Elongation
Alco
ben

29.98 g/denier
17.15
13.00%
6.54
1.70%

Extractives
Total Cellulose
Alpha Cellulose
Residual Gum
Lignin

81.80%
61.50%
41.90%
3.3 Epoxy resin
15.00%
Epoxy resins are the most commonly used thermoset plastic
in polymer matrix composites. Epoxy resins are a family of
thermoset plastic materials which do not give off reaction products
when they cure and so have low cure shrinkage. They also have
good adhesion to other materials, good chemical and
environmental resistance, good chemical properties and good
insulating properties. The epoxy resins are generally manufactured
by reacting epichlorohydrin with bisphenol. Different resins are
formed by varying proportions of the two: as the proportion of
epichlorohydrin is reduced the molecular weight of the resin is
increased.
Curing of Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are cured by means of a curing agent, often
referred as catalysts, hardeners or activators. Often amines are used
as curing agents. In amine curing agents, each hydrogen on an
amine nitrogen is reactive and can open one epoxide ring to form a
covalent bond.
31

Filler
Fillers are particles added to composite material to lower the
consumption of more expensive binder material or to better some
properties of the mixtured material. Then the filler is used to
reduce the coefficient of thermal expansion and polymerization
shrinkage. It helps to improve the mechanical property of the
composite. In this connection, Alumina is used as filler. Then the
Alumina properties includes hard, wear resistant, Excellent size
and shape capability, high strength and stiffness.

3.4 METHODOLOGY
The full methodology of this project work is shown
in figure 3.3.
Fabrication by compression molding method

Testing of Fabricated Fiber composites

Testing of mechanical properties

Tensile

Flexural

Impact

test

test

test

Fig 3.3 Methodology

32

Water
absorption
Test

3.5 FABRICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

This topic deals with the fabrication stages carried out to obtain
the composite material. The materials used in our fabrication
process are as follows:
Sisal fiber fiber
Banana fiber
Epoxy resin
Hardner
Alumina (Al203)

3.5.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING METHOD:

The composite laminate is fabricated using compression
mouding method. It is simple and mostly used method. The
compression moulding process is shown in figure

Fig 3.4 Compression moulding process

The process of composite fabrication using hand lay-up process is listed below,
Initially, the sisal fiber and banana fiber are chopped in the size of 3 mm.
33

 The fiber and Alumina is weighed to the required quantity and it also
mixed well.
Then, prepare the matrix by mixing the Epoxy resin and Hardener in the
ratio of 10:1
Then the wax is applied in the die and the prepared matrix and fiber are
mixed well using glass rod.
Then the required amount of fiber matrix is placed in the square shaped
die of dimension 300x300x3 mm.
Then the die is closed and loaded with the pressure of 1500 psi at a
temperature of 90C
After 24 hour, the die is opened and the hybrid laminate of sisal fiber and
banana fiber is taken out.
Utmost care has been taken to maintain uniformity and homogeneity of
the composite. The fabricated specimen is shown in figure 3.2.

Fig 3.5 Composite Laminates

The composite laminate is fabricated for different fiber
weight (%), that is shown in table.

S.No Samples

Fiber(%)
Sisal

S1

S2

Filler

Banana

34

(%)

Resin
(%)

S3

S4

S5

Table 3.2 Composition Of Composites

3.6 EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE

3.6.1 CUTTING OF LAMINATES INTO SAMPLES OF
DESIRED DIMENSIONS:
A WIRE HACKSAW blade was used to cut each laminate
into smaller pieces, for various experiments and the sized
specimens are shown in the following figures.
TENSILE TEST- Sample was cut into the size of (250x25x3)mm in accordance
with ASTM standards D-638.

Fig 3.6 Tensile test specimen

FLEXURAL TEST- Sample was cut into flat shape (125x13x3)mm, in
accordance with ASTM standards D-790.
Fig 3.7 Flexural test specimen
IMPACT TEST- Sample was cut into flat shape (65x13x3)mm, in accordance
with ASTM standard D-790.
Fig 3.8 Impact test specimen
35

WATER ABSORPTION TEST-Sample was cut into flat shape (30x30x3)mm.

Fig 3.9 Water absorption test specimen

TENSILE TEST WITH BOLT JOINT- Sample was cut into the size of
(102x25x3)mm in accordance with ASTM standard D-5868-01. Two plates are
made up of for same size and made the single lab joint for testing the tensile
strength. One hole is drilled at each plate at the size of 6mm diameter and the
single lab joint is made with the help of 6mm bolt and nut.
Fig 3.10 Tensile test specimen with bolt joint

36

3.6.2 TENSILE TEST:

The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of
tensile stress that it can take before faliure. During the test a
uniaxial load is applied through both the ends of the specimen. The
dimension of specimen is (250x25x3)mm. Typical points of
interest when testing a material include: ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) or peak stress, peak load, elongation and break load. The
tensile test is performed in the universal testing machine (UTM)
Instron 1195 and results are analyzed to calculate the tensile
strength of composite samples.

Fig 3.11 Universal testing machine

3.6.3 FLEXURAL TEST:

37

Flexural strength is defined as a materials ability to resist

deformation under load. The short beam shear (SBS) tests are
performed on the composites samples to evaluate the value of interlaminar shear strength (ILSS). It is a 3-point bend test, which
generally promotes failure by inter-laminar shear. This test is
conductedas per ASTM standard using UTM. The dimension of the
specimen is (125x13x3)mm. It is measured by loading desired
shape specimen(6x6-inch) with a span length at least three times
the depth. The flexural strength is expressed as (MPa) . Flexural
strength is about 10 to 20 percent of compressive strength
depending on the type, size and volume of coarse aggregate used.
However the best correlation for specific materials is obtained by
laboratory tests for given materials and mix design.

Fig 3.12 Experimental setup for flexural test

3.6.4 IMPACT TEST:

Impact energy is the energy which is absorbed by the
specimen when the impact load is applied. Here, the Izod impact
test is carried out. Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard method
38

of determining the impact resistance of materials. An arm held at a

specific height (constant potential energy) is released. The arm hits
the sample and breaks it. From the energy absorbed by the sample,
its impact energy is determined. A notched sample is generally
used to determine impact energy and notch sensitivity. The test is
similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement
of the specimen under test.[1] The Izod impact test differs from
the Charpy impact test in that the sample is held in a cantilevered
beam configuration as opposed to a three-point bending
configuration. The impact specimen size is (65x13x3)mm.

Fig 3.13 Izod impact testing machine

3.6.5 WATER ABSORPTION TEST:

The water absorption test is used to find the water absorption rate. The effect of
water absorption on jute and glass reinforced hybrid composites were
investigated . The specimens were dried in an oven at 50 0C and then they were
allowed to cool till they reached room temperature. The specimens were
weighed to an accuracy of 0.1mg. Water absorption tests were conducted by
immersing the composite specimens in distilled water in plastic tub at room
39

temperature for 24 hours duration. Once in 24 hours, the specimens were taken
out from the water and all surface water was removed with a clean dry cloth and
the specimens were reweighed to the nearest 0.1 mg. From these two readings,
the water absorption rate (%) was calculated. The specimen size is (30303)
mm.

CHAPTER 4
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES
This chapter presents the mechanical properties of the sisal
and banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites prepared for this
present investigation. Details of processing of these composites and
the tests conducted on them have been described in the previous
chapter. The results of various characterization tests are reported
here. This includes evaluation of tensile strength, flexural strength,
flexural modulus, impact strength and water absorption (%) has
been studied and discussed. The interpretation of the results and the
comparison among various composite samples are also presented.

4.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES

The characterization of the composites reveals that the fiber
weight(%) is having significant effect on the mechanical properties
of composites. The properties of the composites with different fiber
weight (%) under this investigation are presented in Table 4.1
Composite

Tensile

Flexural

Impact

Water

strength

strength

Energy(J)

absorption

S1
S2
S3

(MPa)
15.941
18.541
18.796

(MPa)
45.362
43.317
39.942

0.75
0.50
0.35

(%)
17.95
18.53
10.61

40

Table 4.1 Mechanical properties of the composites

4.1.2. EFFECT OF FIBER WEIGHT (%) ON TENSILE

STRENGTH
The test results for tensile strength are shown in Figures 4.1.
The sample 1 and 5 shows the pure sisal and pure banana
reinforced composites and in this composites, pure banana shows
high tensile strength. The sample 2,3 and 4 shows the tensile
strength of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites, the
sample 4( i.e 15% of sisal and 30% of banana fiber) shows the
better tensile strength. From the results it is seen that the tensile
strength of the composite increases with increase in banana fiber
weight(%).
30
25
20
Tensile strength (N/mm2)

15
10
5
0

S1

S2

S3

Laminate samples

Figure 4.1 Effect of fiber weight (%) on tensile strength

of composites

4.1.3. EFFECT OF FIBER WEIGHT (%) ON TENSILE

STRENGTH WITH BOLT JOINT
41

S4

The test results for tensile strength are shown in Figures 4.1. The sample 1 and 5
shows the pure sisal and pure banana reinforced composites and in this
composites, pure banana shows high tensile strength. The sample 2,3 and 4
shows the tensile strength of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites,
the sample 2( i.e 30%% of sisal and 15% of banana fiber) shows the better
tensile strength. From the results it is seen that the tensile strength of the
composite increases with increase in sisal fiber weight(%).

16
15.5
15

Tensile strength (N/mm2)

14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5

Laminate samples

Figure 4.3 Effect of fiber weight (%) on tensile strength

of composites

4.1.3. EFFECT OF FIBER WEIGHT (%) ON FLEXURAL

STRENGTH
The test results for flexural strength are shown in Figures
4.1. The sample 1 and 5 shows the pure sisal and pure banana
reinforced composites and in this composites, pure banana shows
high flexural strength. The sample 2,3 and 4 shows the flexural
strength of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites, the
sample 3( i.e 15% of sisal and 30% of banana fiber) shows the
better flexural strength. From the results it is seen that the flexural
42

strength of the composite increases with increase in banana fiber

weight(%).
60
50
40
Flexural Strength (N/mm2) 30
20
10
0

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

Laminate samples

Figure 4.3 Effect of fiber length on flexural strength of

composites

4.1.4. EFFECT OF FIBER WEIGHT (%) ON IMPACT

ENERGY
The test results for impact energy are shown in Figures 4.1.
The sample 1 and 5 shows the pure sisal and pure banana
reinforced composites and in this composites, pure sisal shows
high impact energy. The sample 2,3. and 4 shows the impact
energy of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites, the
sample 2( i.e 30%% of sisal and 15% of banana fiber ) shows the
better impact energy. From the results it is seen that the impact
energy of the composite increases with increase in sisal fiber
weight(%).

43

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Impact energy (J) 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

Laminate samples

Figure 4.4 Effect of fiber length on impact energy of

composites.

4.1.5

EFFECT

OF

FIBER

WEIGHT(%)

ON

WATER

ABSORPTION RATE
The test results for water absorption rate are shown in
Figures 4.1. The sample 1 and 5 shows the pure sisal and pure
banana reinforced composites and in this composites, pure banana
shows less water absorption rate. The sample 2,3 and 4 shows the
water absorption rate of hybrid composites and in this hybrid
composites, the sample 3( i.e 22.5% of sisal and 22.5% of banana
fiber ) shows the less water absorption rate. From the results it is
seen that the water absorption rate of the composite is less in
sample 3.

44

25
20
15
Water absorption rate (%)

10
5
0

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

Laminated samples

Fig 4.5 Effect of fiber weight(%) on water

absorption rate

45

CHAPTER 5
COST ESTIMATION
This chapter presents the total cost of the project. The
process of cost estimation includes materials cost, fabrication cost
and cost of testing. The cost estimation is listed in table 6.1
S.NO

DESCRIPTIONS

QUANTITY

AMOUNT(Rs)

Sisal fiber

1 kg

350

Banana fiber

1 kg

400

Epoxy resin

1.5 litre

900

Hardner

100 ml

250

Alumina

100 ml

500

Fabrication cost

3000

Cutting of laminates

500

Testing

Total

Table 5.1 Cost of estimation

46

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
This experimental investigation of mechanical behavior of sisal and banana
fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites leads to the following conclusions:
1. This work shows that successful fabrication of a sisal and banana fiber
reinforced epoxy hybrid composites with different fiber weight(%) is
possible by compression molding technique.
2. It has been noticed that the mechanical properties of the composites such
as tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural modulus, impact strength
and water absorption rate of the composites are also greatly influenced by
the fibre weight(%).

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47

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49