Research

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the search for knowledge. For other uses, see Research (disambiguation).
"Researcher" redirects here. It is not to be confused with the oceanographic research ship.

Basrelief sculpture "Research holding the torch of knowledge" (1896) by Olin Levi Warner. Library of Congress,
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock
of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applications."[1] It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of
previous work, solve new or existing problems, supporttheorems, or develop new theories. A
research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of
instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects, or the
project as a whole. The primary purposes ofbasic research (as opposed to applied research)
are documentation, discovery,interpretation, or the research and development(R&D) of methods and
systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend
onepistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There

are several forms of

research: scientific,humanities, artistic, economic, social, business,marketing, practitioner research,
etc.
Contents
[hide]

1Forms of research

2Etymology

3Definitions

4Steps in conducting research

5Scientific research

6Historical method

7Research methods
o

7.1Research method controversies

7.1.1Quantitative vs. Qualitative war

7.1.2Anti-methodology

7.1.3Methodological academic imperialism

8Professionalisation
o

8.1In Russia

9Publishing

10Research funding

11Original research
o

11.1Different forms

12Artistic research

13See also

14References

15Further reading

16External links

Forms of research[edit]
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research
provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of thenature and the properties of the
world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by
charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can
be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.
Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such
as business schools, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution,
because the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily
correlate totally).[2]
Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for
examplehermeneutics and semiotics, and a different, more relativist epistemology. Humanities
scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead explore the
issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical,
political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is
embodied in historical method. Historians useprimary sources and other evidence to systematically
investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.
Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are
considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought
which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and
truth.

Etymology[edit]

Aristotle, 384 BC 322 BC, - one of the early figures in the development of the scientific method.[3]

The word research is derived from the Middle French"recherche", which means "to go about
seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a compound word from
"re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'. [4] The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.
[4]

Definitions[edit]
Research has been defined in a number of different ways.

A broad definition of research is given by Martyn Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the word,
the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement
of knowledge."[5]
Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that - "Research is a process of steps
used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists
of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the
question.[6]
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious inquiry or
examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such
new or revised theories or laws".[4]

Steps in conducting research[edit]

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. [7] The hourglass model
starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the
method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of
discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:[8]

Identification of research problem

Literature review

Specifying the purpose of research

Determine specific research questions

Specification of a Conceptual framework - Usually a set of

hypotheses [9]

Choice of a methodology (for data collection)

Data collection

Verify Data

Analyzing and interpreting the data

Reporting and evaluating research

Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an everchanging iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.[10] Most research begins with a general
statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[11] The literature review
identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often,
a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A
gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The
research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested.

The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and
interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known asempirical
research. The results of the data analysis in confirming or failing to reject theNull hypothesis are then
reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research.
However, some researchers advocate for the flip approach: starting with articulating findings and
discussion of them, moving "up" to identification research problem that emerging in the findings and
literature review introducing the findings. The flip approach is justified by the transactional nature of
the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant
research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings fully emerged and interpreted.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only
when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one
have confidence in the results."[12]
Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be
paraphrase in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?!
[i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching
for?!"[13]

Scientific research[edit]
Main article: Scientific method

Primary scientific research being carried out at the MicroscopyLaboratory of the Idaho National Laboratory.

Scientific research equipment atMIT.

Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary
depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal
research, both basic and applied:
1. Observations and Formation of the topic: Consists of the subject
area of ones interest and following that subject area to conduct
subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly
chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the
topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends
to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable.
The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to
already existing knowledge about the topic.
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship
between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to
other concepts.
4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables
and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and
selecting samples, gathering information from and/or about these
samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments
used for data collection must be valid and reliable.
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of
data in order to draw conclusions about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables,
figures and pictures, and then described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, Null hypothesis).
Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of
an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected
(see falsifiability). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said
to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that
alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can
never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually,
becoming widely thought of as true.
A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the
prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no
longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old,
and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will
supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which state no relationship or difference
between the independent or dependent variables. A null hypothesis uses a sample of all possible
people to make a conclusion about the population. [14]

Historical method[edit]
Main article: Historical method

German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern sourcebased history.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians
use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various
history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external
criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though
items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of
most formal historical research:[15]

Identification of origin date

Evidence of localization

Recognition of authorship

Analysis of data

Identification of integrity

Attribution of credibility

Research methods[edit]

The research room at the New York Public Library, an example ofsecondary research in progress.

Maurice Hillemanis credited with saving more lives than any other scientist of the 20th century.[16]

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic
or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries
between them may be obscure):

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or

question.

Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to

a problem or question.

Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution

using empirical evidence.

There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative
research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the
research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:
Qualitative research
Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern
such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting data in the
form of words, images, video etc that is analyzed and searching for
themes. This type of research aims to investigate a question
without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to
potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more
restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and
time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of research
subjects.[citation needed] Qualitative research is often used as a method of
exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research
hypotheses.[citation needed]Qualitative research is linked with the
philosophical and theoretical stance of social constructionism.
Quantitative research
Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and
collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods.
The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational,
and survey (or descriptive).[17] Statistics derived from quantitative
research can be used to establish the existence of associative or
causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is
linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling

and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse
experiences into predetermined response categories.[citation
needed]
These methods produce results that are easy to summarize,
compare, and generalize.[citation needed] Quantitative research is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.
Depending on the research question, participants may be
randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that
a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment).[citation
needed]
If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on
participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically
control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable.
If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a
larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling
to select participants.[18]
In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may
collect primary or secondary data. Primary data is data collected
specifically for the research, such as through interviews or
questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such
as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good
ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever
possible.[19]
Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and
quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is
becoming more common.[20]
Big data has brought big impacts on research methods that now
researchers do not put much effort on data collection, and also
methods to analyze easily available huge amount of data have
also changed.[21]
Nonempirical refers to an approach that is grounded in theory as
opposed to using observation and experimentation to achieve the
outcome. As such, nonempirical research seeks solutions to
problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however,
does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found
within the pool existing and established knowledge. Nonempirical
is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they
may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither
one is less effective than the other since they have their particular
purpose within life and in science. A simple example of a
nonempirical task could the prototyping of a new drug using a
differentiated application of existing knowledge; similarly, it could
be the development of a business process in the form of a flow
chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established
knowledge. Empirical research on the other hand seeks to create
new knowledge through observations and experients in which
established knowledge can either be contested or supplements.

Research method controversies[edit]

There have been many controversies about research methods
stemmed from a philosophical positivism promise to distinguish

the science from other practices (especially religion) by its

method. This promise leads to methodological hegemony and
methodology wars where diverse researchers, often coming from
opposing paradigms, try to impose their own methodology on the
entire field or even on the science practice in general as the only
legitimate one.[citation needed]
Quantitative vs. Qualitative war[edit]
Anti-methodology[edit]
According to this view, general scientific methodology does not
exist and attempts to impose it on scientists is counterproductive.
Each particular research with its emerging particular inquiries
requires and should produce its own way (method) of researching.
Similar to the art practice, the notion of methodology has to be
replaced with the notion of research mastery.[22]
Methodological academic imperialism[edit]
Epistemologies of different national sciences and cultural
communities may differ and, thus, they may produce different
methods of research. For example, psychological research in
Russia tends to be rooted in philosophy while in the US and UK in
empirism.[23][24][25] Rich countries (and dominant cultural communities
within them) and their national sciences may dominate scientific
discourse through funding and publications. This
academic hegemony can translate into impositions of certain
research methodologies through the gatekeeping process of
international academic publications, conference presentation
selection, institutional review boards, and funding.[26]

Professionalisation [edit]
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the
subject. Pleaseimprove this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (January 2014)
See also: Academic ranks, Academics and Scientists
In several national and private academic systems,
the professionalization of research has resulted in formal job titles.

In Russia[edit]
In present-day Russia, the former Soviet Union and in some PostSoviet states the termresearcher (Russian:
, nauchny sotrudnik) is both a generic term for a person
who carried out scientific research, as well as a job position within
the frameworks of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Soviet
universities, and in other research-oriented establishments. The
term is also sometimes translated as research fellow, research
associate, etc.
The following ranks are known:

Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)

Researcher (Research Associate)

Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)

Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)[27]

Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

Publishing[edit]

Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4 November 1869.

Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order

for academic scholars topeer review the work and make it
available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field,
and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work
is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large
body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form.
These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for
theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an
abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology,
andmedicine.
Most established academic fields have their own scientific journals
and other outlets for publication, though many academic
journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from
several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that
are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary
greatly between fields; from the print to the electronic format. A
study suggests that researchers should not give great
consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently.[28] It has
also been suggested that all published studies should be
subjected to some measure for assessing the validity or reliability

of its factors in order to prevent the publication of unproven

findings.[29] Business models are different in the electronic
environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic
resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently,
a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals,
is open access.[30] There are two main forms of open access: open
access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is
freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving,
where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available
on the web.

Research funding[edit]
Main article: Funding of science
Most funding for scientific research comes from three major
sources: corporateresearch and
development departments; private foundations, for example, the
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; and government research
councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the USA[31] and
the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed
primarily through universities and in some cases through military
contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders)
spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for
research funds. These grants are necessary not only for
researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of
merit.
The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehensive list of
U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources.

Original research[edit]
Original research redirects here, for the Wikipedia policy
see Wikipedia:No original research
Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a
summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject
of research. This material is of a primary source character. The
purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge,
rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g.,
summarized or classified).[32][33]

Different forms[edit]
Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the
discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves
direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in
the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results,
and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers
a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there
are typically some new (for example) mathematical results
produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In
some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or
analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing

understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome

of the work of the researcher.[34]
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria
for articles to be published in academic journals and usually
established by means of peer review.[35]Graduate students are
commonly required to perform original research as part of
adissertation.[36]

Artistic research[edit]
The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more
academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted
as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other
disciplines.[37] One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it
must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific
methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in
using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply
measurement and critical analysis.[38]
Artistic research has been defined by the University of Dance and
Circus (Dans och Cirkushgskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the
following manner - "Artistic research is to investigate and test with
the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic
disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods and criticality.
Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be
placed in a context."[39] Artistic research aims to enhance
knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.[40] For
a survey of the central problematics of today's Artistic Research,
see Giaco Schiesser.[41]
According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, "perhaps
more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to
identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive
modalities".[42] Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books,
also have to do research to support their creative work. This may
be factual, historical, or background research. Background
research could include, for example, geographical or procedural
research.[43]
The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the
triannual Journal for Artistic Research (JAR),[44][45] an international,
online, open access, and peer-reviewed journalfor the
identification, publication, and dissemination of artistic research
and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs
the Research Catalogue(RC),[46][47][48] a searchable,
documentary database of artistic research, to which anyone can
contribute.

See also[edit]

European Charter for Researchers

Undergraduate research

Internet research

List of countries by research and development spending

Open research

Operations research

Participatory action research

Primary research

Psychological research methods

Research-intensive cluster

Scholarly research

Secondary research

Society for Artistic Research

Timeline of the history of scientific method

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48. Jump up^ Hughes, Rolf: "Leap into Another Kind:
International Developments in Artistic Research," in Swedish
Research Council, ed. (2013), Artistic Research Then and
Now: 20042013, Yearbook of AR&D 2013, Stockholm:
Swedish Research Council.

Further reading[edit]

Cohen, N. & Arieli, T. (2011) Field research in conflict

environments: Methodological challenges and snowball
sampling. Journal of Peace Research 48 (4), pp. 423436.

Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan.

2014. Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies New
York: Routledge.

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