70 Interesting Facts You May Not Know About Computers &

The Internet
1. Amazon, originally a printed book seller company, now sells more ebooks
than
printed books.
2. The first domain name ever registered was Symbolics.com.
3. About 1.8 billion people connect to the Internet, only 450 million of them speak
English.
4. Sweden has the highest percentage of internet users, they are 75%.
5. Did you know that Email was already around before the World Wide Web came?
6. Up until the 14th of September, 1995, domain registration was free.
7. While it took the radio 38 years, and the television a short 13 years, it took the
World Wide Web only 4 years to reach 50 million users.
8. U.S. President Bill Clintons inauguration in January 1997 was the first to be
webcast.
9. Every minute, 10 hours of videos are uploaded on You Tube.
10. Of the 247 BILLION email messages sent every day, 81% are pure spam.
11. The first White House website was launched during the ClintonGore
administration on October 21, 1994. Coincidentally, the site
www.whitehouse.com linked to a pornography web site.
12. Over 1 million domain names are registered every month.
13. With Its 800 million Interent users, Facebook would be the third largest country
in the World. The first computer company to register for a domain name was
digital equipment corporation.
14. Google uses an estimated 15 billion kWh of electricity per year, more than most
countries. However, google generates a lot of their own power with their solar
panels.
15. Google estimates that the Internet today contains about 5 million terabytes of
data (1TB = 1,000GB), and claims it has only indexed a paltry 0.04% of it all! You
could fit the whole Internet on just 200 million BluRay
disks.
16. The prime reason the Google home page is so bare, is due to the fact that the
founders didnt know HTML and just wanted a quick interface. Infact, the submit
button was a later addition initially, hitting the RETURN key was the only way to
burst Google into life.
17. Doug Engelbart had made the first computer mouse in 1964, and it was made out
of wood.
18. The first hard drive was created in 1979 by Seagate and could hold 5MB of data.
19. The engineers who developed the IBM PC were known as The Dirty Dozen
20. Another name for a Microsoft Windows tutorial is Crash Course!
21. Amongst the most interesting computer facts is, when the first Apple computer
which was built by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, it was made by using parts
they got for free from their employers. They were made to scrounge spare parts
from work.
22. The worlds first computer which was named the Z1, was invented by Konrad
Zuse in 1936. His next invention, the Z2 was finished in 1939 and was the first
fully functioning electromechanical
computer.
23. One of the worlds leading computer and computer peripheral manufacturer
Hewlett Packard was first started in a garage at Palo Alto in the year 1939.
24. The first banner advertising was used in 1994.
25. Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft was a college drop out.
26. Bill Gates house was designed Using a Macintosh computer.
27. Bill Gates math SAT score was a perfect 800.
28. Bill gates & Paul Allen started a company called TrafOData
to monitor traffic
flow.
29. 70% of virus writers work under contract for organized crime syndicates.
30. A program named Rother J was the first computer virus to come into sight in
the wild that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created.
31. Over 6,000 new computer viruses are released every month.
32. A virus can not appear on your computer all by iself. You have to get it by sharing
infected files or diskettes, or by downloading infected files from the Internet.
33. The worst MSDOS
virus ever, Michelangelo (1991) attacked the boot sector of
your hard drive and any floppy drive inserted into the computer, which caused
the virus to spread rapidly.
34. The QWERTY keyboard layout is 129 years old.
35. South korea's SK telecom offers an inaudible ring tone to its customers which, it
claims, can repel mosquitoes.
36. In 1971, the fi rst speech recognition software named, "Hearsay" was developed
in India.

37. The four largest software makers in the world are:(

a) Microsoft (b) Adobe (c)
Sap (d) Computer Associates.
38. Top Ten Supercomputers of Today:Arranged
according to the speed:1.
Bluegene/L DD2 Betasystem(
IBM).
2. Columbia (NASA).
3. Earth Simulator (NEC).
4. MareNostrum(Barcelona Supercomputer Center).
5. Thunder (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory).
6. ASCI Q(Los Alamos National Laboratory).
7. System X(Virgina Tech).
8. Blugene/L DD1 Prototype(IBM).
9. eServer pSeries 655 cluster(Naval Oceanographic Office).
10. Tungsten(National Center For Supercomputing Applications).
39. Hard drives in the near future are expected to have a track density of about
100,000 tracks/inch.This means that tracks are spaced 10 millionths of an inch
apart.
40. The first ISP was Compuserve, established in 1969 which is now under AOL.
41. The Palm O.S fits in less than 100 K,which is less than one percent the size of
Windows 98 or Mac O.S.
42. What does 50 G.B of storage really mean?It means we can stack 3 piles of single
spaced type written pages taller than the Eiffel tower and data to support this
information is about 50 gigabytes.
43. The code name for the 12 engineers who designed the IBM pc was :'
The dirty
dozen'.
44. When the cd was invented, it was decided that a cd should be long enough to
hold beethoven's Ninth Symphony at any tempo which was precisely 72 minutes.
45. 128 bit SSL encryption is so strong that it would take much , much longer than
the age of universe to crack a message encrypted using it.Even 20 years from
now, if computers are a million times faster. it would still take longer than the
age of the universe to crack it.
46. Disk drive recording head fly height (gap between the head and disc when the
drive is spinning ) is less than 1 microinch while:A
red blood cell is 300 microinches is diameter.
A particle of tobacco smoke is 250 microinches.
A particle of smog is 100 microinches.
A human hair is 4000 microinches.
47. When Windows 3.1 was launched, 3 million copies were sold in the first two
months.
48. Windows 95 can run on 386DX at 20 Megahertz, with just 4 M.B of RAM.
49. David Bradley wrote the code for [Ctr]+[Alt]+[Delete] key sequence.
50. At 250 tons and 60,000 vacuum tubes, the SAGE system was the largest,
heaviest and most expensive computer system ever built! The SAGE required
over 20,000 square feet (1950's).
51. IBM got its nickname "Big Blue" not from the color of the computers but from the
dark blue suits that its early sales force wore. IBM had one of the greatest sales
forces in the country, even before IBM started making and selling digital
computers.
52. Internet has spawned several new words. Did you know that a netizen is a
citizen of the Internet? You do now. A netiquette is etiquette for the Internet.
53. Search Utility(
also called search tool)This
is the page you see when you visit a
search website.
54. Google is a version of the word Googol, which is the number 1 followed by 100
zeroes, representing the large number of web pages Google searches. 42. The
first online version of an encyclopedia and the first one on CD was Grolier.
55. Anyone who uses a computer is probably familiar with Wikipedia, but did you know that this word is formed from the Hawaiian
word, wiki (meaning "quick")
and the word encyclopedia? Now you do.
56. eBay
was started in 1995 more than 1 billion dollars worth of merchandise are
sold each month by its users.
57. A plugin
is a small piece of software that adds features to a larger piece of
software. Plugins
are often used by Internet browsers to increase the
program's functions.
58. MP3 stands for MPEGLayer
III it's a film compression method that shrinks the
size of data sent over the Internet or used on a computer. That's why you can
load hours and hours of music on those MP3 players.
59. Did you no typewriter is the only 10 letter word you can spell with the top row of

keys on a keyboard.
60. the sentense "the quick brown fox jumps over a little lazy dog" contains all the
alphabats of english language.
61. It is believed that the first computer virus released in the world was a boot
sector virus, which was created in the year 1986 by Farooq Alvi brothers. It was
designed by them to protect their research work.
62. TYPEWRITER is the longest word that can be made using the letters only on one
row of the keyboard.
63. The computer mouse, the windowing GUI, laser printing, and the network card
were all developed at one company Xerox in Palo Alto, California.
64. The computer in your cell phone has more processing power than all the
computers in the Apollo 11 Lunar Lander that put 2 men on the moon.
65. HP, Google, Microsoft, and Apple have one thing in common. All of them were
started in garages.
66. Computer circuitry can be destroyed by static electricity. It is so mild for humans
that we don't even feel it.
67. Interface Manager! That's what Windows was originally named.
68. Tim BernersLee
coined the phrase World Wide Web in 1990.
69. Mosaic was the first popular web browser which was released in 1993.
70. The average human being blinks 20 times a minute but only 7 times a minute
when using a computer.

Interesting Keyboard Shortcuts for Various Applications You May Not

Know About Computers & The Internet
More than 100 Keyboard Shortcuts Keyboard Shortcuts (Microsoft Windows)

1. CTRL+C (Copy)
2. CTRL+X (Cut)
3. CTRL+V (Paste)
4. CTRL+Z (Undo)
5. DELETE (Delete)
6. SHIFT+DELETE (Delete the selected item permanently without placing the item
in the Recycle Bin)
7. CTRL while dragging an item (Copy the selected item)
8. CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item (Create a shortcut to the selected item)
9. F2 key (Rename the selected item)
10. CTRL+RIGHT ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next
word)
11. CTRL+LEFT ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous
word)
12. CTRL+DOWN ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph)
13. CTRL+UP ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous
paragraph)
14. CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow keys (Highlight a block of text) SHIFT with any
of the arrow keys (Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or select
text in a document)
15. CTRL+A (Select all)
16. F3 key (Search for a file or a folder)
17. ALT+ENTER (View the properties for the selected item)
18. ALT+F4 (Close the active item, or quit the active program)
19. ALT+ENTER (Display the properties of the selected object)
20. ALT+SPACEBAR (Open the shortcut menu for the active window)
21. CTRL+F4 (Close the active document in programs that enable you to have
multiple documents opensimultaneously)
22. ALT+TAB (Switch between the open items)
23. ALT+ESC (Cycle through items in the order that they had been opened)
24. F6 key (Cycle through the screen elements in a window or on the desktop)
25. F4 key (Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer)
26. SHIFT+F10 (Display the shortcut menu for the selected item)
27. ALT+SPACEBAR (Display the System menu for the active window)
28. CTRL+ESC (Display the Start menu)

29. ALT+Underlined letter in a menu name (Display the corresponding menu)

Underlined letter in a command name on an open menu (Perform the
corresponding command)
30. F10 key (Activate the menu bar in the active program)
31. RIGHT ARROW (Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu)
32. LEFT ARROW (Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu)
33. F5 key (Update the active window)
34. BACKSPACE (View the folder onelevel up in My Computer or Windows Explorer)
35. ESC (Cancel the current task)
36. SHIFT when you insert a CDROMinto
the CDROM
drive (Prevent the CDROM
from automatically playing)
Dialog Box Keyboard
Shortcuts
1. CTRL+TAB (Move forward through the tabs)
2. CTRL+SHIFT+TAB (Move backward through the tabs)
3. TAB (Move forward through the options)
4. SHIFT+TAB (Move backward through the options)
5. ALT+Underlined letter (Perform the corresponding command or select thecorresponding option)
6. ENTER (Perform the command for the active option or button)
7. SPACEBAR (Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box)
8. Arrow keys (Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons)
9. F1 key (Display Help)
10. F4 key (Display the items in the active list)
11. BACKSPACE (Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or
Open dialog box)
Microsoft Natural Keyboard Shortcuts
1. Windows Logo (Display or hide the Start menu)
2. Windows Logo+BREAK (Display the System Properties dialog box)
3. Windows Logo+D (Display the desktop)
4. Windows Logo+M (Minimize all of the windows)
5. Windows Logo+SHIFT+M (Restorethe minimized windows)
6. Windows Logo+E (Open My Computer)
7. Windows Logo+F (Search for a file or a folder)
8. CTRL+Windows Logo+F (Search for computers)
9. Windows Logo+F1 (Display Windows Help)
10. Windows Logo+ L (Lock the keyboard)
11. Windows Logo+R (Open the Run dialog box)
12. Windows Logo+U (Open Utility Manager)
Accessibility Keyboard Shortcuts
1. Right SHIFT for eight seconds (Switch FilterKeys either on or off)
2. Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN (Switch High Contrast either on or off)
3. Left ALT+left SHIFT+NUM LOCK (Switch the MouseKeys either on or off)
4. SHIFT five times (Switch the StickyKeys either on or off)
5. NUM LOCK for five seconds (Switch the ToggleKeys either on or off)
6. Windows Logo +U (Open Utility Manager)
7. Windows Explorer Keyboard Shortcuts
8. END (Display the bottom of the active window)
9. HOME (Display the top of the active window)
10. NUM LOCK+Asterisk sign (*) (Display all of the subfolders that are under the
selected folder)
11. NUM LOCK+Plus sign (+) (Display the contents of the selected folder)
MMC Console keyboard shortcuts
1. SHIFT+F10 (Display the Action shortcut menu for the selected item)
2. F1 key (Open the Help topic, if any, for the selected item)
3. F5 key (Update the content of all console windows)
4. CTRL+F10 (Maximize the active console window)

5. CTRL+F5 (Restore the active console window)

6. ALT+ENTER (Display the Properties dialog box, if any, for theselected item)
7. F2 key (Rename the selected item)
8. CTRL+F4 (Close the active console window. When a console has only one console
window, this shortcut closes the console)
Remote Desktop Connection Navigation
1. CTRL+ALT+END (Open the Microsoft Windows NT Security dialog box)
2. ALT+PAGE UP (Switch between programs from left to right)
3. ALT+PAGE DOWN (Switch between programs from right to left)
4. ALT+INSERT (Cycle through the programs in most recently used order)
5. ALT+HOME (Display the Start menu)
6. CTRL+ALT+BREAK (Switch the client computer between a window and a full
screen)
7. ALT+DELETE (Display the Windows menu)
8. CTRL+ALT+Minus sign ()
(Place a snapshot of the active window in the client on
the Terminal server clipboard and provide the same functionality as pressing
PRINT SCREEN on a local computer.)
9. CTRL+ALT+Plus sign (+) (Place asnapshot of the entire client window area on
the Terminal server clipboardand provide the same functionality aspressing
ALT+PRINT SCREEN on a local computer.)
Microsoft Internet Explorer Keyboard Shortcuts
1. CTRL+B (Open the Organize Favorites dialog box)
2. CTRL+E (Open the Search bar)
3. CTRL+F (Start the Find utility)
4. CTRL+H (Open the History bar)
5. CTRL+I (Open the Favorites bar)
6. CTRL+L (Open the Open dialog box)
7. CTRL+N (Start another instance of the browser with the same Web address)
8. CTRL+O (Open the Open dialog box,the same as CTRL+L)
9. CTRL+P (Open the Print dialog box)
10. CTRL+R (Update the current Web page)
11. CTRL+W (Close the current window)

General Knowledge- UGC-NET / GATE Part 1

Inda s First Women

******************************
India s First Woman Railway Driver : Surekha Shankar Yadav
India s First Woman Tabla Maestro : Dr. Aban Mistry
India s First Recognized Billionth :Citizen Astha
India s First Woman Airbus Pilot : Durba Banerjee
First Woman Secretary General Of Rajya Sabha : V. S. Rama Devi
First Indian Woman To Win Magsasay Award :Kiran Bedi
First Indian Woman Cricketer To Get 100 Wickets :Diana Eduljee
First Indian Paratrooper Of Indian Air Force : Nita Ghose
First Indian Woman To Complete Her MBBS :Kadambini Ganguli Bose In 1888
First Woman Cheif Engineer : P. K. Tresia Nanguli
First Indian Woman At Antarctica : Meher Moos In 1976
First Woman Foriegn Minister : Lakshmi N. Menon
First Woman Commercial Pilot : Prem Mathur Of Deccan Airways
First Woman Sahitya Award Winner : Amrita Pritam
First Woman President Of Indian Science Congress : Dr. Ashima Chatterjee
First Woman To Win WTA Tennis Tournament : Sania Mirza

First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First
First

Chief Justice Of Mumbai High Court : Justice Sujaata B Manohar

Indian Woman Advocate : Regina Guha
Indian Woman Barrister : Cornotia Sorabji
Woman Surgeon : Dr. Prema Mukherjee
Woman To Get Arjun Award : N. Lumsden(1961)
Woman Chairman Of Bank:Tarzani Vakil
Woman Chairperson Of National Woman Commission : Mrs. Jayanti Patnayak
Indian Woman To Receive Asiad Gold Medal :Kamalji Sandhu
Woman Speaker Of State Assembly : Mrs. Shano Devi
Actress In The Indian Cinema : Devika Rani
Woman Finger Prints Expert In India : SitaVarthambal And Bhrangathambal
Woman Doordarshan News Reader : Pratima Puri
Indian Woman To Reach In Olympic Games :Sini Abrahim
Indian Woman To Receive Norman Borlaug Award : Dr. Amrita Patel
Indian Woman IAS Officer : Anna George
Woman President Of Student s Union : Anju Sachdeva of Delhi University
Woman Chairperson Of Rajya Sabha : Violet Alva In 1962

Latest Committees
******************************
1. Committee Set Up On Uttarakhand Floods : The committee will be headed by AK Ganju
(Chairman, Ganga Flood Control committeesCommission, Patna).
2. JS Mathur committee : to revise NewspaperAdvertisement Rates.
3. K. Ratna Prabha : Committee on indecent depiction of women in media.
4. Mukul Mudgal Committee: looking into US giant Walmart s lobbying activities to enter
India
5.Mukul Mudgal Committee: to look at process of film clearance.
6. MBN Rao Committee: to prepare the blueprint of India s first women s bank
7. SK Srivastava Committee: to formulate a policy on publicprivate
partnership model to
raise coal output..
8. K M Chandrasekhar Committee: for rationalization of foreign investment norms
9. Arvind Mayaram Committee: for giving clear definitions to Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investment (FII)
10. Janakiraman Committee : To investigate the security transactions of the bank
11. MS Ahluwalia committee : to evaluate aspects related to set up of Nalanda University
12. Sitakant Mahapatra committee : for inclusion of Bhojpuri language in eighth schedule of
constitution
13. N R Narayana Murthy committee : for evaluation of corporate sector participation in
Higher Education.
14. C Rangarajan committee : for poverty scale estimates in the country
15. MB Shah committee : for inspection of illegal mining activities
16. N Rangachary committee : to examine taxation policies for I.T. sector
17. Parthasarathi Shome committee : implementation of GAAR (General Anti Avoidance
Rule).
18. Deepak Parekh committee : for Financing Infrastructure sector
19. Naresh Chandra committee : 14 member task force on security issues
20. Bhandari Committee : Reconstruction of RRBs
21. RS Gujral Committee : suggest measures to boost MSME exports

ORGANISATION AND THERE HQ

******************************
1. UNO New York
2. UNICEF New York
3. UNESCO Paris
4. UNIDO Vienna
5. WHO Geneva
6. UNFPA New York
7. ILO Geneva

8. IMF Washington DC
9. WTO Geneva
10. International Court Of Justice The Hague
11. International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna
12. World Bank Washington D.C.
13. International Committee of theRed Cross Geneva
14. International Maritime Organisation London
15. Universal Postal Union Berne
16. Food and Agricultural Organisation Rome
17. World Meteorological Organisation Geneva
18. SAARC Kathmandu
19. Amnesty International London
20. Transparency International Berlin
21. World Intellectual Property Organization Geneva
22. International Renewable Energy Agency Abu Dhabi (UAE) (Interim Hqs)
23. Commonwealth of Nations London
24. International Standards Organisation Geneva

Hopfield Networks
Hopfield networks have the following characteristics:
They are primarily used as associative memories => content addressable memory.
They can also be used to solve optimisation problems.
They have the same number of neurons as the dimension of the input ( and output )
pattern.
The inputs to the network are provided as a set of initial conditions at the neuron
outputs.
The Hopfield network ( by default ) contains feedback, connecting the output of each
neuron to the input of all the other neurons. Normally, selffeedback
aroung neurons is
omitted.
The memory storage function is performed using an adaptation of Hebb's learning rule.
There is a ( relatively tight ) limit on the number of training points which can be stored
in the network's memory.
In addition to the patterns which are stored by the user, there are extra patterns in
memory, including:
Inverse patterns patterns
which are the inverse of the userdefined
patterns, and
Spurious patterns random
patterns, the number of which increases with the number of stored patterns.
Hopfield networks can accept continuous variables or binary variables ( binary only
considered here ).
Binary networks can utilise either [0, 1] or [1, 1].
[1, 1]
is used here due to the
resulting simplification in analysis.
Hopfield networks can be either discrete time ( using difference equations ) or
continuous time ( using differential equations ).

Fuzzy System & Neural Networks Notes

FUZZY LOGIC
Q: What is a fuzzy set?

A fuzzy set is a set that is defined by a membership function. A membership function assigns to each
element in the set under consideration (the universal space) a membership grade, which is a value in
the interval [0, 1]. In classical sets, objects either belong to a set or do not belong to a set there is no
other choice. By defining a set using a membership function, it is possible for an element to belong
partially to a set. For example, if a door is slightly open, one might say that the door is open, with a
membership grade of 0.2 to indicate that the door is slightly open. We might also say that the door is
closed, with a membership grade of 0.8. By using a fuzzy set, we are able to indicate that the door is
partially open or partially closed. Using classical logic, we would not be able to do this the door would be
considered either open or closed with no inbetween.

Fuzzy logic is a concept of `certain degree.

Who is the founder of fuzzy logic?
Answer: D. Zadeh Lotfi.
The only ambiguity in founder of fuzzy logic that may occur is Buddha. because Fuzzy

logic was inspired by Buddha but was only officially found in the 60s including the word
`fuzzy` itself.
The idea of fuzzy logic was first advanced by Dr. Lotfi Zadeh of the University of
California at Berkeley in the 1960s. Dr. Zadeh was working on the problem of
computer understanding of natural language. Natural language (like most other
activities in life and indeed the universe) is not easily translated into the absolute
terms of 0 and 1. (Whether everything is ultimately describable in binary terms is a
philosophical question worth pursuing, but in practice much data we might want to feed
a computer is in some state in between and so, frequently, are the results of
computing.)
FUZZY LOGIC SUGGESTS inaccuracy and imprecision. Websters dictionary defines the
word fuzzy as not clear, distinct, or precise blurred. In a broad sense, fuzzy logic
refers to fuzzy sets, which are sets with blurred boundaries, and, in a narrow sense,
fuzzy logic is a logical system that aims to formalize approximate reasoning.
Fuzzy logic is an approach to computer science that mimics the way a human brain
thinks and solves problems. The idea of fuzzy logic is to approximate human decision
making using natural language terms instead of quantitative terms.
It is formally defined as a form of knowledge representation suitable for notions that
cannot be defined precisely, but which depend upon their contexts. It enables
computerized devices to reason more like humans.
The idea of fuzzy logic is to approximate human decisionmaking
using naturallanguage
terms instead of quantitative terms. Fuzzy logic is similar to neural networks,
and one can create behavioral systems with both methodologies. A good example is
the use of fuzzy logic for automatic control: a set of rules or a table is constructed that
specifies how an effect is to be achieved, provided input and the current system state.
Using fuzzy arithmetic, one uses a model and makes a subset of the system
components fuzzy so that fuzzy arithmetic must be used when executing the model. In
a broad sense, fuzzy logic refers to fuzzy sets, which are sets with blurred boundaries,
and, in a narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a logical system that aims to formalize
approximate reasoning.
Fuzzy logic differs to Boolean logic in a sense that something can be true to a certain
extent and does not have to be just true or false.
Japan is currently the most active users of fuzzy logic. When it was founded in the 60s
the Americans and the rest of the world totally ignored the idea. Instead, it was
adopted by the Japanese followed by Korea and other parts of the East. Currently 70%
of Japanese products use fuzzy logic.

Data Structure Notes

Data is simply a value or a set of values which represents some fact or figure. Initially
we have raw data. To use it properly, we have to process this data in a meaningful
way.

When data has single value, it is called data item.

When data can further be categorized in sub items, it is called group item.
A file is a collection of logically related records that can be treated as a unit.
An entity is an independent object about which data is being collected. It is a
generalized class of people, places, or things (objects) for which data is collected,
stored, and maintained.
Entity set is a collection of similar entities.
A key is a field or set of fields in a record that is used to identify the record. It is
unique in a file.
The processed data is known as information. From raw data, we extract data according
to our requirements. This data is meaningful and is known as information. Information
helps in decision making.
Data structure refers to the ways of assembling or organizing data so that it can be
used efficiently. i.e. the logical or mathematical model of organizing data is called data
structure.
In a linear data structure, the data items are arranged in a linear sequence so that
processing of elements is possible in a linear manner.
A data structure whose elements do not form a sequence so there is no unique
successor or predecessor is called nonlinear
data structure.
In homogeneous data structures all elements are of same data type.
In nonhomogeneous
data structure the elements may or may not be of same type.
The data structure that are atomic (indivisible) are called primitive.
The data structure that are not atomic are called nonprimitive.
Static data structures are ones where size of structure & its associated memory
location is fixed when the program is compiled.
Those data structures where size of structure & its associated memory location is not
fixed i.e. it may vary are called as Dynamic Data Structures.
An Array is a collection of homogeneous data items stored under a same name and at
contiguous memory locations. Homogeneous data elements mean data elements of
same type. It is a group of related data items which have common name.
a linked list is a dynamic data structure in the sense that we dont require size of
linked list in advance. Each node has at least two parts: Info Part It contains data in
the node. This data may be some scalar value or a complete record. And Link Part It
contains the address of the next node. The last node contains null value which
indicates that it is the end of list.
A stack is a list of elements in which an element may be inserted or deleted only at
one end, called the Top. This means, that elements are inserted to as well as removed
from the top of stack. Push and Pop are the two basic operations that are performed
on the Stack.
Queues are also called " firstin
firstout
" (FIFO) list since the first element in a queue
will be the first element out of the queue. In other words, the order in which elements
enter in a queue is the order in which they leave. Enqueue and Dequeue are the two
basic operations that are performed on the queue.
A tree consist of a distinguished node r , called the root and zero or more (sub) tree t1
, t2 , ... tn each of whose roots are connected by a directed edge to r . It is a non
linear data structure.
A graph consists of a number of data items, each of which is called a vertex. Any
vertex may be connected to any other, and these connections are called edges. It is a
non linear data structure.
Insertion, Deletion, Traversal, Searching, Sorting, Merging, Concatenation and Copying
are among some of the major operations that are applied on the Data Structure.
Algorithm is a sequence of steps which when followed in a particular order gives us
desired results. It is used to develop logic for a program without considering the
syntax of the programming language.

Properties of Algorithm include Input & Output, Definiteness, Sequence, Finiteness,

Flexibility, Generality, Effectiveness.
To analyze an algorithm is to determine the amount of resources (such as time and
storage) necessary to execute it. Most algorithms are designed to work with inputs of
arbitrary length. Usually the efficiency or complexityof an algorithm is stated as a
function relating the input length to the number of steps (time complexity) or storage
locations (space complexity).
The choice of a particular algorithm depends on following performance analysis and
measurements : Space complexity and Time complexity
When we analyze an algorithm it depends on the input data, the efficiency of an
algorithm s complexity is measured for three cases namely Best case, Average case
and Worst case.
Abstract data types or ADTs are a mathematical specification of a set of data and the
set of operations that can be performed on the data. They are abstract in the sense
that the focus is on the definitions of the constructor that returns an abstract handle
that represents the data, and the various operations with their arguments.

Linked Lists
A link list is one of the fundamental data structures and can be used to implement other data
structures. Link list is a sequential data structure. It is a list of nodes where each node have at least two
parts:

1. Information part :Here

information (data) is stored. All the nodes contain similar type
of information.
2. Linked part :Here
address of next node is stored. It has a pointer that identifies the
next node in the list.
Linked List is a dynamic data structure. i.e. here memory is allocated at runtime.
Also,
memory need not be contiguous. We can allocate memory where we can get a free node.
Size of linked list depends upon the free memory in the computer system. . Items may be
added to it or deleted from it at will.

Advantages of Linked List:

1. Linked list are dynamic data structure. That is, they can grow or shrink during the
execution of a program.
2. It allows a new element to be inserted at or deleted from any position.
3. Adding or removing element is cheaper as compared to arrays because no movement
of data is required. Adding or removing an element is of complexity 1 which is
minimum for any operation.
4. Linked lists can be used to represent polynomials.
5. More memory saving can be achieved by sharing some elements in 2 or more linked
lists.
6. Linked List is useful for applications that use data structure of unpredictable size.
7. Concatenation of two lists can be done easily using linked list as compared to arrays.
8. It can be used to represent sparse array to save space.
9. It can be used to represent variable length strings efficiently.
10. In linked list (or dynamic) representation, memory is not preallocated.
Memory is
allocated whenever it is required. And it is deallocated (or removed) when it is not
needed. So it implements efficient memory utilization.
11. Many complex applications can be easily carried out with linked list.

Disadvantages of Linked list:

1. It allows sequential access only because each element contains the address of next
element.
2. Access to an arbitrary data item is little bit cumbersome and also time consuming

because of sequential access.

3. It requires extra storage space for address part which makes them nonuseful
for
small data items. To store an integer number, a node with integer data and address
field is allocated. That is more memory space is needed.
4. If an array is nearly full, then linked list takes more space than array.
The primitive operations performed on the linked list are as follows

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Creation
Insertion
Deletion
Traversing
Searching
Concatenation

Linked Lists
Algorithm of traverse (start)where
info the information part of node, link is address part of node,
start points to the address of first node. This algorithm traverses the linked list.

1. [make first node the current node by storing its address in ptr.]
ptr=start
2. [repeat process until we reach at end of list]
while ptr !=null
(a) process info[ptr]
(b) ptr=link [ptr] [ptr points to next node]
end while
3. end

Program Implementation of traversing a linked list

void traverse(struct list *start)
{s
truct list *ptr

ptr=start
while(ptr!= NULL)
{ printf("%d\t",ptr>
info)
ptr=ptr>
link
}r
eturn
}
In the above code fragment first contains the address of the start node passed to it by the
calling function which is main() in most of the cases. Now we assigned a temporary variable
ptr the address of start. Now by testing the condition while(ptr) which means whether ptr
exists and if it exists we display the info part of the node and move the ptr to next node.
And we repeat the same process repeatedly until the ptr points to NULL.