ABDOMINAL AND HIP FLEXOR MUSCLE ACTIVITY

DURING 2 MINUTES OF SIT-UPS AND CURL-UPS

ADRIAN M. BURDEN1

AND

COLIN G. REDMOND2

Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Crewe, United Kingdom; and 2Physiotherapy
Department, Borders General Hospital, Melrose, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT

Burden, AM, and Redmond, C. Abdominal and hip flexor muscle

activity during 2 minutes of sit-ups and curl-ups. J Strength
Cond Res 27(8): 21192128, 2013Previous studies have
compared muscle activity between different types of sit-ups
and curl-ups. However, few have examined the exercises used
by the armed forces or investigated the influence of exercise
duration on muscle activation. The aim of this study was to
compare abdominal and hip flexor muscle activity between the
style of sit-up used by the British Army and 4 variations of a curlup, at the start, middle, and end of a 2-minute exercise period.
Surface electromyograms (EMGs) were recorded from the
upper and lower rectus abdominis, external oblique, transversus
abdominis and internal oblique, and the rectus femoris (RF) of
23 British Army personnel. Isometric maximal voluntary contractions were used to normalize integrated EMGs to allow them to
be compared between exercises. Curl-ups with arms crossed
and feet restrained produced the highest integrated EMG in all
the abdominal muscles (p , 0.05). Feet-restrained sit-ups and
curl-ups also resulted in significantly higher activity in the RF
than in nonrestrained versions of the curl-up (p , 0.001). The
significant increase observed in muscle activity between the
start and the end of the exercises (p , 0.001) was deemed
to be in response to a reduction in force producing capacity
of existing motor units. The RF experienced the greatest
increase during exercises that activated the muscle the most,
that is, sit-ups and curl-ups with feet restrained (p , 0.001).
Previous research has indicated that such exercises produce
high shear and compressive forces in the lower back, which
can be injurious. Thus, if an organization wishes to assess the
endurance of abdominal muscles, rather than hip flexors, then
curl-ups without restraint of the feet should be performed
instead of exercises in which the feet are restrained.

KEY WORDS electromyography, trunk flexion exercises, fatigue

Address correspondence to Dr. Adrian M. Burden, a.burden@mmu.ac.
uk.
27(8)/21192128
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association

INTRODUCTION

oth the British and US Armies assess the endurance of military personnels abdominal and hip
flexor muscles by counting the number of situps that they can perform in 2 minutes. In both
tests, personnel are instructed to raise and lower their trunk
from the floor to the vertical, which involves both spine and
hip flexion. Such sit-ups produce greater moments (19) and
compressive forces (5) in the lower back when compared
with curl-ups that involve flexion of the spine rather than
the hips. Furthermore, although some studies (4,5) have
reported that the magnitude of activity of the rectus abdominis (RA) is higher during sit-ups than during curl-ups, there
are many (6,11,16,17,31) that have found activity to be similar or lower during sit-ups. When compared with sit-ups,
curl-ups have also been shown to reduce activity in the hip
flexors (11,12,16,19). Because of the lower compressive
forces and muscle challenge that they provide, Axler and
McGill (5) recommended curl-ups as exercises that may best
suit individuals with low back pain.
Military personnel in both armies are instructed to
maintain approximately 908 of knee flexion, and their ankles
are held to ensure that the feet are in contact with the
ground during the sit-ups. Since the first study by Walters
and Partridge (35), numerous researchers have agreed that
supporting the feet increases the activity of the hip flexors
when compared with sit-ups or curl-ups that are performed
with the feet unrestrained (4,16,26,30). Furthermore, Szasz
et al. (34) reported that the amplitude of electrical activity in
the RA and rectus femoris (RF) increased between the start,
middle, and end of the US Army version of the test and that
the increase was greater for the RF than for the RA.
High activation of the hip flexors, as has been evidenced
in the type of sit-ups that are performed by the military
personnel of both the British and US Armies, will likely
result in high muscles forces that pull the pelvis into anterior
tilt (21). The RF has a similar pattern of activation to
the psoas during abdominal exercises (22), which is considered to exert large shear and compressive forces to the lumbar spine during activities such as sit-ups (8). Increased
lumbar lordosis associated with anterior pelvic tilt can
also lead to facet joint compression and shear to the pars
interarticularis (8,33). Such forces can create vertebral rim
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Muscle Activity During Sit-Ups and Curl-Ups

Figure 1. Body position upon completion of the raising phase for the 5 exercises.

strains, increased disc pressures and vertebral end plate

deformation (14). Individuals who experience adverse
mechanical loading of the intervertebral discs could, therefore, be more susceptible to adverse matrix changes and disc
degeneration (32).
Because of the higher compression and shear forces that
occur when performing sit-ups as opposed to other forms of
abdominal exercise, they have been advised against for
individuals with low back injury, lumbar instability, or weak
abdominal muscles (5,11,12). Accordingly, the American College of Sports Medicine (3) and the Young Mens Christian
Association (YMCA) (36) both advise performing curl-ups as
opposed to sit-ups. In comparison to the Army sit-up tests,
the YMCA protocol assesses abdominal muscle endurance by
counting the number of curl-ups that can be performed in
one minute, and the American College of Sports Medicine
test requires subjects to keep time with a metronome
(40 b$min21) and perform as many repetitions as possible
(maximum 75).
Previous research outlined above has indicated that the
type and duration of sit-ups used by the British and US
Armies may provide a greater risk of low back problems

than do different forms of sit-ups or curl-ups advocated by

other organizations. Despite this, to the authors knowledge,
only Szasz et al. (34) have investigated the changes in
abdominal and hip flexor muscle activity during an armed
forces sit-up test. Thus, we aimed to provide further information on how armed forces style sit-ups activate muscles
and therefore load the musculoskeletal system in comparison with other forms of abdominal exercise, and how this
changes with the duration of the exercise test. This new
information would enhance the existing scientific evidence
used to inform the recommendations made by such organizations regarding which form of exercise should be performed and for how long. Specifically, we did this by
comparing the activity of 5 hip and trunk flexors between
an army style sit-up and 4 commonly performed versions of
a curl-up, and assessed the changes in muscle activity over
a 2-minute exercise period. We hypothesized that hip flexor
muscle activity would be greater in sit-ups and in exercises
with the feet restrained, that abdominal muscle activity
would be greater in exercises with the feet restrained, and
that activity in hip flexors and abdominals would increase
throughout the exercise duration.

METHOD
Experimental Approach to the Problem

Surface electromyography was used to measure the muscle

activity and, therefore, provide an indication of the loading
on the musculoskeletal provided by a hip flexor and
abdominal muscles. Muscle activity was compared between
the British Armys 2-minute sit-up section of its physical
fitness test (PFT) and 4 variations of this that involved
curl-ups instead of sit-ups (listed as exercises 15 below).
Activation was also compared between the start, middle,
and end of the 2-minute exercise period for each sit-up or
curl-up. The order of exercises was randomized, and each
testing session contained the performance of 1 of the 5
exercises, plus instruction of the technique required for the
next exercise. Where possible, that is, where soldiers were
not required to be on short-notice commitments, sessions
took place at approximately the same time of the day
to minimize diurnal variation. Sessions lasted approximately

Figure 2. Location of the electrogoniometer.

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TABLE 1. Electromyography sensor locations.*

Muscle

Sensor location

RF
URA
LRA
EO
TrA/IO

Placed 50% of the distance on line between the ASIS and the superior aspect of the patella (18)
Centered on muscle belly midway between sternum and the umbilicus (26,34)
Centered on muscle belly midway between the pubis and the umbilicus (26,34)
Placed 2 finger widths above the anterior half of the iliac crest and approximately 15 cm from the umbilicus (20)
Placed in the center of the triangle bounded by the lateral edge rectus sheath, the inguinal ligament, and a line
joining both to the ASIS (26)

*L/URA = lower and upper rectus abdominis; EO/IO = external and internal oblique; RF = rectus femoris; TrA = transverse
abdominis; ASIS = anterior superior iliac spine.

30 minutes with a minimum of 48 hours of rest between each

to reduce the effects of fatigue. The subjects were instructed to
perform the same eating and drinking habits on the day of each
test, and warm-up as per normal military PFT conditions.
Exercise 1 involved a bent knee sit-up as described in the
Introduction and used in the British Army PFT (24) with
feet anchored and arms crossed to touch the opposite shoulder (Figure 1A). The only variation was that the subject
repeatedly raised and lowered their trunk from the floor to
the vertical position at the prescribed cadence rather than at
their preferred rate.
Exercise 2 involved a curl-up with feet anchored and arms
crossed, performed to the equivalent of a 12-cm reach
(Figure 1B). This distance was measured from the tip of
the third finger and was based on that used in the Canadian
Standard Test for Fitness (10,13). Before the test, the subjects
performed the 12-cm reach and noted the position of the
tops of their knees in relation to 3 horizontal lines that were
drawn 10 cm apart on a screen in front on them.

Exercise 3 involved a curl-up as described for exercise 2

but with feet unanchored (Figure 1C).
Exercise 4 involved a curl-up as described for exercise 3,
but with arms uncrossed and straight by side (Figure 1D).
Rather than noting the position of their knees in relation to
the 3 lines, as in exercises 2 and 3, a wooden baton was
placed on a line on the ground 12 cm away from the tips
of subjects middle fingers, to provide feedback.
Exercise 5 involved a curl-up as described for exercise 4,
but with subjects instructed to perform lower abdominal
hollowing (LAH). This exercise is designed to recruit the
transversus abdominis (TrA) and the internal obliques (IO)
and has been advocated in the clinical rehabilitation of
patients with low back pain (28,29).
Subjects

Twenty-three full-time serving male soldiers (mean 6 SD

age = 24.6 6 5.9 years; height = 177.4 6 6.1 cm; mass =
75.8 6 7.6 kg) volunteered to take part in the study after

TABLE 2. Procedures used for isometric MVCs.*

Muscle
RF
URA/LRA
EO
TrA/IO

MVC procedure
Knee placed over medicine ball to form crook lying position (test start position). Knee extended
without rotating thigh while applying pressure against the leg above the ankle in the direction
of flexion (adapted from 18).
Crook-lying position assumed (test start position). Head and shoulders lifted off the mat. Arms
crossed as in the sit-up test position. Maximum resistance applied to trunk flexion. Lower limbs
stabilized by applying counterresistance to thighs (20).
Head and shoulders lifted as for URA/LRA. Trunk rotated to left by bringing right shoulder to
left hip. Maximum resistance applied to rotating shoulder. Lower limbs stabilized by applying
counterresistance to thighs (20).
(a) LAH performed with MVC (23).
(b) Head and shoulders lifted as per URA/LRA. Trunk rotated to right by bringing left shoulder to
the right hip. Maximum resistance applied to rotating shoulder. Lower limbs stabilized by applying
counterresistance to thighs (20).

*L/URA = lower/upper rectus abdominis; EO/IO = external/internal oblique; RF = rectus femoris; TrA = transverse abdominis;
EMG = electromyogram.
Either procedure 1 or 2 selected, depending on which produced the highest magnitude EMG.

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Muscle Activity During Sit-Ups and Curl-Ups

The subjects were instructed
to start each repetition on the
TABLE 3. Mean (SD) hip angle range of motion (degrees) at the start (phase A),
first beep of the metronome
middle (B), and end (C) of the duration of the 5 exercises (N = 23).
and to ensure that a beep was
Exercise
heard at the end of the upward
phase of the movement and
1
2
3
4
5
during body (scapulae) contact
with the floor. The duration of
Phase A
66 (12)
27 (13)
19 (10)
19 (14)
18 (12)
Phase B
67 (14)
33 (13)
16 (11)
19 (15)
18 (13)
a complete exercise, including
Phase C
68 (14)
39 (12)
17 (13)
20 (16)
18 (13)
raising and lowering, was 3
seconds. As with normal testing conditions, verbal time
checks were provided to the
subjects at 1 minute 30 seconds
and
at
1
minute
45
seconds.
The count was recorded and
responding to the advertisements in local military gymnasicompared
with
the
data
from
an electrogoniometer (see
ums. All the subjects provided informed and written consent
below),
attached
to
the
subject
to
record hip angle, to ensure
and were only included if they had no ongoing musculoskelthat the required rate of repetitions was performed.
etal injury or history of abdominal surgery or low back
pain. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ministry of
Electrogoniometry. The right hip joint angle of flexion and
Defence (Navy) Personnel Research Ethics Committee and
extension was measured during all the tests using an SG150
Manchester Metropolitan Universitys Ethics Committee.
type electrogoniometer (Biometrics Ltd., Gwent, United
Kingdom). Positioning was as in Figure 2, and the subjects
Procedures
reported no restriction of movement caused by its use.
To ensure standardization, all the tests were performed to
the sound of a metronome (Seiko SQ50: Thomann, BurgeSurface Electromyography. Electromyographical signals from
brach, Germany). Pilot testing showed that the subjects (n =
the upper RA (URA), lower RA (LRA), external oblique
4) were unable to attain the total score of 50 repetitions
(EO), TrA/IO, and RF were detected using type SX230
(mean = 42, SD = 4) in tests with feet unanchored, which
sensors (Biometrics Ltd.). Each sensor consisted of 2 circular
is the score required to pass the full sit-up test. Thus,
electrodes (10-mm diameter) with a fixed center-to-center
a metronome rate equivalent to a total of 40 repetitions
distance of 20 mm. Signals were preamplified (gain = 1,000;
(i.e., 20 reps$min21) was selected for all the tests to allow
input impedance .106 MV; bandwidth = 20450 Hz; comcomparison.
mon mode rejection ratio .9
6dB; noise ,5 mV) and sampled at 1,000 Hz. The sensors
were connected to a junction
TABLE 4. Summary of statistical results for iEMG.*
box, which was linked to a base
F-ratio
p Value
Differences
Effect size
unit via a RS422 data transfer
cable. The base unit was conURA
Exercise
5.99
0.002 2 . 1, 4, 5 & 3 . 4, 5
0.15
nected to a Latitude laptop
Phase
22.2
,0.001
3.2.1
0.20
Interaction
5.59
,0.001
0.05
PC (Dell, Ireland) using a USB
LRA
Exercise
2.73
0.034
2.1
0.09
cable.
Phase
20.2
,0.001
3.2.1
0.20
Sensors were located in
Interaction
2.83
0.035
0.05
accordance
with the recomEO
Exercise
2.79
0.043
2.4
0.08
mendations listed in Table 1,
Phase
36.0
,0.001
3.2.1
0.20
Interaction
4.80
0.002
0.05
fixed to the skin using T350
IO/TrA Exercise
4.07
0.006
2 . 1, 3, 4, 5
0.09
adhesive pads (Biometrics Ltd.)
Phase
28.0
,0.001
3.2.1
0.15
and further secured with microInteraction
2.55
0.046
0.02
pore hypoallergenic tape (3M,
RF
Exercise
81.1
,0.001
1 . 2 . 3 . 4, 5
0.63
Neuss, Germany). A reference
Phase
9.01
0.001
3.2.1
0.03
Interaction
3.59
0.002
0.03
electrode was attached over the
ulnar styloid using a wrist strap.
*L/URA = lower/upper rectus abdominis; EO/IO = external/internal oblique; RF = rectus
To enable electromyofemoris; TrA = transverse abdominis; iEMG = integrated electromyogram.
grams (EMGs) to be compared
between exercises, they were

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investigator, typically within

13 attempts. The principal
investigator provided resistance
for all MVCs to ensure standardization of this process.
Data Processing. For each subject, three 6-second phases (2 full
repetitions) were extracted from
the raw EMGs from each exercise. These were labeled phase
A (the third and fourth sit-ups),
phase B (2 sit-ups at the midway
stage), and phase C (the last 2
sit-ups of the test). The third
and fourth sit-ups were chosen
to allow for any adjustment to
the rate of the metronome.
Raw EMGs were full-wave rectified and integrated (iEMG)
over the entire duration of
Figure 3. Mean (+SD) integrated electromyogram (EMG) from the upper rectus abdominis expressed as
a percentage of isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at the start (phase A), middle (B), and end (C) of
each phase using DataLINK
the duration of the 5 exercises.
Analysis software PC version
5.05 (Biometrics Ltd.). This form
of processing was preferred to,
normalized. To facilitate this, EMGs from isometric maximal
for example, peak activity because it includes all the recorded
voluntary contractions (MVCs) were also recorded. The
electrical activity generated by the muscle during the exercise.
MVCs were performed in accordance with the recomThe iEMGs were then normalized by expressing them as
mendations listed in Table 2. Each MVC was held for
a percentage of the iEMG from the isometric MVC of the same
6 seconds once maximal effort was assessed by the principal
muscle, also over 6 seconds.
Statistical Analyses

Figure 4. Mean (+SD) integrated electromyogram (EMG) from the lower rectus abdominis expressed as
a percentage of isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at the start (phase A), middle (B), and end (C) of
the duration of the 5 exercises.

All data were analyzed using

the SPSS Version 16.0 for Windows with an alpha (a) level
set at p # 0.05. The iEMG
from each muscle and hip joint
range of motion (ROM) was
analyzed using factorial analyses of variance (ANOVAs;
5 tests 3 3 phases) with a Bonferroni post hoc test (25). The
Shapiro-Wilk test was significant for 60% of the data sets.
Thus, all data were log transformed (log10) before being
analyzed using the ANOVAs.
Violations of the assumption
of sphericity were corrected
for using the Huynh-Feldt
Adjustment. Based on 23 subjects, the statistical power would
be 0.19, 0.67, 0.97, and 0.99 for
effect sizes of 0.25, 0.50, 0.75,
and 1.00.

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Muscle Activity During Sit-Ups and Curl-Ups

exercises (all curl-ups). Despite
the subjects being instructed to
perform each of the curl-ups
over the equivalent of a 12-cm
reach, the effect of anchoring
the feet resulted in a significantly greater ROM for exercise 2 in comparison with
exercises 35.
No significant difference
(F1.40, 30.8 = 2.18, p = 0.143)
existed in the ROM between
the 3 phases of all the exercises.
However, a significant interaction (F5.29, 116 = 6.56, p ,
0.001) occurred between exercise type and phase, with the
ROM for exercise 2 (curl-up
with feet restrained) increasing
from phase A to phase C.
Figure 5. Mean (+SD) integrated electromyogram (EMG) from the external oblique expressed as a percentage of
isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at the start (phase A), middle (B), and end (C) of the duration of the
5 exercises.

RESULTS
Hip Joint Range of Motion

The mean ROM (Table 3) was significantly different

between exercise type (F3.21, 70.7 = 54.7, p , 0.001), with
exercise 1 (sit-up) having a greater ROM than the other

Differences
Between Exercises

The iEMG from all muscles was

significantly different between
exercises (see Table 4 for statistical information and specific
comparisons). The URA and LRA and the EO and TrA/IO
were generally more active in exercise 2 than in the other
exercises. In addition, exercise 3 (curl-up with arms crossed)
required significantly more URA activity than did exercises 4
and 5 (curl-ups with arms
straight by sides; Figures 37).
The RF was significantly more
active in exercise 1 than in the
other exercises and more active
in exercise 2 than in exercises 35
(Figure 7). Despite the RF being
relatively inactive in exercise 3
(,10% MVC), it was significantly
more active than in the other
curl-ups where the feet were
unanchored (exercises 4 and 5).
Differences Between Phases

Figure 6. Mean (+SD) integrated electromyogram (EMG) from the internal oblique and transversus abdominis
expressed as a percentage of isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at the start (phase A), middle (B),
and end (C) of the duration of the 5 exercises.

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The iEMG from all the

muscles was significantly different between phases (Table
4). Figures 37 show that all
muscles displayed more activity in the middle (phase B)
than at the start (phase A) of
the exercise duration, and most
muscles were more active at the
end of the duration (phase C)
than in the middle (phase B).

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phases B and C, whereas activity in other abdominals

increased over time. Activity
in the RF also increased with
duration, but only for exercises
1 and 2.
The 5 exercises needed to be
performed on separate days to
avoid the effects of fatigue.
Because of the existing high
number of visits to the laboratory, it was considered impractical to perform a reliability
analysis, although this would
have been desirable. However,
to enable muscle activity to be
compared between exercises,
and between muscles, the
EMGs recorded during the
exercises were normalized by
expressing them as a percentage
Figure 7. Mean (+SD) integrated electromyogram (EMG) from the rectus femoris expressed as a percentage of
of those recorded during MVCs.
isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at the start (phase A), middle (B), and end (C) of the duration of the
Although this is a method that
5 exercises.
is advocated by electromyographers (9), it is recognized that
Interaction Between Exercises and Phases
not all subjects will be able to maximally activate their muscles
Significant interactions between exercise and phase existed for
during MVCs (1). This was indeed the case for 3 of the
all the muscles analyzed (Figures 37 and Table 4). For all 4
muscles in this study, as the mean + SD for the normalized
abdominal muscles, activity generally increased in a linear fashEMGs exceeded 100% (Figures 3, 5, and 7). However, this was
ion between phases in all but 1 of the exercises. In exercise 3,
mostly the case only at the end of the 2-minute exercise period
the increase in activity was either not as great between phases B
when the muscles would likely have been close to if not maxand C as it was between phases A and B (URA and EO), or
imally activated. This, and the established protocols used for
the activity actually decreased between phases B and C (LRA
performing MVCs (Table 2) and the practice period allowed
and TrA/IO). Activation of the RF increased in a linear fashion
gives the authors confidence that comparisons could be made
across phases in exercises 1 and 2 but remained fairly constant
between exercises. Moreover, EMGs were recorded throughacross phases for the other 3 exercises.
out the duration of each exercise without the removal of electrodes. Thus, the limitation described above does not apply to
DISCUSSION
comparisons made between phases of each exercise.
This study aimed to compare the magnitude of muscle
Apart from the EO during phase A, the abdominals were
activation, as an indication of muscle loading on the skeletal
more active during the curl-up with feet restrained (exercise
system between the sit-up exercise used by the British Army
2) than the sit-up (exercise 1). These findings agree with the
and 4 variations of this. We also aimed to assess how the
limited amount of research (5) that has compared these
muscle activity altered over the 2-minute duration of each
exercises for the EO, but not for the URA. We also found
exercise type. Abdominal muscles (URA, LRA, EO, and
that for the abdominal muscles, feet-restrained curl-ups
TrA/IO) were generally found to be most active during curlexhibited greater activity than the other (nonrestrained)
ups in which the feet were restrained. Activity in the
curl-ups for at least 2 of the 3 measurement points (i.e., start,
abdominal muscles was also similar in sit-ups and curl-ups
middle, or end of the 2-minute duration). Despite these difin which the feet were unrestrained. Greatest activity in the
ferences being only statistically significant for the TrA/
RF, which was used to represent the hip flexors (5), occurred
IO, they contrast with those of Parfrey et al. (30) who
during exercises where the feet were restrained, with the sitreported generally greater URA and LRA EMGs for nonup being significantly more active than the curl-up in this
fixated curl-ups. Nevertheless, our finding that L/URA
case. The activity of all abdominal muscles increased after
activity is generally lower during sit-ups than during nonre1 minute of exercise in all 5 variations of the sit-up and
strained curl-ups (exercise 3) does agree with other research
curl-up. However, a significant interaction was caused
that has compared muscle activation between these forms of
by the activity in the LRA and TrA/IO decreasing between
exercise (6,11,16,17).
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Muscle Activity During Sit-Ups and Curl-Ups

In the majority of cases, abdominal activity was reduced
when, for curl-ups, the position of the arms was changed
from crossed to straight by sides. The change in arm position (i.e., between exercise 3 and exercises 4 and 5) shifted
the center of gravity of the upper body toward the hips
and, therefore, required less muscular torque to complete
the exercise. Because the moment arms of the abdominal
muscles would not have changed, this would explain the
lower neural drive recorded with the arms by the side.
As expected, instructing the subjects to hollow their
abdominals during curl-ups had the desired effect of
increasing activity of the TrA/IO, although this difference
was not as statistically significant as it was in the EO. Manual
muscle testing was used to ensure both the correct placement of electrodes and that minimal crosstalk existed
between the EO and TrA/IO electrode sites. Thus, increased
activation of the EO during exercise 5 implies that the
subjects may have performed more of an abdominal bracing
than hollowing maneuver (2). Nevertheless, increased activation of these muscles with little or no effect on the L/URA
suggests that the motor control of the spine could be
improved in curl-ups with LAH. Despite not being significant, these findings reinforce the recommendations of OSullivan et al. (28,29) that LAH should be used in the
rehabilitation of patients with chronic low back pain.
As previously stated, the exercises that best recruited the
abdominal muscles were those that restrained the feet.
However, these exercises also resulted in the greatest activity
in the RF. Our findings agree with those of previous research
that has compared abdominal exercises with feet restrained
and not restrained (4,16,27,30,35). The greater RF activity in
the sit-up than the feet-restrained curl-up (mean across
phases and subjects = 46 and 32% MVC for exercises 1
and 2, respectively) also serves to reinforce previous research
that has warned against using sit-ups for individuals with low
back injury, lumbar instability, or weak abdominal muscles
(5,11,12). Moreover, high activation of the RF during feetrestrained curl-ups relative to curl-ups without restraint
(mean for exercises 2, 3, 4, and 5 = 32, 5, 4, and 4% MVC)
implies that large and potentially injurious compressive and
shear forces would also be experienced during such exercises
(8). Despite attempts to standardize the ROM, it is possible
that the difference in RF activity between foot-restrained and
nonrestrained curl-ups could partly be because of the greater
hip ROM recorded with the feet restrained (mean difference
of 8, 15, and 208 for phases A, B, and C). Some of this
increased ROM would have been brought about by active
hip flexion, in addition to spinal flexion, which would have
required increased activation of the hip flexors. However,
this limitation serves to demonstrate that restraining the feet
during a curl-up will invariably result in undesired hip flexion
and increased activity of the hip flexors. Thus, feet-restrained
curl-ups should be added to the list of exercises that should
not be performed by individuals at risk of injury.

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For each exercise, repetitions of trunk and hip flexion and

extension were performed over the same ROM and for the
same duration, as set by the metronome. Thus, the pattern of
torque required to perform each repetition would likely have
been the same at the beginning, middle, and end of the
2-minute exercise period, and during repetitions in between.
Assuming that the change in muscle moment arms during
each repetition was the same across the exercise period, the
pattern of force required by the abdominal and hip flexor
muscles would also have remained the same at 0, 1, and
2 minutes. Despite this, the EMG amplitude increased for
most muscles between the start and the end of most exercise
variations. Increased neural drive to the muscle has previously been reported for sustained submaximal contractions
(15), although these have been isometric rather than nonisometric as in our study. This increase in muscle activity is
generally thought to represent the recruitment of new motor
units to supplement the reduction in force because of
impaired excitation-contraction coupling of previously
recruited units (7).
Curl-ups with neither feet restrained nor LAH produced
the lowest increases in muscle activity across phases (mean
for all muscles for exercise 3 = 8% and exercise 4 = 13%).
The RF showed the largest increase in activity of all the
muscles analyzed. Not surprisingly, this occurred only during exercises that involved the feet being restrained, where
its activity was also highest and, therefore, fatigue likely to be
greatest. Our findings are in agreement with those of Szasz
et al. (34), who reported that the increase in RF activity was
greater than that of the RA over the 2-minute duration of the
foot-restrained sit-up used by the US Army. Moreover, the
increases that were observed in our study for the sit-up (21
and 29% between phases A and B, and B and C, respectively)
were surpassed by those seen during the foot-restrained
curl-up (49 and 41%).
As discussed above, such increases likely occurred to
maintain the muscle force required to perform the exercises
as subjects muscles became fatigued. Coupled with the fact
that the exercise rate and ROM remained the same, it is
likely that the higher compressive and shear forces that
occur during feet-restrained abdominal exercises (5) are also
maintained throughout the period of exercise. The same
cannot necessarily be said for sit-ups that conform to the
protocol required by the British or US Army, which are
not necessarily performed at a standard rate. Such exercises
would, undoubtedly at times, be performed at a greater rate
than that set, for example, by a metronome. Higher angular
accelerations of the trunk and hip would require larger forces
in the trunk and hip flexors and, most likely, increased compressive and shear forces in the lower back. Should organizations continue to assess the endurance of abdominal
muscles by counting the number of completed feet retrained
sit-ups in a given time period, as is currently the case in
the US and British Army, further research should be carried
out into the effect of cadence on the biomechanics of the

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exercise and the implications that this may have on forces in
the lower back and the risk of injury.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Abdominal muscles were most activated during curl-up
exercises in which the feet were restrained. Thus, individuals
who are seeking a higher muscle challenge should adopt this
form of exercise. However, restraint of the feet during curl-ups
and sit-ups activates the hip flexors (RF in this study) to
significantly greater levels than observed in curl-ups without
restraint of the feet. Previous research has indicated that high
activation of the hip flexors increases compressive and shear
forces in the lower back. Thus, in agreement with previous
recommendations, individuals with low back injury, lumbar
instability, or weak abdominal muscles should avoid abdominal
exercises in which the feet are restrained (5,11,12). Instead,
such individuals should perform curl-ups with the feet unrestrained, after appropriate assessment and progression of motor
control performance for this level of exercise. These exercises
activate the abdominals to levels that are similar to those experienced in feet-restrained sit-ups, as used by the British Army.
Activity of the abdominals and hip flexor increased
between the start, middle, and end of the 2-minute duration
of most exercises. Based on previous research that has
investigated isometric contractions, this is likely to be
required to compensate for the reduction in force provided
by motor units that have already been recruited. Thus, for
exercises that are performed at a constant rate, as in this
study, muscle force and possibly compressive and shear
forces are unlikely to increase with exercise duration. Further
research is required to investigate the pattern of muscle
activity and forces in abdominal exercises where the rate is
not controlled, as used by the British and US Armies.

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