Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

1.2 Retinal Implantation:

A retinal implant is a biomedical implant technology currently being
developed by a number of private companies and research institutions
worldwide. The first application of an implantable stimulator for vision
restoration was developed by Drs. Brindley and Lewin in 1968. The implant is
meant to partially restore useful vision to people who have lost their vision.
There are two types of retinal implants namely epiretinal implant and subretinal
implant.

Epiretinal Implant :
Epiretinal implants sit in the inner surface of the retina. They are advantageous as they bypass a large portion of the retina. It could provide visual
perception to individuals with retinal diseases extending beyond the photoreceptor layer. The implants receive input from a camera and processing unit
(E.g. on glasses). Electrodes from the implants electrically stimulate

Subretinal implants sit on the outer surface of the retina, between the photoreceptor layer and the retinal pigment epithelium, directly stimulating reti- nal
cells and relying on the normal processing of the inner and middle retinal layers. It
has a simpler design .It replace damaged rods and cones by Silicon plate carrying
1000s of light-sensitive micro photodiodes each with a stim- ulation electrode.
Light from image activates the micro photodiodes, the electrodes inject currents
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Subretinal Implant :

the ganglion cells and axons at the start of the optic nerve.

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

into the neural cells.

Among the above implant methods, the epiretinal implant has features that the
image resolution can be high because the stimulus signal can be directly conducted
to neuron cells and that living retinas are not seriously damaged. Trade of for the
two types is that, Subretinal Implant uses the entire retina (except the rods/cones).
Epiretinal Implant does not; it must replace the function of entire retina and
convert light to neural code. But the input to the Epiretinal Implant is more easily

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controlled (external camera).

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

Chapter 2
ARTIFICIAL RETINA
USING THIN FILM
TRANSISTORS

2.1 Operation
Artificial Retina using Thin-Film Transistors (TFTs) is fabricated on transparent and exible substrates; it uses the same fabrication processes as conventional poly-Si TFTs and encapsulated using SiO2, in order to perform in
corrosive environments. Although the artificial retina is fabricated on the glass

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plastic substrate. The artificial retina using TFTs is shown in Figure 2.1.

substrate here to confirm the elementary functions, it can be fabricated on the

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

The retina array includes matrix-like multiple retina pixels. Although

large contact pads are located for fundamental evaluation, a principal part is 27 300
cm2, which corresponds to 154 ppi. The retina pixel consists of a photo transistor,

considering the transistor characteristic of TFTs. The photosensitivity of the

reverse-biased p/i/n poly-Si phototransistor is 150 pA at 1000 lx for white light and
proper values for all visible color lights. The field efect mobility and the threshold
voltage of the n-type and p-type

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high efciency, and the current mirror and load resistance are designed by

current mirror, and load resistance. The photo transis- tor is optimized to achieve

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

poly-Si TFT were 93 cm2 V -1s-1 , 3.6 V,

47 cm2 V -1s-1 and -2.9 V, respectively. First, the photo transistors perceive the irradiated light (Lphoto) and
induce the photo-induced current (Iphoto). Next, the current mirror amplifies
Iphoto to the mirror current (Imirror). Finally, the load resistance converts Imirror
to the output voltage (Vout). Consequently, the retina pix- els irradiated with bright
light output a higher Vout, whereas the retina pixels irradiated with darker light
output a lower Vout.

Electronic photo devices and circuits are integrated on the artificial retina,
which is implanted on the inside surface of the living retina at the back part of the
human eyeballs. Since the irradiated light comes from one side of the artificial

and exible substrate and implanted using epiretinal implant is shown in Figure 2.2.

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is preferable. The concept model of the artificial retina fabricated on a transparent

retina and the stimulus signal goes out of the other side, the transparent substrate

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

2.2 Fabrication of thin film phototransistors

Low temperature poly-Si TFTs have been developed in order to fabricate

also required because of their small parasitic capacitance which can re- alize high
speed operation. Since ion implantation is one of the key factors in fabricating such
as TFTs and CMOS configurations, several non-mass- separated I/D techniques are
proposed. These techniques, however, are not suitable for conventional poly-Si
TFT processes and cannot be applied to

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tegrated drivers, CMOS configurations are indispensable. Self-aligned TFTs are

active matrix LCDs with integrated drivers on large glass substrates. For in-

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

large glass substrates,

especially those over 300 mm square.

2.2.1 ION Doping Techniques

Figure 2.3 shows a schematic diagram of the new I/D system which is one
of the non-mass-separated implanters. 5 percent PH3 or 5 percent B2H6 diluted by
hydrogen is used for the doping gas and an RF plasma is formed
in the chamber by RF power with a frequency of 13.56 MHz
Ions from discharged gas are accelerated by an extraction electrode and an
acceleration electrode and are implanted into the substrate. Main features
of this system are:
1) A large beam area (over 300 mm square)

With this system, impurities can be implanted over the entire 300 mm
square substrate with a maximum accelerating voltage of over 110 KeV which is
sufcient for implanting impurities through the 150nm SiO2 gate insulator. On the
other hand, the conventional non-mass-separated I/D techniques are severely
limited in beam area, which is about 150 mm in diameter. Further- more, they are
incapable of implanting impurities through the gate insulator

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2)A high accelerating voltage (maximum: 110 KeV)

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

since the accelerating voltages are less than

10 KeV. Consequently, the gate
insulator must be removed prior to implantation, which can result in failure from
surface contamination or breakdown between gate electrodes and source and drain
regions.

2.2.1.1 Self Aligned structure and TFT charecteristics

S/A TFTs and non-S/A TFTs with 25 nm thick as-deposited channel poly-Si
r31 were fabricated on the glass substrates, and the new I/D technique was used to
achieve a self-aligned structure. Schematic cross sectional views of a S/A TFT and
a non-S/A TFT are illustrated in Figure 2.4(a) and 2.4(b), respectively. Since the
parasitic capacitance between the gate electrode and source and drain regions of a
S/A TFT is estimated to be only about 2 -5 percent that of a non-S/A TFT, high

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speed operation can be expected.

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

The characteristics of S/A TFTs are compared with those of non-S/A

TFTs. The comparisons in the n-channel and the p-channel TFTs are shown in
Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6, respectively. In these experiments, it is found that the
characteristics of S/A and non-S/A TFTs are similar, and mobility of the n-channel
TFTs are around 5 cm2/V-sec while those of the p-channel TFTs are around 3
cm2/V.sec. It should be noted that no degradation can be observed as a result of

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using the new I/D technique.

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

2.2.2 New Masking technique and CMOS Process

A non-resist-masking process, however, is required when the CMOS configuration is fabricated using the new I/D technique, since the temperature of the
substrate reaches about 300oC due to the high accelerating voltage. In order to
solve this problem, a new masking technique is also proposed. In this process, nchannel gate electrodes and p-channel gate electrodes are formed separately in a
sequential manner.
In the process sequence for the CMOS configuration, An SiO2 bufer layer is
deposited on the glass substrate to protect TFTs from contamination from
components of the glass. Then, pad poly-Si patterns are formed for source and
drain regions, which are made of a 150 nm poly-Si film. A 25 nm channel poly-Si
layer is deposited by low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) at 600 oC.
Thinner poly-Si film gives better electrical characteris- tics such as high ON
current, low OFF current and low photo-current. After patterning of the channel
poly-Si layer, a 150 nm SiO2 gate insulator is deposited by electron cyclotron
resonance chemical vapor deposition (ECR- CVD) at 100 oC in a vacuum. Then, a

technique. Boron ions are implanted through the gate insulator with a dose of 5 x
1015 cm-2 at energy of 80 keV. N-channel gate electrodes are also formed and
phosphorus ions are implanted with a dose of 3x1015 cm-2 at energy of 110 keV
by the new I/D technique Impurities are activated by a XeCl excimer laser.

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The next step is to form source and drain regions of p-channel TFTs by the new I/D

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Cr film is deposited at 180 oC. First, only p-channel gate electrodes are formed.

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

.3 Device characterization of p/i/n Thin- film

phototransistors for photosensor applications
Thin-Film photo devices are promising for photo sensor applications, such as
ambient light sensors, image Scanners, artificial retinas etc. Here thin-film photo
devices are integrated with low-temperature poly-Si thin-film tran- sistors. The
p/i/n TFPT is shown in Figure. 2.7. The p/i/n TFPT is fabricated on a glass
substrate using the same fabrication processes as TFTs which were discussed
earlier. First, an amorphous-Si film is deposited us- ing low-pressure chemicalvapor deposition of Si2H6 and crystallized using XeCl excimer laser to form a
poly-Si film, whose thickness is 50 nm. Next, a SiO2 film is deposited using
plasma-enhanced chemical-vapor deposition of tetraethylorthosilicate to form a
control-insulator film, whose thickness is 75 nm. A metal film is deposited and
patterned to form a control electrode. Afterward, phosphorous ions are implanted

keV with a dose of 1.5 1015 cm-2 to form a p-type cathode region. Finally, watervapor heat treatment is performed at 400 oC for 1 h to thermally activate the
dopant ions and simultaneously improve the poly-Si film, control-insulator film,
and their interfaces.The p/i/n TFPT must be illuminated from the backside of

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anode region, and boron ions are also implanted through a photo resist mask at 25

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through a photo resist mask at 55 keV with a dose of 2 1015 cm-2 to form an n-type

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

the glass substrate because the control

electrode is usually formed using an
opaque metal film. Therefore, the other LTPS TFTs are also illuminated when the
p/i/n TFPT is integrated with them. However, the photo leakage current in the
LTPS TFTs can be negligible by appropriately designing them, i.e., the gate width
should be wide for the p/i/n TFT, whereas narrow for the LTPS TFTs.

2.3.1 Electrooptical Measurement

The electrooptical measurement is shown in Figure.2.8. The p/i/n TFPT is
located on a rubber spacer in a shield chamber and connected via a manual prober
to a voltage source and ampere meter. White light from a halogen lamp is formed
to be parallel through a convex lens, reected by a triangu- lar prism and irradiated
through the glass substrates to the back surfaces of the p/i/n TFPT. Although the
light from a halogen lamp includes the light from 400 to 750 nm with a peak
around 600 nm and is therefore reddish despite a built-in infrared filter, the
conclusion in this research is generally correct. The electric current between the nand p-type regions is detected with changing the applied voltage and irradiated

dark current, Idetect when Lphoto = 0, is sufciently small except

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The electrooptical characteristic is shown in Figure.2.9. First, it is found that the

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illuminance.

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

w
hen Vctrl and Vapply are large.

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The reason is because the p/i and i/n junctions steadily endure the reverse
bias. This characteristic is useful to improve the S/N ratio of the p/i/n TFPT for
photo sensor applications. Next, Idetect increases as Lphoto in- creases. This
characteristic is also useful to acquire fundamental detectabil- ity. Finally, Idetect
becomes maximal when Vctrl Vapply. This reason is
discussed below:

When Vctrl 0, since Vctrl in the entire intrinsic region, a hole channel
is induced, and a pseudo p/n junction appears near the anode region. Since a
depletion layer is narrowly formed there, where carrier generation occurs due to

cathode region, the hole density is low there, which is sim- ilar to the pinchof
phenomena in the saturation region of MOSFETs. Since another depletion layer is
widely formed there, Idetect is large. When 0 Vctrl Vapply, since Vctrl on the
side of the cathode region, an electron channel is induced there. At the same time,
since Vctrl on the side of the anode region, a hole channel is still induced there.
Since the depletion layer

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a hole channel is still induced, since Vctrl is approximately equal to near the

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light irradiation, Idetect is small. When Vctrl is approximately equal to 0, although

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

is widely formed between the electron and hole channels, Idetect is large.
When Vctrl is approximately equal to Vapply, although an electron channel is
further induced, since Vctrl is approximately near the anode region, the electron
density is low there. Since the depletion layer is widely formed there, Idetect is
large. Since generated carriers are transported through the electron channel with
high conductance instead of the hole channel, Idetect becomes maximal. When
Vapply Vctrl, since Vctrl in the entire intrinsic region, an electron channel is
further induced, and a pseudo p/n junction appears near the cathode region. Since
another depletion layer is narrowly formed there, Idetect is small. The anomalous
increases of Idetect when Vctrl and Vapply are large may be caused by the impact
ionization and avalanche breakdown in the depletion layers. The asymmetric
behavior, for example, comparing Vctrl = 2 and + 5 V for Vapply =3 V, may be
occasioned by the diference of electric field because the hole density when Vctrl =

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2 V and donor density.

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

Chapter 3

WIRELESS POWER SUPPLY USING INDUCTIVE

COUPLING
3.1 Introduction
Many implanted electrical power to function; be it in the form of an implanted battery or via wireless power transmission. It is often advantageous to
develop methods for wireless power transmission to an implant located deep
inside the body as replacement of batteries which requires additional surgery is
undesirable. An example of this is a retinal prosthesis. A reti- nal prosthesis can

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visual system of the blind. Such prosthesis will requir

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create a sense of vision by electrically stimulating intact neural cells in the

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

continuous power transmission in order to achieve real-time moving images.

Efcient transmission of power is a performance limiting factor for successful
implementation of the prosthesis. We estimate that a high density electrode array
with more than 1000 electrodes will consume about 45 mW of power. This
includes 25 mW to operate the electronics on the chip and an addi- tional 20 mW
for neuronal stimulation with a 3.3 V stimulation threshold. The latter is calculated
based on 64 simultaneously operating electrodes each requiring a maximum of 0.3
mW at 60 Hz image refresh rate. Inductive coupling of magnetic field is an efcient
way for transmitting energy through tissue. This is because electrical energy can be
easily converted to magnetic energy and back using conductive coils.
Traditionally, a pair of inductive coils; a primary (transmit) and a secondary
(receive) coils, are used. The secondary coil can be located within the eye and the
primary coil external to the eye. However, several problems will arise if we
implement this method. The first problem is difficulty in placing a large receive
coil inside the eye. This will require complicated surgical procedure, often a ma- jor
challenge in implementing a wireless power solution. The other problems

reduction in power transfer to the device. In order to overcome these prob- lems we
propose the use of an intermediate link between the primary and secondary coil as
shown in Figure 3.1. In this figure we show the possible locations for one-pair coils
and a two pair coils system which consists of an additional intermediate link made
out of a pair of serially connected coils. In this method, the secondary coil is
located under the sclera (eye wall) and is connected to the implanted device via
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tion between the primary and secondary coils. The latter problems result in

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we face are large separation between the coils and the constant relative mo-

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

electrical wires which are embedded under the wall of the eye. By placing these
components under the sclera, we avoid having a permanent wire breaching through
the eye wall. The trans- mit coil is placed on the skin of the head at an
inconspicuous location, for example at the back of the ear. The intermediate coils
are positioned with one end on the sclera over the receive coil and the other end
under the skin beneath the transmit coil. The advantage of this method is
immunity to variation in coupling due to rapid movements of the eye as relative
motion between adjacent coils is restricted. It also has the potential to increase the
power transfer efciency compared to a one-pair coil system.

3.2 Working
The wireless power supply using inductive coupling is shown in Figure 3.2.
The right graph in Figure 3.2. is a measured stability of the supply voltage. This
system includes a power transmitter, power receiver, Diode Bridge, and Zener
diodes. The power transmitter consists of an ac voltage source and induction

coil is an enameled copper wire, the diameter is 1.8 cm, and the winding
number is 370 times. The power receiver also consists of an induction coil,
which is the same as the power transmitter and located face to face. The diode
bridge rectifies the ac voltage to the dc voltage, and the Zener diodes regulate
the voltage value. The Diode Bridge and Zener diodes are discrete devices and
encapsulated in epoxy resin. Although the current system should be downsized
and bio-compatibility has to be inspected, the supply system is in principle very
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which is a resonance frequency of this system. The material of the induction

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coil. The Vpp of the ac voltage source is 10 V, and the frequency is 34 kHz,

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

simple to implant it into human eyeballs. As a result, the generated power is

not so stable as shown in Figure 3.2., which may be because the artificial retina
is fabricated on a insulator sub- strates, has little parasitic capacitance, and is
subject to the inuence of noise. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm whether

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the artificial retina can be correctly operated even using the unstable power

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

Chapter 4
SUMMARY

The artificial retina using poly-Si TFTs and wireless power supply using
inductive coupling are located in a light-shield chamber, and Vout in each retina
pixel is probed by a manual prober and voltage meter. White light from a metal
halide lamp is diaphragmmed by a pinhole slit, focused through a convex lens,
reected by a triangular prism and irradiated through the glass substrate to the back
surfaces of the artificial retina on a rubber spacer. The real image of the pinhole slit
is reproduced on the back surface. Figure. 4.1 shows the detected result of
irradiated light. It is confirmed that the Lphoto distribution can be reproduced as

distortion is slightly observed, which is due to the misalignment of the optical

system or characteristic vari- ation of TFTs.

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supply system even if it is driven using the unstable power source, although shape

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the Vout distribution owing to the parame- ter optimization of the wireless power

Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

It was found that the Lphoto profile can be

correctly detected as the Vout
profile even if it is driven using unstable power source generated by induc- tive
coupling, Diode Bridge, and Zener diodes. In order to apply the artificial retina to
an actual artificial internal organ, we should further develop a pulse signal generator
appropriate as photorecepter cells, consider the interface be- tween the stimulus
electrodes and neuron cells, investigate the dependence of Vout on Lphoto, which
realizes grayscale sensing, etc. However, the above result observed, shows the

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feasibility to implant the artificial retina into hu- man eyeballs.

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Artificial retina using thin film of photo transistors

Chapter 5
REFERENCES

Yuta Miura, Tomohisa Hachida, and Mutsumi Kimura, Member, IEEE

, Artificial Retina Using Thin-Film Transistors Driven by Wireless Power Supply
IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 11, NO. 7, JULY 2011.

M. Kimura, Y. Miura, T. Ogura, S. Ohno, T. Hachida, Y. Nishizaki,

T. Yamashita, and T.Shima, Device characterization of p/i/n thin- film
phototransistor for photosensor applications, IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 31, no. 9, pp. 984986, 2010

Satoshi Inoue, Minoru Matsuo, Tsutomu Hashizume, Hideto Ishiguro,

UTILIZING NEW ION DOPING AND MASKING TECHNIQUE www.ieeexplore.ieee.org

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ALIQNED POLY-Si TFTS AND CIRCUIT SCHEME

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Takashi Nakazawa, and Hiroyuki Ohshima, LOW TEMPERATURE CMOS SELF-

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