Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Science
and
Differentiation
Technology:
or
Interpenetration? *
RICHARD
MNCH
West Germany
Remarks
FOR
the concept of technology as the application of
US, NOWADAYS,
and at the
general theory to the solution of practical and specific problems,
same time a particularly
close relationship
between science and technology,
has the quality of a well-known fact. Looking back through history and comparing cultures, this is not quite as obvious as it seems to us today. And there
are still major differences to be found as far as the relationship
between scientific theory and practical technology is concerned,
even among those societies
that are regarded as part of modern Western culture-England,
France, Gerand
the
United
for
and
the
States,
many
example. Historically
interculturally,
of
as
is
a
feature
of
modern
Western
concept
technology
applied theory
culture,
or, to be more precise, a feature that originated in Europe in the culture of the
Italian Renaissance
of the 15th and 16th centuries. We need only think of the
of India and of Hellenism to realize that theoretical abstraction
achievements
had been even more highly developed outside Western
Europe before the
Renaissance.
The same is true for sophisticated
technology, the prime example
here being China with the many inventions
it had long before the West.
a comparable
However, before the European
Renaissance,
linking of theory
and technology and the thought of technology as theory in application had not
existed anywhere
outside Europe. This observation
is to be found in Max
Weber's
1972b: 143-147,
(1972a: 1-2, 10-11, 414-416, 435-443, 481-484;
studies on the development
of modern
162-169; 1973: 595-598) comparative
Western culture. After Max Weber it was, more than anyone else, Edgar Zilsel
(1942a, 1942b, 1945) who showed this in his work on the social origins of
modern science. Others, like Bernal (1967), the Marxist-oriented
historian of
or
Needham
the
well-known
science,
Joseph
(1954, 1969),
sinologist, see the
of
and
science
and
as something
proximity
practice,
theory
technology
Paper presented at the Theory Section roundtable chaired by Dean Gerstein at the 77th
Meeting of the American Sociological Association, San Francisco, September 6-10, 1982.
158
modern Western culture from other
decisively new that has distinguished
It can therefore be said that the particularly
cultures since the Renaissance.
close relationship
between scientific theory and technology in modern Western
culture is a generally accepted historical fact.
however, if we apply a perspective
Things start to look a bit different,
of modern
widely accepted among sociologists that says that the development
societies is characterized
and rationalization
of
by an increasing differentiation
social spheres according to their own laws (Habermas,
1981; Luhmann,
1970,
1976, 1979). Applied to the subject in hand, this would
1976, 1980; Schluchter,
of theory and technology and their
mean the increasing social differentiation
autonomous
rationalization
i.e. the increased
of theory and the
abstraction
to the theory of
increased
of
practical
specification
technology.
According
both subsystems should thus be able to increase their
functional differentiation,
efficiency to benefit the societal system of which they are a part. The trouble
here is that the question of the necessary mutual interchange
of services is
is disproportionately
the more imporusually ignored. That this interchange
tant problem is seen in the fact that non-Western
cultures have also reached
the stage of mere functional differentiation
but not that of interchange.
There
of the kind between theory
were indeed decisive barriers that made interchange
It can be shown that the difference between
and technology quite impossible.
and technically,
the
the world's most highly developed society, theoretically
United States, and the societies of Europe that it has overtaken is not so much
the degree of differentiation
of theory and technology as the degree of their inI
refer
to
this
as interpenetration,
as
as mutual penetration,
wish
to
terchange.
a specific form of the relationship
between social systems to distinguish it from
other more one-sided or more isolating forms such as adaptation,
domination,
mutual isolation or reconciliation.
I do not claim to have a supply of new facts that surpass the knowledge we
have from well-known historical studies (e.g. Bernal, 1969; Ben-David,
1971;
Boas, 1970; Butterfield,
1965; Crombie,
1971; Finch, 1961; Hall, 1959; Mer1968; Rossi, 1970; Whyte,
ton, [1938] 1970; Nelson,
1962; Zilsel, 1942a,
and explana1942b, 1945). My aim here is to relate historical interpretation
tion more closely to sociological theory than is usually the case and to reinterpret
known historical
facts in the light of a theory of interpenetration.
This
from theories of pure differentiation
and raitself particularly
distinguishes
tionalization
but also from other one-sided theories that explain the development of science and technology in purely economic, power political, normative
or idealistic terms.
1. The Theoretical Frame of Reference
What I am concerned with here is how to explain the extent and developof theory and technology, logical and empirical proof
ment of the mutual penetration
To answer this question we need a
when compared inter- and intraculturally.
frame of reference providing an analytical perspective for
general theoretical
159
of our subject matter. What is required is an ordered model
the consideration
contribution
of which exof analytically distinguishable
factors, the particular
plains the particular dimensions of modern science and technology. We have to
subsume under this frame of reference those initial historical conditions which
factors required for the production
of
allow us to assume that the contributing
of theory and technology)
are
structures
particular
(e.g. the interpenetration
given or are not given. The theoretical model I want to use to solve these probof Parsonian voluntaristic
action theory (Parlems is based on an application
Parsons
and
Platt, 1973; Alexander,
sons, 1968a, [1937] 1968b, 1977, 1978;
of action theory
1982; Miinch, 1980, 1981, 1982a, 1982b). The interpretation
as possible in order to allow for the inclusion of
has to be as comprehensive
more specific approaches like economic theory, conflict theory, Marxist theory,
and Habermas'
ethnomethodology
theory of comsymbolic interactionism,
frame of reference the scope and the
municative action. In that wider-ranging
can be determined.
But I am not conapproaches
validity of these particular
is how to
cerned with proving this assertion here. What I want to demonstrate
voluntaristic
action
it to a
this
comprehensive
theory
by
specifying
apply
of the specific dimensions and interrelatheoretical model for the explanation
tionships of modern science and technology.
is a particular
of the well-known AGIL
interpretation
My starting-point
the dimensions
of modern
scheme and my first step is using it to distinguish
This way, our subject matter is defined. The second step is the extechnology.
of the inner dimensions
of modern technology by its interrelation
planation
with aspects of science. The third step is the explanation
of the wider-ranging
of modern science and technology
between
dimensions
by the relationship
them but closer to the extreme poles of the
them and the factors surrounding
action space constituted
by the AGIL scheme.
that I assume to be interrelated
Thus I will first discern the dimensions
and
and unified in modern technology to a higher degree than in non-modern
non-Western
cultures. Looking at science and technology as it emerged from
the European
Renaissance
onward, this is only relatively, but not absolutely,
of the reletrue. In order to explain this, let us now turn to a brief introduction
vant interpretation
of voluntaristic
action theory.
I will try to locate modern science and technology
in the action space
which can be construed by the interrelation
of the two basic elements of any
action system: symbols (meanings,
norms, expressions,
cognitions) and action
guided by these symbols. Of primary interest on the most abstract level of
theorizing are the varying degrees of order within an action system constituted
of symbols to actions. Symbolic articulations
can vary from
by the relationship
lowest to highest complexity defined by the number of symbols and the number
of their interrelations.
Action directed by symbols ranges from lowest to
defined
of
and the interrelationships
by the number
highest contingency
actions open to an actor in a situation. Analytically,
and
symbolic complexity
from the lowest to the highest degree,
contingency of action vary independently
thus yielding various forms and degrees of orderedness
of action. The nature of
160
ordered action varies between
of action:
A.
G.
I.
L.
four extreme
161
Diagram 1
The Dimensionsof ModernTechnology
G SPECIFICATION
OPENING
A
'0
rn
It!
Q)
()
Practical
execution
Economic
investment
i
x
E
u()
U
U
Q
m>
Anchorage
in universal
community
Technical Empirical
problem-proof
Professional solving
orientation
Logicalappl?Theory
proof cation
Universal
nonrative Mearungfulness
frameof
reference
'0
?It!
Q)
I-i
()
Q)
'0
I CLOSING
decreased
GENERALIZATION
L
Contingencyof action
increased
162
If we look beyond the aspect of socio-cultural
action, modern technology is
characterized
the
further
inclusion
of
the
by
following aspects: the anchoring in
and not only in particular
a universal community
carrier strata (I), technical
economic
investment
and
through
practical execution of
development
(A),
theoretical problem solving (G). Without these last two attributes,
technology
remains
reduced
to the level of non-realizable
as in the papers
models,
of medieval artists like Leonardo
da Vinci, a way ahead of their practical
realization.
Modern technology is, in its intimate links with science and its interrelation with the other aspects of human action, far from being reduced to a onecan
The development
dimensional
of modern
phenomenon.
technology
and
not
a
of
therefore
be conceived as process
one-dimensional
rationalization
from other subsystems of action. Neither can it be explained by
differentiation
nor by laws of the differentiation
some inner laws of technical rationalization,
of purely specialized subsystems of action due to pressure resulting from the inof action systems. Assuming that this
creasing complexity of the environment
of the structure and development
of modern science
is true, the explanation
and pure differenand technology does not call for a theory of rationalization
of different subsystems of action.
tiation but for a theory of the interpenetration
But to avoid any misunderstanding,
let me reiterate that this is the feature that
from that of pre-modern
and
modern science and technology
distinguishes
non-Western
cultures. I am in no way asserting that this is absolutely true for
and that there are no serious deficits in
modern
science and technology
in its
the linking of pure technical
problem
solving with the structures
environment.
3. Application of the Theoretical Frame of Reference to the Explanation
Modern Science and Technology: General Theoretical Relationships
of Attributes of
163
of the lower
tion of a higher ordered system, we speak of the constriction
of a lower ordered system, we
ordered systems; in the case of the domination
of the higher ordered to the lower ordered system.
speak of the accommodation
The occurrence
of these various interrelations
is dependent
on the degree of
one
intermediate
one-sided
of
without
development
subsystem
subsystems
or with intermediate
constriction,
subsystems
accommodation)
(domination,
inthe equal underdevelopment
of subsystems
without
(over-steering),
inor
with
termediate
subsystems
(malintegrated
underdevelopment)
termediate
or
high
subsystems
underdevelopment),
equally
(integrated
of subsystems without intermediate
development
subsystems (conflict) or with
In the latter case we have to distinguish between inintermediate
subsystems.
mutual isolation and reconciliation.
terpenetration,
of technology,
located in a
attributes
According to our model, particular
specific dimension of the action space, can only emerge through interpenetration with subsystems and structures located in the same dimension but closer to
the poles. Technology cannot acquire a normatively
binding character through
increased economic investment
in technical projects or increased inducements
for technical inventions.
It cannot obtain meaning merely through practical exmodel of the analytical
ecution and enforcement.
By applying the theoretical
order of subsystems of action, we can designate the structural forms of action
with which technical problem solving must be connected for particular aspects
of technology to emerge.
Our first step is to consider the relationship
between technology
as the
of
scientific
of
and
the
other
science
specification
theory (LAG)
subsystems
as the application
of theory to specific problems
2). Technology
(Diagram
of technical problem solving and theory construcrequires the interpenetration
tion. Thus the application
of theory to specific problems constitutes a zone of
between theory and technology (L-G). A zone of interpenetrainterpenetration
tion between technical problem solving and logical proof is formed by procedures involving the rational proof of technical instruments
(I-G). Procedures
the empirical
instruments
are a zone of ininvolving
proof of technical
between
technical
research
terpenetration
problem
solving and empirical
that particular
invention of the Renaissance
(G-A). The rational experiment,
and the cradle of modern science, can be conceived as a zone of interpenetration between empirical research and logical proof (I-A). Empirical statements,
i.e. experience in the light of theory, can be seen as a zone of interpenetration
between empirical research and theory (L-A). The zone of interpenetration
between theory and logic is construed by the axiomatization
of theory accordIn
in the zones of
to
each
the
structures
case,
ing
logical relationships
(L-I).
are
first
interpenetration
produced
by combining
opposite
diametrically
structures.
Then, as existing structures,
they provide for the ongoing interof opposing structures.
penetration
If we wish to explain theory application,
logical proof and empirical proof
as aspects of technical problem solving, we can (according to our theory) expect
these attributes
only if technical problem solving interpenetrates
sufficiently
164
Diagram 2
Technologyin the Scientific Context
0,?ing A
G Specificatioo
Experience
Technology -4 Enpiric oo
__________
proof
N
S
G
m
r=air
$4 u
,
g
!
6
u
co0
ro
3'3
-.0O
on,
a'y d
.x
C, 0
w4
'A
Logic Axiomatization
I closing
decreased
Theory
Y
L
Generalization
increased
of actioo
Contingency
with theory, logic and experience and if these themselves mutually penetrate
one another. That this is not self-evident can be seen in the fact that only the
Italian Renaissance
brought these various forms of knowledge formation close
to one another (Weber, 1973: 595-598; Zilsel, 1942b). Outside this Western
cultural context, either one form of knowledge dominates the others or they are
mutually isolated or merely reconciled without actually influencing each other.
of modern
Our next step is to explain the other socio-cultural
attributes
the
of
technical
technology through
interpenetration
problem solving with the
relevant structures of socio-cultural
action in the same dimension of the action
is attributed to technological action through
space (Diagram 3). Meaningfulness
the interpenetration
of technical
problem
solving (natural
sciences) and
cultural discourse (humanities)
if technically oriented discourse connects them
discourse
and technical
(L). The more cultural
problem
solving develop
separately the greater is the tension between them. A universally binding normative frame of reference will exist for the solution of technical problems provided technical action and normative discourse on the basic norms of social life
each other through practically oriented normative
discourse
mutually penetrate
scientific and technical questions
and the
connecting
questions of meaning,
commitment
to a comprehensive
that by far surpasses the limits of
community
intellectual and technical strata (LI). If this is not the case and both subsystems
develop separately there is a gap between technical and moral life. How dif-
165
Diagram 3
Science and Technologyin the Social Context
G SPECIFICATION
,a
(D
S
d
Goal
setting
OPENING
A
Economic
calculation
o
INV
.
0
Intm-pmetraticn
of research
Profession ?????=?perience
(Professional
orientation) Icjik Theory
00
0
00-
iD
"0
0 01ro
,
0
,
Communal
association
w
Normative
culture
I CLOSING
decreased
Contingencyof action
,
Intellectual
discourse
GENERALIZATION
L
increased
ficult it is to bring both subsystems closer together can be seen in the seemingly
and technical developments
in our
widening gap between value discussions
own day and age. A further attribute of technical problem solving is the professional orientation
of technical experts (LG). This attribute unites a number of
of technical
different attributes
1968a): (1) the scientific grounding
(Parsons,
to a norexpertise provided by scientific training (LGA), (2) the commitment
mative frame of reference (the ethos of technical experts) (LGL), (3) the bond
a universal
between
and technical
community
experts as the carriers of
not
technical
strata (LGI), and
confined
to
development
technological
purely
the
to
clients'
All
must
orientation
these
components
(4)
practical goals (LGG).
of
be mediated by the professional
in
his
solution
technical
expert
problems.
The institutionalization
of this mediation in a professional attitude requires the
commitment
of the expert to a profession as the carrier of a specific professional
166
in an emergent
ethic. Professional
action is then embedded
structure
of its
combined in it.
own, that is not the same as the various components
If we now move on to those attributes
of modern technology
that are
located closer to the extreme poles of the action space, we have to consider the
of technical problem solving with subsystems and structures
interpenetration
near the extreme poles. This interpenetration
is not a self-evident one, either.
technical
inventions
never
left
level of mere ideas because they
the
Thus, many
did not receive the necessary investment
of economic resources. This calls for
the mutual penetration
of economic orientation
and technical invention,
the
economic
for
in
of
incentives
investment
technical
providing
developments
of the Industrial
Revolution
cannot be ex(A). The technical development
of inventors and entrepreneurs,
nor without
plained without the co-operation
the institutionalization
of patent rights. The history of the steam engine is a
good example of this (Scherer,
1965). The same is true for the practical apof technical inventions.
plication and implementation
They are not possible
without the linking of ideal technical planning with the practical setting of goals
(G). Only in this way can technical solutions be brought step by step closer to
natural practical particularism
can only be
practical goals and, conversely,
to generalized
technical
the binding of goal realization
overcome
through
models. This gap was also only closed step by step in modern Western culture.
of technical action and its products
Finally, it is vital for the institutionalization
as socially binding that the normative framework of technology is tied to carrier
strata (I). The question here is, 'Is technology
only carried by a particular
societal group, the technical intelligentsia,
and are other groups alienated from
cultural community?'.
technology or is it anchored in a more comprehensive
to be integrated
In the latter case, it is necessary for the technical intelligentsia
with the other societal groups. This requires the various societal groups to
share a common socialization
in integrated
educational
which is
institutions,
more the case in the United States than in the European countries (Ben-David
and Zloczower,
and Jencks,
1968; Schelsky, 1970; Smelser,
1962; Riesman
1974).
4. Application of the Theory to the Explanation
Technology
of Historical
167
-
century.
In this process, particular
and more or less enduring structures of a particular
will
be
as the initial conditions of the theoretical model. I
interpreted
society
will examine the question of how a particular
attribute of a society
structural
was favorable or unfavorable
to the interpenetration
of theory and technology
and pushed their interrelationship
in the direction of accommodation,
constricmutual
reconciliation
or
tion, domination,
conflict,
isolation,
over-steering,
Let
us
first
outline
some
essential
attributes
of
interpenetration
4).
(Diagram
Diagram 4
Hypotheses
Application of Theorythrough Background
and Operationalizations
Interpretationof theoreticalconcepts
through
hypotheses
background
a
Hypothesis
from
deduced
theo
Integrat:lcn/ .. Integrati/
separation
of groupsof separation
of theoretical
intelligentsia andpractical
tech(scholars,
disciplines
.,-W
Fqualizatiay
nologists)
differentiation
of estates
4.1I
Science
4.1.1 I
China
technology
Theory
Integrati/
separation
andtechnological
schools
of lXliversities
z
science and
Hellenism.
Interpretatiooof
theoreticalconcept
and
and Technology
some
outside
Extentof
,
as
of technological
theorytransferability
application inventionsto
1
8'
j "' Technology
differentrealms
2j
of problems
.s
/
Technology
of their
causes
of Modern
in China,
Western
India
and
Culture
168
is not particularly
abstraction
Conceptual
ing, as expressed in geomantics.
that
developed. Technical problem solving lacks the theoretical generalization
would have counteracted
There is also merely technical
magical thinking.
In general, what we have is an
but no rational experiment.
experimentation
accommodation
of thinking to practical interest and magical experience.
The shaping of culture by the class of Confucian literati officials has to be
seen as the basic reason for the characteristics
shown by technology in China.
This was an educated, aristocratic ruling class engaged in practical administration. It had no need of intellectual
abstraction,
rejected specialized training
The economic
and downgraded
economic
sphere itself remained
activity.
without ethical and universalizing
control and was a domain of utilitarianism.
The peculiar structure of Chinese society pushed technology into the realm of
and utilitarianism
without the counteraction
of conpractical administration
and
factors
1972a:
414-416,
435-443,
481-484;
trolling
generalizing
(Weber,
1954, 1969).
Needham,
4.1.2
India
Hellenism
169
is lacking. The development
of
systematic experience as in rational experiment
abstraction
and logical proof was influenced very significantly by the structurthrough the dialogue in the polis. The sophists had
ing of social interaction
reduced the dialogue to mere rhetoric. Only the great philosophers,
Socrates,
with the need for knowledge
Plato, Aristotle, unified discursive argumentation
and meaning. A unification of theoretical abstraction
with practical, technical
not
due
to
the
was
however
achieved
problem solving
separation of, on the one
the
from
hand,
philosophers
practical problem solving and, on the other, of the
active
citizens from the activities of the artisans and
politically
distinguished,
the merchants
1973:
596; Jaeger,
1945; Voegelin,
1957; Ben-David,
(Weber,
1971: 33-44).
4.2
The Emergence
of Modern
Science and Technology
in the Italian
Renaissance
and in 17th Century
of the 15th and 16th Centuries
England
4.2.1 I
The Italian
Renaissance
170
4.2.2
England
'
The Further
Development
of Modern
Science
and Technology
171
or interpenetraon the following factors: the separation
tively, concentrating
tion of
intellectual
strata, science and society,
and society,
technical intelligentsia
research and teaching,
theoretical
and practical disciplines,
and economic
mobilization
of resources,
scientific research
pure and
industrial
research.
4.3.1 I
France
Germany
In the 19th century Germany took over the leading role in scientific and
were recorded in the fields
Particular achievements
technological
development.
of chemistry,
psychology and in the humanities.
physiology,
This upswing was preceded by a reform of Prussia's universities.
This was
a result of the alliance between the humanistic
intellectual stratum of German
an alliance in which the idea of the 'culture
idealism and Prussian absolutism,
The reform of the universities had as
state' (Kulturstaat)
figured prominently.
of research and teaching, which made
its decisive innovation
the integration
of the scientist as a cultural
possible for the first time the institutionalization
for
the
of different components
thus
carrier,
continuing
integration
providing
of knowledge in science. This was complemented
the
instituby
corresponding
172
in the universities.
tionalization
of research laboratories
Here, totally new linkand
and the mediation
between
of
technology,
logic
theory
experience,
ups
Later on, this interlocking
was
orientation
became possible.
professional
in the chemical industry and these held a
by research laboratories
strengthened
of facleading position in the world for quite some time. But this constellation
of science and technology
to the societal interlocking
was
tors favorable
of
factors. To these belonged
the separation
weakened
by counteracting
theoretical
and practical
the
of
disciplines
through
founding
specialized
the increasing displacement
of research from the univertechnical institutions,
sities to research institutes (Kaiser Wilhelm Society, Max Planck Institutes),
the declining integration of pure research at universities and research institutes
with industrial research, the separation of the humanistic
intellectual
stratum
from natural science, technology and society and of the technical intelligentsia
from the other spheres of society. A peculiarity
of German
society still in
of
between
the
evidence
is
the
humanities
degree
antagonism
today
and
science
These
conditions
(Naturwissenschaften).
(Geisteswissenschaften)
and other societal
interfere with the interpenetration
of science, technology
spheres. They do not allow for solutions to the conflict between science and
and morals,
which are so vital these days (Ben-David,
1971:
technology
108-138; Ringer, 1969; Schelsky, 1971).
4.3.3
The leading role in science and technology passed on to the United States
in the 20th century.
in a reform of the universities around the
This process had its beginnings
end of the 19th century modelled on the then world leaders, the German
universities.
The reform did not replicate the German original but exceeded it
a
number
of innovations.
The introduction
of graduate
through
training
institutionalization
of the integration
of
opened the way for the simultaneous
research and teaching, the professionalization
of the scientific researcher
as a
in the
cultural carrier on a new level and the inclusion of mass education
The inclusion of undergraduate
universities.
training in the universities allowed for a closer linking of scientific orientation,
normative-cultural
and communal anchorage.
of the professional
schools in the
Similarly, the integration
resulted in a greater interpenetration
of theoretical
and
major universities
of
scientific
and
orientation
and normativepractical disciplines,
technological
commitment.
The professions
now form a zone of
cultural and communal
different
orientations.
In
of
the
addition, there exists a more
interpenetration
extensive link between intellectual
culture and science, technology
and the
research
institutes
the
facilitate
general public. Interdisciplinary
interpenetraThis is particularly
tion of different orientations.
noticeable in the emergence
of disciplines
such as statistics,
social sciences, biophysics,
biochemistry,
that
etc.
combine
different
orientations.
sociobiology
Finally, closer collaboration between pure university research and industrial research favors the linking
173
economic
investment
and
of theory, technology,
1971: 139-168; Hirsch, 1968; Parsons
(Ben-David,
1968; Smelser, 1973, 1974).
and Jencks,
practical
goal attainment
and Platt, 1973; Riesman
,
Conclusion
More than all its predecessors,
the example of the world's leading scientific
and technological
nation shows us that it is not mere social differentiation
and
in separated
rationalization
spheres according to some inner laws but the inof science and technology and their interpenetration
with their
terpenetration
that mark the most highly developed
societal environment
science and
both for sociological theory
And this fact is of crucial importance
technology.
and development
and for practical action. The emergence
of modern science
and technology is far more a case for a theory of interpenetration
than for a
and rationalization
of spheres according to
theory of the pure differentiation
their own internal laws.
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