ENGINEERING MATERIALS MCB3023

1.1
1.2

PROJECT BACKGROUND
Sample Description
A polymer is a chain of small molecules joined together in a repeating fashion

to form a single layer molecule. Chemists develop polymers so they can be used to
make ingredients for products with unique physical and chemical properties. They
manipulate large, complex molecules and capitalize on the connections between their
molecular structure and the properties that make them useful. Polymer products can be
lightweight, hard, strong, and flexible and have special thermal, electrical, and optical
characteristics.(ACS, nd). In this project , our group have been given 3 sample of
polymer sticks, which is made from petroleum. We got a dog bone shape of the
polymer as shown in the Figure 1 (refer to Appendix A). From the sample given, we
can see it is in white in color, opaque, flexible and hard but bendable. The sample is
smooth on the surface.
1.2.1

Size and specification

t

Figure 1.1 : Specimen Dimension

Overall length : 165 mm
Width of grip section: 19 mm
Width at middle : 13mm
Distance between shoulder : 112 mm
Reduced section : 58 mm
Gage length : 50 mm
Thickness, t : 3 mm

1.2 Problem Statement

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS MCB3023

Nowadays, in a design, appropriate materials must be selected based on their

mechanical and chemical properties. This is because it is needed to be used in
many areas of field of activities for example in construction and engineering
industry. When in service, materials are subjected to loads, forces, vibrations
and many more. Hence, it is very important to know the characteristics and
mechanical properties of the materials. Futhermore, it can reduce the
maintenance cost and improve the lifetime of the design itself. Based on the
physical and mechanical properties of the sample given to our group, the most
suitable test to determine the material properties is the tensile test and hardness
test. From these test we can get the ultimate tensile stress , maximum
elongation, reduction area, yield strength and modulus of elasticity in bending
of our sample.
1.3 Objective
1.3.1 To identify and determine the suitable two mechanical properties of the
specimen which is polymer by conducting an experiment using the
available equipment according to standard used in engineering field,
particularly ASTM.
1.4 Scope
Nowadays, there are many design involving usage of plastics. In this project,
we will identify the properties of our sample by performing 2 test which are :
1.4.1 Strength Tensile Test
Tensile tests measure the force required to break a specimen and the
extent to which the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking
point. Tensile tests produce a stress-strain diagram, which is used to
determine tensile modulus. The data is often used to specify a material,
to design parts to withstand application force and as a quality control
check of materials. Since the physical properties of many materials
(especially thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient temperature,
it is sometimes appropriate to test materials at temperatures that
1.4.2

simulate the intended end use environment.

Durability Rockwell Hardness Test
Hardness describes the resistance of material to permanent indentation.
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net
increase in depth of penetration of an indenter as a load is applied on
the material. Hardness numbers have no units and are commonly given

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in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the

scales, the harder the material.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Material selection is a step in the process of designing any physical object. In the
context of product design, the main goal of material selection is to minimize cost while
meeting product performance goals. Systematic selection of the best material for a given
application begins with properties and costs of candidate materials. For example, a thermal
blanket must have poor thermal conductivity in order to minimize heat transfer for a given
temperature difference.
Systematic selection for applications requiring multiple criteria is more complex. For
example, a rod which should be stiff and light requires a material with high Young's modulus
and low density. If the rod will be pulled in tension, the specific modulus, or modulus divided
E

by density

, will determine the best material. But because a plate's bending stiffness

scales as its thickness cubed, the best material for a stiff and light plate is determined by

the cube root of stiffness divided by density

index is

2 E

3 E

. For a stiff beam in bending the material

Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its properties, cost,
availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to have some idea of the common
engineering materials and their properties before learning the details of design procedure.
(Kharagpur I.I.T. , nd). By conducting experiments in the laboratory, it leads to determine how
materials behave when they are subjected to loads. Mechanical properties of the material can
be determined by characteristics of how the material reflect of the response or deformation
while load and force applied. Mechanical properties are of most importance in selecting
materials for structural machine components which has been listed into strength, formability,
rigidity, toughness, and durability.

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The basic properties of materials can be assigned as physical properties, mechanical

properties, thermal properties and chemical properties. The dimensions of test specimens and
the methods of applying loads have been standardized in order to get an uncomparable results.
One of the major standards organizations is the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), a national technical society that publishes specifications and standards for materials
and testing.
While polymer is a bit different from metals because it contains composite materials.
Many common classes of polymers are composed of hydrocarbons, compounds of carbon and
hydrogen. These polymers are specifically made of carbon atoms bonded together, one to the
next, into long chains that are called the backbone of the polymer. Because of the nature of
carbon, one or more other atoms can be attached to each carbon atom in the backbone. There
are polymers that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Polyethylene, polypropylene,
polybutylene, polystyrene and polymethylpentene are examples of these. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) has chlorine attached to the all-carbon backbone. Teflon has fluorine attached to the
all-carbon backbone.(American Chemistry Council, nd)
In this course, we had been given 3 polymers rod specimens for us to conduct the
appropriate tests which could determine any two of the mechanical properties of the
speciments. The specimens are made of polymer and having a standard shape and dimensions
based on ASTM. In order to find out the two mechanical properties of the specimens, we have
decided to conduct a tensile test and hardness on the specimens given. This is simply because
the specimens meet all the criteria to undergo the tests we can obtain yield strength for
strength property and also modulus of elasticity for durability property.
Hardness
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,
usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending,
scratching, abrasion or cutting.
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in terms
of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a
defined measurement procedure. Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by
resistance to scratching or cutting. An example would be material B scratches material C, but
not material A. Alternatively, material A scratches material B slightly and scratches material C
heavily. Relative hardness of minerals can be assessed by reference to the Moh's Scale that
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ranks the ability of materials to resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of
relative hardness assessment are still commonly used today. An example is the file test where
a file tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on the test material surface. If the file slides
without biting or marking the surface, the test material would be considered harder than the
file. If the file bites or marks the surface, the test material would be considered softer than the
file.
Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell hardness test is one of several common indentation hardness tests used
today, other examples being the Brinell hardness test and Vickers hardness test. Most
indentation hardness tests are a measure of the deformation that occurs when the material
under test is penetrated with a specific type of indenter . In the case of the Rockwell hardness
test, two levels of force are applied to the indenter at specified rates and with specific dwell
times. The value of hardness is calculated using a formula that was derived to yield a number
falling within an arbitrarily defined range of numbers known as a Rockwell hardness scale.
The general Rockwell test procedure is the same regardless of the Rockwell scale or
indenter being used. The indenter is brought into contact with the material to be tested, and a
preliminary force (formally referred to as the minor load) is applied to the indenter. The
preliminary force is usually held constant for a set period of time (dwell time), after which the
depth of indentation is measured. After the measurement is made, an additional amount of
force is applied at a set rate to increase the applied force to the total force level (formally
referred to as the major load). The total force is held constant for a set time period, after
which the additional force is removed, returning to the preliminary force level. After holding
the preliminary force constant for a set time period, the depth of indentation is measured a
second time, followed by the removal of the indenter from the test material. The measured
difference between the first and second indentation depth measurements, "h", is then used to
calculate the Rockwell hardness number. For many older models of Rockwell hardness
machines , the operator must manually control most or all of the steps of the test procedure.
Many of today's newer machines automatically perform the entire Rockwell test.(Automation
and Metrology Inc, 2009). Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct
Rockwell hardness number readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include many
arbitrary non-related scales and possible effects from the specimen support anvil.

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Tensile test
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test
in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. The results from the test
are commonly used to select a material for an application, for quality control, and to predict
how a material will react under other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via
a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From
these measurements the following properties such as Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield
strength, and strain-hardening characteristics can be determined. (Wikipedia,nd)

Figure 2.1 : Stress-Strain Curve

For analytical purposes, a plot of stress () versus strain () is constructed during a
tensile test experiment, which can be done automatically on the software provided by the
instrument manufacturer. Stress, in the metric system, is usually measured in N/m 2 or Pa, such
that 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa. From the experiment, the value of stress is calculated by dividing the
amount of force (F) applied by the machine in the axial direction by its cross-sectional area
(A), which is measured prior to running the experiment. Mathematically, it is expressed in
Equation 2.1.
=

F
A

(Equation 2.1)

Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress. The strain values, which
have no units, can be calculated using Equation 2.2, where L is the instantaneous length of
the specimen and L0 is the initial length.

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LL0
(Equation 2.2)
L0

At the initial portion of the test, the relationship between the applied force, or load,
and the elongation of the specimen is linear. In this linear region, the line obeys the
relationship define as Hookes Law where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant.
E=

(Equation 2.3)

Base on Equation 2.3, E is the slope of the line in this region where stress (
proportional to the strain (

is

and is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young

Modulus. The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material, but it only
applies in the linear region of the curve. At the point that the curve is no longer linear and
deviates from the straight-line relationship, Hooke's Law no longer applies and some
permanent deformation occurs in the specimen. This point is called the "elastic, or
proportional limit"
Yield strength of a material is defined in engineering and materials science as the
stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will
deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and nonreversible
Besides that, we also can determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) based on the
stress strain curve. The ultimate tensile strength is defined as maximum stress that a material
can withstand while being stretched or pulled before failing or breaking. the ultimate tensile
strength appears as the stress coordinate value of the highest point on the curve.
Other material properties that can be determine from the tensile testing is ductility.
Ductility is more commonly defined as the ability of a material to deform easily upon the
application of tensile force or the ability of material to withstand plastic deformation without
rupture. There are two common measures to describe the ductility of a material which is the
percent of elongation and the percent of reduction area, can refer to Equation 2.4 and
Equation 2.5 respectively.

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%EL=

Where

l f =

l f l 0
100
l0

( )

(Equation 2.4)

fracture length

0=
l original gauge length

RA=(

Where

A0
Af

A 0 A f
)100
A0

(Equation 2.5)

= original cross sectional area

= cross sectional at fracture

3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Subtotal Size ASTM D638 Flat Specimen Tensile Test Specimen
3.1.1 The specimen given for testing was measured with the Vernier callipers before the test to
determine the lengths and thicknesses. Overall length of 165.00 mm and gage length of
50.00 mm were determined and only after that marked with the marker pen on the
specimen.
3.1.2 Universal Testing Machine (UTM) was set up in a way only zero force would be applied
on the specimen. Load cell in the program was zeroed to make sure that the software
only measure the tensile load applied on the specimen. The Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) is shown in the Figure 2 in Appendix A.
3.1.3 Both ends of the specimen were loaded by supervisor into the jaws of the load frame
which will locate the specimen vertically.
3.1.4 The load was released before starting the test as shown in Figure 3 (refer Appendix A).
3.1.5 The test was started with the crosshead speed set to 5.00mm/min. Specimen was loaded
resulting in a strain.
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3.1.6 Tensile test was continued until fracture occurred on the specimen and the data was
recorded by the software and transferred into a spreadsheet.
3.1.7 The dimensions from the centre of the specimen were measured after the test again to
determine the reduction in area which was slightly big.
3.1.8 Steps from 1 to 7 was repeated for the 2nd specimen with the same procedure.

3.2 Hardness Test of Rockwell Hardness ASTM D785

3.2.1 The specimen is placed on the anvil as shown in Figure 4 (refer Appendix A)
3.2.2 Gauge is set to set position (zero) when minor load of 10 kg is applied
3.2.3 Within 10 seconds after minor load is applied, the major load of 60kg is applied by
releasing the trip lever.
3.2.4 After 15 seconds, the major load is removed.
3.2.5 The Rockwell hardness is recorded after the specimen is allowed to recover for 15
seconds.
3.3 Project Activities
3.3.1 Tasks Assignment
To make this report easier and can be done smoothly, we had divided the task and assignment
among all member of the group. The entire task had been divided as shown in Table 3.3.1.1
below:
Table 3.3.1.1
NAME

Task / Assignment

Salmiah, Tahyr and Faiz

Book lab session, objective and problem

Syahirah and Salmiah

statement, Result for Hardness

Find ASTM standard, literature review for

Faiz and Shahmirul

Hardness test, conclusion

Construct Introduction,

Sufiyan and Tahyr

background of the material, discussion

Construct minutes of meeting, key milestone

Shahmirul, Syahirah and Sufiyan

and Gantt chart, result for tensile

Find ASTM standard, literature review for
tensile test, result for tensile

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and

also

the

ENGINEERING MATERIALS MCB3023

Besides, the minutes of meeting, Gantt chart and key milestone is attached in Appendix B.

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Tensile Test Engineering Stress Strain Graph of 2 Specimen.
After undergoing the ASTM D638 Tension Test, the data gathered of the 2 specimen
were plotted on the two separate graphs. Each graph shows the engineering stress against
engineering strain values of the respective specimen. Figure 4.1.1 shows the engineering
stress against engineering strain for the first poymer specimen which is specimen A while
Figure 4.1.2 shows the engineering stress against engineering strain for the second polymer
specimen which is specimen B.

Ultimate Tensile Strength=8.322 MPa

Figure 4.1.1- Engineering Stress against Engineering Strain graphs of Specimen A.

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Ultimate Tensile Strength = 6.897 MPa

Figure 4.1.2 Engineering Stress against Engineering Strain graphs of Specimen B.

The stress strain graphs plotted are very important graphical measure of a materials
mechanical properties. From the experiment, the value of stress is calculated by dividing the
amount of force (F) applied by the machine in the axial direction by its cross-sectional area
(A), which is measured prior to running the experiment. Mathematically, it is expressed in
Equation 2.1. During the test, the crosshead was moved with the speed of 5mm/min to
generate a tensile force in the specimens.
The linear region of the curve at the beginning of the stress-strain graph which is
called the elastic region, is the region where a material behaves elastically. The material will
return to its original shape when a force is released while the material is in its elastic region.
Then the stress-strain graphs began to deviate from its linearity and this transition to the nonlinearity occurred at a point as the proportional limit. As the stress continued to increase, the
specimens continued to elongate until it reached a point where some permanent plastic
deformation occurred, the elongated length of the specimens were not able to return to its
original state. This transition from elastic deformation to plastic deformation is referred as
elastic limit or yield point. As the tester continued to pull the specimens, the force curves
reached a peak called the ultimate tensile strength. At the ultimate tensile stress, the rate of
cross-sectional area reduction occurs rapidly, the load carrying capacity of the specimens
decreased and the graphs began to drop off and necking started to begin. As the test
proceeded, the graphs begin to drop until the breaking point where the specimens fractured
into halves as shown in Figure 5 (refer Appendix A).
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4.2 Material Properties Ultimate Tensile Strength

Based on the Figure 4.1.1 the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the first specimen is
8.322 MPa. For Figure 4.1.2 shows that the ultimate tensile strength of the second specimen
is 6.897 MPa. The average ultimate tensile strength for both specimen we can calculate by
using Equation 4.2.1 (refer Appendix C). The average UTS calculated is 7.6095 MPa.
The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress which the specimen can resist
before the necking occurs which for this specimen, the ultimate tensile strength is 7.6095
MPa.

4.3 Hardness Test (Rockwell R) : 1 sample

Hardness test in use to determine the how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of
permanent shape change when a compressive force is applied. For our sample, we use
Rockwell R to conduct the hardness test following the ASTM standard for hardness test,
because it is suitable for our sample is plastic which is soft material the indenter used was
12.7 mm diameter of steel ball.
The following Table 4.3.1 shows the readings of Rockwell R before and after the sample
undergo tensile test.
Table 4.3.1 : Rockwell Hardness Value (before tensile test)
Indentation point
1
Rockwell
R 7.4
Hardness

2
6.1

3
3.6

4
3.7

5
5.8

Average
5.32

value

(sample A)

By using Equation 4.3.1 (refer to Appendix C), the average Rockwell Hardness value for the
sample A is calculated;
Average HRR value = HRR 5.32

Table 4.3.2 : Rockwell Hardness Value (after tensile test)

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Indentation

point
Rockwell R 4.1

Average

1.1

5.8

2.7

3.6

6.0

1.8

2.3

3.425

Hardness
value
(sample A)

By using Equation 4.2.1 (refer to Appendix B), the average Rockwell Hardness value for the
sample A is calculated;
Average HRR value = HRR 3.425
Where HRR = Hardness Rockwell R
From the result obtained, the average hardness value of the polymer before tensile
testing is 5.32 HRR, we take 5 point of the reading on the sample to get more accurate
reading. The reading shows high hardness value at each end of the sample which is the dog
bone part and low hardness value at the center of the sample. Apart from that, based from the
result we obtained after we do tensile test for sample A, we get an average hardness value of
3.425 HRR. There is a big difference in hardness value reading between before and after
tensile test, this is because the sample experienced necking and fracture by tensile test. The
arrangement of grain boundary already change to flexible arrangement, so it will decrease in
term of hardness value. This explain why the hardness value reading of the sample is higher
before the tensile testing.
Other than that, when turning the wheel of the ball bearing to touch the sample, it can
be over touch due to excessive force applied as our sample is soft. Besides that, the Rockwell
hardness machine results is easily influenced by cleanliness and consistency of the machine
and the sample itself.
Although, some modification can be made to improve the accuracy of the results
obtained. For example, turn the wheel very slowly to increase the precision of the experiment
and to avoid over touching on the sample. Lastly, every kind of contact with the machine is
prohibited when the experiment is running to avoid inaccurate reading as the machine is very
sensitive to outside vibration source.
From the experiment, the type of material that has closest critiria base on the tests is
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET).
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5.0 CONCLUSION
Mechanical properties were obtained from the test for the polymer are strength and
durability. Strength is measured by doing tensile test. Modulus of elasticity, ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength, and percent elongation that were shown in stress-strain curve. On the
other hand, hardness test is tested for durability. Since the specimen was polymer, Rockwell
Hardness Test type R is chosen to complete the hardness test.
Polymer is a good material in elasticity as it was not easy to break in long time but not
good in hardness since it can be penetrate in small amount of load. Hence, for certain
application, this kind of polymer is the best material. In order to make sure it will stay longer
and harder, further study is needed for betterment of it.

References
American Chemistry Council. (2005). The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties.
Retrieved March 10,2015 from http://plastics.americanchemistry.com/EducationResources/Plastics-101/The-Basics-Polymer-Definition-and-Properties.html
American Chemical Society. (2015). Polymer Chemistry. Retrieved April 2, 2015 from
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/whatchemistsdo/careers/polymerchemistry.html
ASM International. (2004). CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Tensile Testing. Retrieved March 3,
2015 from
http://www.asminternational.org/documents/10192/3465262/05105G_Chapter_1.pdf/e1
3396e8-a327-490a-a414-9bd1d2bc2bb8.
ASTM International(D785). (2003). Standard Test Method for Rockwell Hardness of Plastics
and Electrical Insulating Materials. Retrived March 3, 2015 from http://www.astm.org/
ASTM International(D638). (2003). Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics.
Retrieved March 3, 2015 from http://www.astm.org/
Automation and Metrology Inc.(1987-2009). Principle of Rockwell hardness testing.
Retrieved March 5, 2015 from http://www.automet.com/Rockwell_hardness_tester/Principle_Rockwell_Testing.htm.
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Gordon England. (n.d). Rockwell Hardness Test. Retrieved from March 5, 2015
http://www.gordonengland.co.uk/hardness/rockwell.htm.
Kharagpur, I.I.T. (n.d). Module 1 Fundamentals of machine design. Engineering Materials,
2(2), 1-14. Retrieved March 8, 2015 from
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/112105125/pdf/Module-1_Lesson-2.pdf.
Material Selection. (2014, November29). Retrieved March 3, 2015 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_selection.
Tensile Testing. (n.d). Retrieved March 5, 2015 from http://www.instron.com/en-sg/ourcompany/library/test-types/tensile-test?region=Singapore.

Appendix A

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Figure 1 : Given Specimen (Polymer)

Figure 2 : The specimen is located into the UTM

Figure 3 : The specimen is starting to be tested

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Figure 4 : Rockwell hardness tester with 12.7mm diameter of ball

Figure 5 : Broken specimen after tensile test

Figure 6 : Dimension of specimen base on standard ASTM D638

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Figure 7 : Designations for speed of tensile test

Figure 8 : Rockwell Hardness Scales

Appendix B
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Minutes of Meeting (MOM)

i.

On week number 4 our group had first meeting regarding preparation for these tests.
During meeting we distributed tasks and studied the specimen and their related
properties and tests. We agreed to start the introduction. On week 5 we did our
literature review but without meeting. We created social group through internet so that
will be easy for us. When week 6 came we decided our lab day and informed it to the
supervisors. Specimen testing was on (17/2/2015) at 10.00p.m. 1.00 p.m. strait after
that we collected data output and compiled them. Week 7 as we realized that viva
presentation around the corner we made information and research collection from
other sources such as past research and internet

ii.

Our methodology was finished on week 8. On that week we had one more meeting
which was held in v4 cafe after evening. On week 9 we updated key milestone and
minute of meeting. Before the end of week 10 we made compilation and submission of
viva proposal for final report. After that on week 12 which was 1 st April 2015 we did
hardness tests for the specimens which were already used for tensile test. We got data
much different as the structure of the specimen was already changed.

iii.

In conclusion we want to add that we faced some problems during conducting the
experiments. At first the specimen slide from the jaws. Then the supervisor attached
sandpaper to the both sides that the friction between jaws and specimen will not allow
specimen to slide. Overall for this report we had 7 meetings where were all members
were participating.

Gantt Chart
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Week
4

Week
5

Week
6

Week
7

Week
8

Week
9

Week
10

Week
11

Collect specimen
Introduction
Literature review
Lab session
confirmation
Specimen testing
Data collection and
compilation
Research /
information
collection
Methodology
Progress report
submission
Lab progress
presentation
Result and
discussion
Final report
submission
Viva preparation

Key Milestone
No.
1.

Week
4
(2-8/2/2015)

2.

5
(9-15/2/2015)
6
(16-22/2/2015)

3.

4.
5.

7
(23/2/2015)-(1/3/2015)
8
(2-8/3/2015)

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Task
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.

1st Meeting
Tasks distribution
Study the specimen and their related properties
and tests
Starts to do introduction
Make literature review
Lab session confirmation
Specimen testing
a. (17/2/2015) at 10.00p.m. 1.00 p.m.
Collecting data output and compile
Information and research collection from other
sources such as past research and internet
Make methodology

Week
12

ENGINEERING MATERIALS MCB3023

6.

9
(9-15/3/2015)
10
(16-11/3/2015)
11
(23-29/3/2015)
12
(30-4/4/2015)

7.
8.
9.

xi.
xii.
xiii.

Submit progress report

Viva progress report
Work on result and discussion parts

xiv.

Complete result and discussion parts

xv.
xvi.

Compilation and submission of final report

Group presentation and individual VIVA
preparation

Appendix C
Equation 4.2.1
Average UTS = (U.T.S 1+U.T.S 2)/2
Average UTS = (8.322+6.897)/2
= 7.6095 Mpa

Equation 4.3.1
Average HRR value =

HRR 1+ HRR 2+ HRR 3+ HRR 4 + HRR 5

5
7.4 +6.1+3.6+3.7+5.8
5

= HRR 5.32

Equation 4.3.2
Average HRR value =

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HRR 1+ HRR 2+ HRR 3+ HRR 4 + HRR 5+ HRR 6+ HRR 7+ HRR 8

8
4.1+1.1+5.8+2.7+3.6+ 6.0+1.8+2.3
8

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= HRR 3.425

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