UNIT III

Part - A
1. Mention the formula of thermal transmittance and thermal conductance.
Thermal transmittance (U): is the rate of heat transfer per unit area, U = W/m2K.
Thermal conductance : is defined by the same formula, C = W/m2K
2. State the thermal absorptivity.
Thermal absorptivity (b) is a transient-state parameter that describes the thermal contact properties of a
textile material (warm-cool feeling) at the beginning (first two seconds) of its contact with human skin.
b = (c)1/2 [Ws1/2/m2K]

3.

4.

5.

6.

Where:
= thermal conductivity
c = thermal capacity
The lower the value of (b), the warmer the feeling
List out the important fabric properties for maintaining thermal comfort
The main fabric properties that are of importance for maintaining thermal comfort are:
Insulation,
Wind proofing,
Moisture vapour permeability,
Water proofing.
What is the role of clothing in thermal comfort?
Clothing has a large part to play in the maintenance of heat balance as it modifies the heat loss from the
skin surface and at the same time has the secondary effect of altering the moisture loss from the skin.
However, no one clothing system is suitable for all occasions: a clothing system that is suitable for one
climate is usually completely unsuitable for another.
What do you mean by heat transfer?
Heat Transfer refers to the transfer of heat energy from one environment to another. Heat transfer
occurs whenever a temperature difference (DT) exists between two environments; heat moves from the
warmer surface or area to the cooler surface or area.
How to calculate the radiative conductivity?
Radiative conductivity = 8 T3R / f
Where
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 X l0 -8W/m2K 4),
= thermal emissivity,

R = radius of fibres,
T= mean temperature between heat source and sink (K),
f = fractional fibre volume.
7. What are the standard test methods used for thermal insulation and thermal transmittance?
CAN/CGSB-4.2 No. 70.1 94, Thermal insulation performance of textile materials
ASTM D 1518 85, Thermal transmittance of textile materials
8. Define. Thermal resistance
Thermal resistance (r): the rate of flow of heat through a fabric under standard conditions. The r-value
is the inverse of thermal transmittance (r = 1/U).
9. Write formula for Fabric conductivity

k = (1 f) kA + fkF
Where
f is the fraction by volume of the fabric taken up by fibre.
The conductivity of air is 0.025 W/m K and that of fibres is 0.l W/mK,
10. Relate the insulation value of fabric with thickness.
The insulation value of a fabric is in fact mainly dependent on its thickness and it can be estimated
from the relationship:
clo = 1.6 X thickness in cm
Where clo is a measure of thermal resistance
11. Summarize the role of fabric thickness in thermal resistance
The thickness of clothing in order to increase its insulation value also increases its surface area and bulk
and thus decreases its rate of water vapour transmission
12. Find the meaning of Clo unit.
This is an American unit which was adopted for the simplicity of presentation to a layperson.
Clothing having a thermal resistance of one clo unit approximates the normal indoor clothing worn
by sedentary workers, i.e. suit, shirt and underwear.
The complete definition is the insulation required to maintain a resting man producing heat at
50Kcal/m 2/h indefinitely comfortable in an atmosphere at 21C less than 50% RH and air
movement of l0cm/s. Its value is equivalent to 0.155Cm2 / V.
13. Can you list the several of form of perspiration?
Insensible - in this form the perspiration is transported as a vapour and it passes through the air gaps
between yarns in a fabric.
Liquid - this form occurs at higher sweating rates and it wets the clothing which is in contact with
the skin.
14. Can you provide a definition for air permeability?
The air permeability of a fabric is a measure of how well it allows the passage of air through it. The
ease or otherwise of passage of air is of importance for a number of fabric end uses such as
industrial filters, tents, sailcloths, parachutes, raincoat materials, shirtings, downproof fabrics and
airbags.
Air permeability is defined as the volume of air in milliliters which is passed in one second through
100smm2 of the fabric at a pressure difference of 10mm head of water.
15. How to measure the exchange of water in evaporation -condensation process?
The exchange of water is evaporation -condensation process.

Where,
Cfs is the water concentration in the fiber surface (kg m-3);
Ca is the water concentration in the adjacent air (kg m-3);
hcf is the mass transfer coefficient at the fiber surface (ms-1); and
Sv is the specific volume of the fabric (m-1)
16. How would you classify the equipments used for Measurement of thermal transmission?
Togmeter
Guarded hot plate
KES-F Thermo Labo-II

 Thermal manikin
17. Mention the salient features of thermal manikins.
It can simulate the human body (the whole body and local) heat exchange.
It can measure the 3-dimensional heat exchange from human body.
It can integrate the dry heat losses from human body in a realistic manner.
It can measure the clothing thermal insulation objectively.
18. State the function of tog meter
To compare with a sample with known thermal conductivity value
19. List out the various types of tog meter used in measurement of thermal transmission.

Two-plate tog meter

Single-plate tog meter

20. Which are the factors determining Thermal conductivity?
The quantity of heat;
Time;
Fabric thickness;
Test area of fabrics and
T is temperature difference
21. Mention the various parameters used for expressing thermal characteristics.
The thermal transmission characteristics of textile materials are expressed by several parameters,
namely Met, clo, tog, permeability index, evaporative transmissibility, permeation efficiency factor,
index of water permeability
22. Can you recall Permeability index?
The permeability index developed by Woodcock is an indicator of the evaporative performance of
clothing. The permeability index (im) can be expressed by the following equation:
im = Rt / (LR Ret)
Where Rt is the total thermal resistance of the clothing plus surface air layer (m2 C/W), and
Ret is the total evaporative resistance of the clothing plus the air layer (m2kPa/W).
The ratio Rt/Ret represents the effectiveness in transmitting evaporative heat as compared to the dry heat
transmitted.
23. What are the ways Moisture is transmitted through fabrics?
By diffusion of water vapour through the fabric. This appears to be independent of fibre type but is
governed by the fabric structure. The measurement of air flow through the fabric provides a good
guide to its ability to pass water vapour in large quantities.
By the wicking of liquid water away from the skin using the mechanism of capillary transport. The
ability of a fabric to do this is dependent on the surface properties of the constituent fibres and their
total surface area. The size and number of the capillary paths through the fabric are also very
important but these are governed by factors such as the fibre size, the yarn structure and the fabric
structure. The capillary network of the fabric is dependent on the direction under consideration so
that the wicking properties through the thickness of the fabric may be different from those in the
plane of the fabric. Also the rate of wicking may be different along the warp (wale) direction than
along the weft (course) direction.
24. Define. Wetting
Wetting is the initial process involved in fluid spreading. In this process the fibreair interface is
replaced with a fibreliquid interface
25. Outline terms and units generally used for measuring wicking of fabrics

Amount of Water Wicked (AWW) (g g1) it determines the wicking capacity of the fabric away
from the absorption zone.
SurfaceWater Transport Rate (SWTR) (gg1s1) it calculates the amount of water wicked by 1 g
of fabric per second.
Wicking Time (WT) (s) it is the time in seconds for water to wick across a specified distance
(3.25 cm).
26. Mention the different layers involved for moisture vapour transports
These different layers are (i) evaporating fluid layer (which remains full of water saturated vapour), (ii)
confined air layer (between the skin and fabric), (iii) boundary air layer, and (iv) ambient air layer.
27. What are mechanisms involved the Moisture in vapour form transmit through textile materials
Diffusion of the water vapour through the air spaces between the fibres.
Absorption, transmission and desorption of the water vapour by the fibres.
Adsorption and migration of the water vapour along the fibre surface.
Transmission of water vapour by forced convection.
28. List out different standard methods used for determining the moisture vapour transmission
characteristics of textile materials
Evaporative dish method or control dish method (BS 7209);
Upright cup method or Gore cup method (ASTM E 96-66);
Inverted cup method and the desiccant inverted cup method (ASTM F 2298);
The dynamic moisture permeable cell (ASTM F 2298); and
The sweating guarded hot plate method, skin model (ISO 11092).
29. State terms and related units are used for expressing the moisture vapour permeability of the
fabrics
The percentage water vapour permeability index, WVP (%), is used in the evaporative disc method
(BS 7209). This method uses water at 20C and an atmospheric condition of 20 2C and 65 2%
relative humidity. This standard is based on the control dish method (CAN2-4.2-M77) and the Gore
modified disc method (BPI 1.4).
The moisture vapour transmission rate (g/m2/Day) is used in the cup method (ASTM E96-66).
The resistance to evaporative heat transfer, Ret (m2Pa/W), is used in the sweating guarded hot plate
(ISO 11092:1993, EN 31092). It is an indirect method of measuring the vapour transmission
property of a fabric. In this test method, the experiment is carried out in an isothermal condition at
the standard atmospheric condition.
The resistance of equivalent standard still air (cm) is used in the holographic visualization method.
In this method it is possible to measure the resistance offered by the fabric layer and the air layer
separately. The resistance of the fabric can be expressed in terms of the standard still air (cm)
providing the same vapour resistance.
Part B
1. Explain the process of moisture exchange between fiber and air.
2. Describe in detail the heat transfer in clothing
3. Can you discuss in detail the moisture transfer in clothing?
4. Can you write a brief outline factors involved in clothing insulation?
5. How would you explain working principle of guarded hot plate using measurement of thermal
transmission?
6. Demonstrate working principle of guarded hot plat Evaporative dish method.

7. Write short notes on Single-plate tog meter and KES-F Thermo Labo-II
8. Describe in detail the working principle of Two-plate tog meter
9. Discuss in details the working method of thermal manikin for measurement of thermal transmission
behaviour of garments.
10. Can you write in your own words about Liquid water transfer in detail.
11. Write short notes on the Longitudinal wicking
12. Enlighten the mechanism Moisture transmission
13. Explain the mechanism of Wetting and wicking
14. How would measure moisture vapour transmission rate using the Upright cup method? And explain the
working procedure with neat sketch.
15. Enlighten the working procedure of inverted cup test method and desiccant inverted cup method with
neat sketch.
16. Give the procedure of testing method of sweating guarded hot plate method for measuring the water
vapour resistance of the fabric.
17. Write short notes on the PERMETEST apparatus
18. Discuss in detail the factors affecting heat and mass transfer through fabrics.