Warriors,

weapons, and
harness from
the 5th10th centuries
in the Carpathian Basin
Editor
Clin Cosma

Academia Romn
Institutul de Arheologie i Istoria Artei din Cluj-Napoca

Seria / Series / Reihe

INTERFERENE ETNICE I CULTURALE
N MILENIILE I A. CHR. I P. CHR.

ETHNIC AND CULTURAL INTERFERENCES IN THE

1ST MILLENNIUM B.C. TO THE 1ST MILLENNIUM A.D.

ETHNISCHE UND KULTURELLE INTERFERENZEN IM

1. JAHRTAUSEND V. CHR. 1. JAHRTAUSEND N. CHR.

Editori / Editors / Herausgeber der Reihe

Nicolae Gudea, Clin Cosma, Aurel Rustoiu

VOL. XXII / BAND 22

Warriors, weapons, and harness

from the 5th10th centuries
in the Carpathian Basin
Editor
Clin Cosma

Mega Publishing House

ClujNapoca
2015

The volume was financed by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific
Research, CNCS UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0278

DTP and cover:

Francisc Baja

Clin Cosma, 2015

Cover image I:
Reconstruction proposal of the Avar military chieftain from the cemetery at Teiu
(drawing Narcisa ugar, Institute of Archaeology and History of Art, Cluj-Napoca).

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei

Warriors, weapons, and harness from the 5th10th centuries in the Carpathian Basin /
ed.: Clin Cosma. - Cluj-Napoca : Mega, 2014
Bibliogr.
ISBN 978-606-543-551-3
I. Cosma, Clin (ed.)
623.44(498)"06/10"

Editura Mega | www.edituramega.ro

email: mega@edituramega.ro

ontents

Nicolae Gudea

ber die gotischen Foederaten an den Grenzen der rmischen Provinzen an der Unteren Donau (4. Jahrhundert-Mitte
des 5. Jahrhunderts) Eine archologische Behandlung im Licht der Waffen 

Michel Kazanski

Les influences steppiques dans lquipement militaire et questre des Slaves (VeVIIe sicles)

Alpr Dobos

Weapons and weapon depositions in the late row-grave cemeteries in Transylvania

Aurel Rustoiu

Shooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin

Gabriel T. Rustoiu, Marius Ciut

An avar warriors grave recently discovered at Unirea-Veremort (Alba county)

Ivan Bugarski

Axe, Battle Axes and Battle Knives from Avar-Time Graves in Vojvodina

7
45
57
89
107
129

Jozef Zbojnk

Saxe und andere Waffen westlichen Ursprungs auf dem Grberfeld aus der Zeit des awarischen Khaganats in ValalikyVechsvtch

Csiky Gergely

A metrical approach in the study of Avar-age polearms 

147
177

Szenthe Gergely

Randerscheinungen einer Randkultur. Awarische Mnnerreprsentation und mediterraner Einfluss in

Randgebieten des Karpatenbeckens (erste Hlfte 8. J.h. N. Chr.)

215

Clin Cosma

Avar warriors in Transylvania, Stmar and Maramure, Criana and Banat. Archaeological landmarks on the political
status of western Romania in the Avar Khaganate
251

Naa Profantov

The horse harness, spurs and stirrups in Bohemia in 8th and 9th century

Michal Holek

Early medieval arrowheads from the area of todays Slovakia

Dan Bcue-Crian

Early mediaeval arrows discovered in Sylvanian Basin (Romania)

Valeri Yotov

The find of Sfntu Gheorghe, Covasna County (1943): questions, which might be raised

281
299
307
323

Aurel Dragot

Battle-axes in the cemeteries from Banat, Criana and Transylvania (10th century)

331

Florin Mrginean

An insight on social status around the year 1000 AD, reflected by the funeral inventory of some graves found on the
Lower Mure Valley*

343

Erwin Gll

An attempt to classify the stirrups dating from the 10th century and the first quarter of the 11th century in the
Transylvanian Basin, the Criana/Partium and the Banat with an outlook to the Carpathian Basin

355

hooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads

in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin 1
Aurel Rustoiu

Academia Romn Filiala Cluj

Institutul de Arheologie i Istoria Artei
Str. Koglniceanu 1214
RO 400084 Cluj-Napoca
aurelrustoiu@yahoo.com

Abstract: Numerous antiquities prehistoric or Roman objects discovered and reused in new
functional and symbolic manners are known from Avar age graves identified in the Carpathian Basin.
Among these objects are numerous Scythian bronze arrowheads of the end of the Early Iron Age. Most
arrowheads come from female burials (and rarely from those belonging to men or children) from different
cemeteries in the Great Hungarian Plain. These artefacts were commonly reused as amulets, and some
were included in magical or healing rituals.
Keywords: Skythian arrowheads; Avar age; Carpathian Basin; graves; amulets; magic.

ome studies of the last decades have shown that the weapons were far more than simple fighting tools, as they also played an important symbolic role2. This characteristic is underlined by their social significance and also by the manner in which they were ritually treated.
Furthermore, the weapons were an important part of the symbolic language which contributed to the
construction of different individual and collective identities within many communities. They were the
distinctive sign of the warrior class and also of the citizens, those who were allowed to participate in
the public life and in the process of decision-taking. For instance, Caesar (BG VI, 18) writes that the
Celts from Gaul did not allow the children to participate in public gatherings if they were below the age
at which were entitled to bear weapons. Along the same lines, Tacitus (Germania XIII, 1) mentions that
the Germans ... transact nopublic or private business without being armed. It is not, however, usual
for anyone to wear arms till the state has recognised his power to use them. Then in the presence of the
council one of the chiefs, or the young mans father, or some kinsman, equips him with a shield and a
spear. These arms are what the toga is with us, the first honour with which youth is invested. Up to
this time he is regarded as a member of a household, afterwards as a member of the commonwealth3.
As a consequence, within several communities the weapons appear not only in graves belonging to
warriors, but also in those of some craftsmen or healers, as symbols of their membership to the freemen class4. The weapons placed by some communities in childrens burials5, or those sometimes found
in the female ones, whose owners were acknowledged as honorary males6, can be interpreted in the
same manner, as a symbol of their virtual belonging to the warrior class.
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Education, CNCS UEFISCDI, project number
PN-II-ID-PCE20113-0278.
2
See for example Wells 2007.
3
Complete Works of Tacitus. Tacitus. Alfred John Church. William Jackson Brodribb. Lisa Cerrato. Edited for Perseus, New
York: Random House Inc. Reprinted 1942.
4
See Henning 1991; Rustoiu 2008, 9098; Rustoiu / Berecki 2015; Tnase 2010, 7881 etc.
5
Nicolaescu-Plopor/Wolski 1975, 54; Rustoiu / Coma 2004; Hrke 2004 etc.
6
Arnold 1995; Simnikyt 2007.
1

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Aurel Rustoiu

On the other hand, recent anthropological studies indicate that things in general have a social history in the same way as the human beings, and gain a social biography in relation with them7. Norse
sagas, Arthurian legends or Irish literature, and sometimes even archaeological data show that the heroes weapons were considered as having their own soul, identity and name8. Having a soul and a life
history like the human beings, these objects went through a social evolution from birth to death
which included a series of rites of passage that marked their lifetime9. This interpretative framework
allows a better understanding of the manner in which the weapons were treated from a ritual point
of view. One illustrative example is provided by the ritual killing of the weapons (swords were bent
and other elements of the panoplies of arms were destroyed before being placed in burials); other examples include the placing of weapons in sanctuaries, ritual pits or waterbodies.
However, the symbolic meaning of the weaponry is not related solely to the real, functional objects, but also to those that had a mystic, supernatural or magical origin. This is the case of found
weapons, the prehistoric ones which were recovered more or less accidentally during the Roman or
early medieval period. These gained a new life history and a new social biography by being reused
practically and symbolically within the new environment. This category includes weapons and tools
made of flint or other rocks, which were found later and interpreted by different populations as
materializations of the thunderbolt or as arrows fired by supernatural beings, fairies or elves10. Thus,
according to the sympathetic magic, these objects were useful as protection against thunderbolts or
aggressive supernatural beings. For example, prehistoric flint tools were inserted into the walls or
other construction elements of the houses from Western Europe or Scandinavia, to protect them
against thunderbolts11. This custom is attested up to the modern times among some populations
from Eastern Europe, for instance the Romanians used the so-called thunderbolt stones (tools
made of flint or metal, recovered from the ground or water)12. In conclusion, the manner in which
these found objects were used at the beginning of the medieval period indicates that both their
function and meaning were reinvented. The archaeological contexts, as well as their use, indicate
that their functionality switched from the profane, practical domain to the magical one by gaining
apotropaic properties.
Taking into consideration the symbolic complexity of the weapons, both regular and supernatural, the aim of this article is to analyse the role and significance of the Scythian bronze arrowheads
of the end of the Early Iron Age, which were found in a series of Avar age graves from the Carpathian
Basin.
These Scythian arrowheads are part of a category of artefacts which is quite commonly found
in Avar age burials from the Carpathian Basin. The reuse of antique objects that belonged to earlier
periods was a relatively widespread phenomenon in temperate Europe during the second half of the
1st millennium AD. Archaeologists named these artefacts differently (antiquities, archaika, survivals, relics etc.); some of them came from prehistoric or proto-historic sites, but the majority of
them were produced during the Roman times. They were mostly found in graves, in Western Europe
coming from the Anglo-Saxon13 or Merovingian environment14, while in Eastern Europe they appeared in the Carpathian Basin mainly in burials of the Avar period15. In certain European areas such
antiquities were still present in contexts dated to the end of the 1st millennium and the beginning
of the 2nd millennium AD16.
The interpretation of the significance of antiquities in Avar age burials is directly related to
their context of discovery. Thus, on one hand, their shape, chronology and primary function has to
be taken into consideration. On the other hand, their new functions and subsequent symbolic meaning are indicated by their state of preservation at the time of reuse and the eventual modifications
Kopytoff 1986; Gosden / Marshall 1999; Joy 2009 etc.
Pearce 2013. Excalibur, the famous sword of King Arthur, is probably the best example.
9
Fogelin / Schiffer 2015.
10
Meaney 1981, 210213; Gilchrist 2012, 247.
11
Gilchrist 2012, 247; see further in Meaney 1981.
12
Brbulescu 2001, 206.
13
Meaney 1981, 192238; Eckardt / Williams 2003.
14
Mehling 1998; Pion 2011; Pion 2012.
15
Kraskovsk 1971; Garam 2010; Rustoiu 2015.
16
Gilchrist 2008; Ungerman 2009; Dragot / Rustoiu 2011.
7
8

Shooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin

91

or adaptations, their colour, their precise position within the funerary inventory in relation to the
corpse, as well as the age and gender of the deceased17. From this point of view, studies regarding the
antiquities discovered in Merovingian graves from Western Europe have shown that some of these
old objects were reused in the same manner as in their original context18, while the function of others was modified through a practical and/or symbolic reinterpretation. The latter group consists of
several categories of finds. Some of them were reused as ornaments, for example fragments of glass or
metal vessels were transformed into beads or pendants. Other artefacts were invested with different
symbolic meanings, for example the blue glass bracelets of La Tne type were reused as amulets19.
Lastly, a series of ancient objects were only reused as raw materials, being recycled for different
practical scopes20.
The antiquities from Avar age graves in the Carpathian Basin illustrate a series of situations
which resemble those from the Western European contexts, albeit with some particularities that characterise the geographic and cultural area in question21. Thus the Scythian bronze arrowheads of the
end of the Early Iron Age, found in Avar age cemeteries and discussed below, are part of these regional
particularities and of a specific cultural environment from the period in question.

Fig.1. Distribution area of the Vekerzug culture at the end of the Early Iron Age
(dashed line) and distribution area of the Avar age finds (dotted line).

Still, which is the origin of these artefacts and how these were discovered by the people of the
Avar age? The majority of the graves of this period which contain Scythian bronze arrowheads
belong to different cemeteries from the northern part of the Great Hungarian Plain. At the end of
the Early Iron Age (from the second half of the 7th century until the arrival of the first Celtic colonists around the middle of the 4th century BC), this area was inhabited by populations having different origins, some coming from the northern Pontic region. Many years ago, this pattern made M.
Mehling 1998; Pion 2011; Pion 2012.
In these cases the objects are more commonly heirlooms transmitted from one generation to another within the same
family, over a longer period of time.
19
Haevernick 1968; Pion 2012, 51.
20
Mehling 1998, 86119; Pion 2012.
21
Rustoiu 2015.
17
18

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Aurel Rustoiu

Prducz to define the entire period from the region in question as the Scythian age (Skythenzeit)22.
Archaeologists named later the entire phenomenon either the Vekerzug culture23 or Alfld group24.
The communities of this culture lived in small rural settlements and used either cremation or inhumation as funerary rite, sometimes with chariots or horses placed in graves25. In this context, it has
to be noted that male burials frequently contained arrows with bronze heads (sometimes several examples), which were a symbol of the warlike identity together with other weapons26. In general, the
so-called Skythenzeit covers, from the cultural point of view, different cultural phenomena that reflect
the amalgamation of the local communities with different groups of warriors who arrived in the 7th6th
centuries BC from various areas of the northern Pontic region.
Thus the area inhabited by Avar age communities largely superposed the one occupied later by
the communities of the end of the Early Iron Age in the Great Hungarian Plain (Fig.1). This pattern
was determined by the similarities in the pastoralist economy, lifestyle and preference for a particular environment which characterised the communities of these two periods. As a consequence, several Avar settlements and cemeteries were located in areas in which the prehistoric ones previously
functioned. Sometimes they superposed Scythian cemeteries of the end of the Early Iron Age27, the
Avar graves cutting through those of the earlier periods, so their inventory was inevitably plundered. It is worth mentioning that at rtnd and Sajszentpter, where the Avar age cemeteries
superpose those of the end of the Early Iron Age, were also found Scythian bronze arrowheads in
contexts of the second half of the 1st millennium AD (see Table 1 and Fig.2).

Fig.2. Distribution map of the Scythian arrowheads found in Avar age graves see Table 1 (black dots: small 1
example; medium 23 examples; large 5 examples) and of the Scythian cemeteries superposed by Avar age ones
(black squares): 1. rtnd; 2. Kunszentmrton; 3. Sajszentpter; 4. Szentes; 5. Vmosmikola (see Kemenczei 2010a, 42).
Prducz 1973.
Chochorowski 1985.
24
Kemenczei 2009.
25
Prducz 1973, 40; Chochorowski 1985; Kemenczei 2009.
26
For the typology and distribution of the Scythian arrowheads in the Carpathian Basin see Prducz 1973; Chochorowski
1985, 8694; Kemenczei 1994; Kemenczei 2009, 4447.
27
See a list of Scythian cemeteries superposed by those of the Avar age in Kemenczei 2010a, 42.
22
23

Shooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin

93

There are also some cases in which Avar age settlements occupy the area of some old Scythian
cemeteries. For example, at Hajdnns in north-eastern Hungary the sunken huts and their annexes
(pits, trenches) belonging to the Avar period destroyed graves dated to the end of the Early Iron Age28,
so this could have been an occasion to recover Scythian grave goods.
Lastly, some Scythian arrowheads could have been obtained upon the accidental identification
of some Early Iron Age sites, given that such artefacts were also found in these contexts. One recent
discovery from north-eastern Hungary is relevant. At Ddestapolcsny Verebce-brc in the Bkk
Mountains was identified a settlement fortified with earth ramparts and ditches belonging to the Early
Iron Age. The settlement was besieged and destroyed in the second half of the 7th century BC upon the
arrival of the northern Pontic Scythians in this region. Over 200 bronze arrowheads which were used
during the siege were found on one side of the fortification, on a narrow area, either above ground
or at a shallow depth under the turf layer29 (Fig.3). This case is far from isolated. A quite similar site
was identified at Smolenice-Molpr in western Slovakia, where numerous Scythian arrowheads were
found scattered, remains of a violent siege of the Early Iron Age30. Taking into consideration these two
cases, it is very possible that similar arrowheads could have been also found accidentally in the past,
including in the Avar period.

Fig.3. Scythian arrowheads found in the area of the Early Iron Age fortress at Ddestapolcsny Verebce-brc (right,
earth rampart with the findspots) showing the traces of a siege from the 7th century BC. Such arrowheads could have
been accidentally discovered in prehistoric sites also in the Avar period (after Szab / Czajlik / Remniy 2014).

It might be therefore concluded that the people of the Avar age could have obtained antiquities
like the Scythian arrowheads in different ways, although most of them were more likely collected by
plundering accidentally discovered graves.
The following question is how the Avar age communities perceived these old objects recovered
from the ground in different ways, and mostly how these came to be invested with magical or apotropaic
properties? It is quite sure that the antiquities which were discovered more-or-less accidentally by
different medieval communities were not perceived as traces of the prehistoric or Roman past, but elements of the natural environment. In the 11th century Bishop Marbodius of Rennes (in Liber lapidum)
and two centuries later Albertus Magnus (in De mineralibus) explained that prehistoric stones or those
displaying different engraved images, including Roman gemstones and cameos, have a natural origin
and were imbued with supernatural powers. Thus R. Gilchrist has concluded that antique items placed
in medieval graves were not valued for their temporal or biographical associations, but rather for their
connection to the natural world. Roman antiquities came from the earth, just like fossils and prehistoric
axes and arrowheads. Stone, fossils, and found objects such as antique intaglios and prehistoric lithics
were regarded by medieval people as natural objects that possessed miraculous properties31. In other
Fodor 2011.
Szab / Czajlik / Remniy 2014.
30
Hellmuth 2006.
31
Gilchrist 2012, 247.
28
29

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Aurel Rustoiu

cases the context of discovery plays an important role in the interpretation of old objects. Some of these
places were associated with a mythical past, when the Earth was inhabited by giants or other supernatural beings, so the unearthed objects were ascribed to them32. This could have been the case of the old
objects recovered from the area of some prehistoric fortifications, for instance at Ddestapolcsny. To
prevent the eventual unwanted consequences of dealing with such artefacts, at the end of the 8th century AD Gallic priests composed a series of prayers that had to be recited upon unearthing them33. The
ideas related to their magical qualities also came from the popular beliefs about the mythical past or
the legendary representations of the surrounding environment. This is the case of the aforementioned
prehistoric stone tools and weapons, which were seen as materializations of the thunderbolts. Other
antiquities were appreciated due to their colour, as different hues provided protection against various
perils34. One example is provided by the glass beads or fragments of glass bracelets of the Late Iron Age.
Returning to the Scythian arrowheads from Avar age graves, the question is whether these were
recognized as real weapons or as objects with a different function. Since the composite bow was one of
the weapons of choice, a real sign of the ethnic and warlike identity of the Avar age populations who
arrived in the Carpathian Basin from the Asiatic steppes in the second half of the 6th century AD35, one
has to presume that the Scythian bronze arrowheads were correctly identified morphologically and
functionally. Moreover, numerous Avar burials contain composite bows from which only the lamellae made of deer antler were preserved, as well as many arrows with iron heads of different types and
dimensions (see Fig.8). As a consequence, if the Scythian bronze arrowheads were correctly identified, then the question is how they were interpreted or reused during the Avar period? The answer to
this question could come from the systematic analysis of the contexts of discovery.
From the distribution point of view, the analysed bronze arrowheads come from ten cemeteries
located, with two exceptions, in the northern and eastern part of the Great Hungarian Plain (Fig.2).
As already noted, this region was characterised by a dense habitation also at the end of the Early
Iron Age, when these artefacts were first used. The arrowhead from grave no. 1392 at Zamrdi, on
the southern bank of the Balaton Lake, could have circulated due to the individual mobility that was
specific to the Avar period, although it could have also been discovered in a prehistoric site from
Transdanubia36. Another arrowhead comes from Budapest, in the immediate vicinity of the former
area of the Vekerzug culture, so its presence in an Avar age cemetery located on the right bank of
the Danube can be easily explained. As concerning the frequency of the Scythian arrowheads in
the mentioned cemeteries, some were single finds, while other cemeteries include several graves
containing these artefacts. A total number of 17 graves containing such artefacts were identified (see
Table 1).
Table 1. Avar age graves with Skythian arrowheads in their inventories.
Place of
discovery

Grave
no.

Gender

Preservation

Location in
grave

Alattyn (H)

490

Good

Alattyn (H)

496

Alattyn (H)

700

rtnd (H)

7778

Secondary
use

Bibliography

Observations

Right collarbone Pendant

Kovrig 1963, 45,

pl.33/15.

Near right femur, glass and

limestone beads and one
shell

Good

On the chest

Pendant

Kovrig 1963, 45,

pl.33/23.

Good

On the chest

Pendant

Kovrig 1963,
5859, pl.44/17.

F+
C

Good

One above the

left shoulder
one on the
chest, between
the ribs, in
heart area

Necklace (?)

Kralovnszky
1994, 46,
Fig.9/910.

A few glass beads around

the neck, others in the
pelvis area and near the
left knee

Ungerman 2009, 243244.

Effros 2003, 1617; see also Krmer 1965, 238.
34
Meaney 1981, 206209; Ungerman 2009, 242243; see also Paine 2004.
35
Daim 2003, 465468.
36
Such arrowheads were also found in sites dated to the end of the Early Iron Age in Transdanubia, including the area of
the Balaton Lake: Kemenczei 2010b.
32
33

Shooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin

95

BudapestFehrvri t (H)

F?

Good

Pendant?

Nagy 1973, 61, no.

4, Fig.18/3.

Destroyed grave

Felgy (H)

177

Good

Neck

Necklace

Balogh 2010, 213,

Fig.72/4.

Together with glass beads

Sajszentpter
(H)

Good

One near the

right collarbone

Necklace

Vgh 1964, 16,

Pl.1/20.

Together with glass beads

Szob (H)

39

Good

Neck

Necklace

Kovrig 1975, 162,

fig.4/1.

Together with glass beads

Szob (H)

105

Good

Neck

Necklace

Kovrig 1975, 181,

fig.12/5.

Together with glass beads

Tiszafred (H)

646

Good

Neck

Necklace

Garam 1995, 83,

pl.109/3.

Together with glass beads

Tiszafred (H)

769

Good

Neck

Necklace

Garam 1995, 94,

118/3.

Together with glass beads

and one Roman bronze
coin. The inventory also
contains a complete brooch
with a bent foot, in a purse
placed near the left arm

Tiszafred (H)

1049

Good

Neck

Necklace

Garam 1995, 123,

pl.143/3.

Together with a string of

beads and two decorated
lead plaques. Perforated
arrow head

Tiszafred (H)

1157

Good

Neck

Necklace

Garam 1995, 137,

pl.145/4.

String of beads and bronze

plaques

Tiszafred (H)

1190

Good

Neck

Necklace

Garam 1995, 140,

pl.158/4.

String of beads and oval

bronze plaque

Vc (H)

284

Good

Near left femur

Pendant

Tettamanti 2000,
65, pl.15/2.

Together with a bronze

tweezers attached to the
belt. Other objects near
the right femur, including
one Roman brooch, a flint
piece, an obsidian piece
etc. probably in a purse.

Zamrdi (H)

1392

Good

Left hand

Amulet in
the purse

Brdos / Garam
2009, 182184,
pl.160/10

Together with other iron

and silver objects, including one small Roman
bronze coin, some flint
pieces, one La Tne fragmentary bracelet with hollow knobs

elovce (SK)

52

Fragmentary

On the chest
near the neck

Pendant

ilinsk 1973, 43,

pl.10/2.

In the majority of the cases (13 graves) these arrowheads come from female burials, while three burials belonged to men (of which only one contained weapons, thus belonging to the warrior class); one
grave was of a child. The latter context contained the single damaged (fragmentary) arrowhead; all others
were complete when placed into the graves. At the same time, with one exception, each grave contained a
single arrowhead (Fig.48). The exception is a grave from rtnd which will be discussed below (Fig.4/4).
As concerning their position in relation to the skeleton upon discovery, the majority of the
Scythian arrowheads were found around the neck, on the chest or on the shoulders. This fact indicates that they were used as pendants worn around the neck (when they were not associated with
other ornaments), or as part of some strings of glass beads, sometimes associated with other beads and
pendants made of different materials. In two cases, in the male graves from Vc and Zamrdi, the arrowheads were found near the left femur and the left hand respectively. The objects with whom these
were associated suggest that in the first case the arrowhead was either used as a belt pendant or was
kept in a purse together with other amulets; in the second case the arrowhead must have been used
as amulet together with other objects having the same function, which were again kept in a purse37.

Garam 2010, 155158, Fig.5.

37

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Aurel Rustoiu

3
2

Fig.4. Avar age graves containing Scythian bronze arrowheads. 1. Alattyn grave no. 490; 2. Alattyn grave no. 496; 3.
Alattyn grave no. 700; 4. rtnd grave no. 7778; 5. Budapest-Fehrvri t (see Table 1 for the source of illustrations).

Shooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin

1
4

Fig.5. Avar age graves containing Scythian bronze arrowheads. 1. Felgy grave no. 177; 2. Sajszentpter
grave no. 1; 3. Szob grave no. 39; 4. Szob grave no. 105 (see Table 1 for the source of illustrations).

97

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Aurel Rustoiu

Fig.6. Avar age graves containing Scythian bronze arrowheads: Tiszafred. 1. Grave no. 646; 2.
Grave no. 769; 3. Grave no. 1157; 4. Grave no1049 (see Table 1 for the source of illustrations).

Shooting the evil. Scythian arrowheads in Avar age graves from the Carpathian Basin

Fig.7. Avar age graves containing Scythian bronze arrowheads. 1. Tiszafred grave no. 1190; 2.
Vc grave no. 284; 3. elovce grave no. 52 (see Table 1 for the source of illustrations).

99

100

Aurel Rustoiu

1a

5
4

1b

6
8
10

17

22

21

33

12

1315

2325

34

36

28

26

16

20

19

18

35

32

11

29

30

31

27

37

4351

3842

52

65
64
62

5361
63

Fig.8. Zamrdi grave no. 1392 containing one Scythian bronze arrowhead (no. 10) and a set
of Avar iron arrowheads (no. 5361) (see Table 1 for the source of illustrations).

66

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101

As a consequence, it can be said that in general the presence of Scythian arrowheads in Avar age
burials follows a certain pattern that had a symbolic meaning. More precisely, they were worn around
the neck either as single pendants or as elements of some strings of beads, or were attached to the belt
as amuletpendants or were kept in purses. Consequently, grave no. 7778 from rtnd stand out due
to the different position of the arrowheads from its inventory. First of all, this is a double burial. The
pit contained the skeleton of a woman who was at least 23 years old, and that of a newborn child who
was laid near the upper part of her right arm. It can be therefore presumed that both died upon childbirth. The woman wore a pair of bronze earrings and a string consisting of a few differently coloured
glass beads, while other beads were found on the pelvis and around the left knee, being probably sewn
on the clothes. One bronze arrowhead was found above the left shoulder, so it could have been part of
the string of beads worn around the neck, as in the previously mentioned cases. However, this burial
also contains a second arrowhead of the same type. This one was found on the left side of the chest, in
the heart area, between the ribs. This particular funerary context points to several ways of interpreting the functional significance of this artefact in comparison with other Scythian arrowheads from
the Avar environment.
A series of myths and beliefs encountered among different
populations from Europe and Asia, collected and commented by
ethnographers, anthropologists and historians of religion may
contribute to the interpretation of the significance of these artefacts. Some of these myths and beliefs were synthesised by
Mircea Eliade, who noted, while discussing the symbolism of different tools and weapons, that there is a wide variety of complex
meanings that stretches over a longer period. Thus the symbol of
the bow and arrow appears in numerous myths, rituals and beliefs, having different meanings and implying different interpretations38. Some of these beliefs regarding the symbolic role of the
arrows are also important for this study.
For example, the arrows sometimes played a magical healing
role. Some populations believed that certain illnesses and sudden
pains were caused by the blow of sharpen instruments, often arrows, belonging to various demons or malefic spirits. As a consequence, the treatment sometimes required the extraction of
these projectiles, an operation carried out by shamans or healers
either through massaging or other symbolic practices of retrieval39.
Among some populations, the shamans shot the patients with
the bow using special magical arrows. The latter instruments were Fig.9. Anthropomorphic ceramic figurine
also meant to appeal or recall the souls for healing purposes. As having an iron arrowhead inside, used
concerning the origin of some magical bows and arrows, among in magical practices. It comes from the
Dacian settlement at Popeti, in southern
some populations from Central Asia or the northern Eurasian area Romania, from an archaeological context
it was believed that they were made of a branch that has fallen dated to the 1st century BC (see note 39).
down from the Cosmic Tree40.
Mircea Eliade considered that all of these beliefs reflected the demonic and ambivalent nature
of the bow and arrow. Probably for the same reason many populations associated the arrow with the
Eliade 1968.
One example of the Late Iron Age in the Lower Danube region is relevant for the magical role of the arrow. In the Dacian
settlement at Popeti (Giurgiu County), in southern Romania, one anthropomorphic ceramic figurine was found in a context
dated to the 1st century BC (Fig. 9). Inside it was found one iron arrowhead, indicating that the figurine was modelled
including the piece (Palinca 1995, 9395, Fig.12). It is considered that such ceramic figurines, also made of other materials, were used in the northern Balkans (Srbu 1993a; Srbu 1993b) and also in the Near East or the Mediterranean as part
of some magical practices (white or black), as a kind of voodoo dolls (Faraone 1991; Ogden 1999, 7179; Collins 2008, 64,
9297). In this context, it can be presumed that the figurine from Popeti was modelled together with the arrowhead inside
it to cause pain to an individual who was embodied by the figurine, according to the principles of sympathetic magic. On
the other hand, one can also presume that the shaman wanted to reconstruct the cause of the pain felt by the subject, in
order to heal him by extracting the arrow.
40
Eliade 1968, 463465; see also Eliade 1997, 206208.
38
39

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Aurel Rustoiu

thunder and the thunderbolt. Shooting arrows towards the thunder source and the cloudy sky is attested from Asia to Europe, including among the Thracian populations. The scope was to fend off the
evil or the demons represented by the thunder41.
Ritual offerings of miniature bows and arrows upon childbirth are attested among some populations, the scope being to protect against evil spirits. These offerings brought in good luck in hunting
to the men and fertility to the women. In the case of some northern European or Asian populations,
such objects were suspended above the crib. At the same time, arrows were offered with the same
scope within most of the Siberian tribes, in Tibet and China42.
Returning to the Scythian arrowheads, their apparent earthly origin and their recovery in particular circumstances and locations (like the large Early Iron Age fortifications whose memory still
persisted at the beginning of the Medieval Age in a legendary form, as fortresses of the giants, for
example) probably invested them with supernatural mythical origins and properties, as in the case
of other found objects which were used as amulets during the same period. These magical qualities
were probably accentuated by their small dimensions in comparison with those of the iron arrowheads used during the period in question, which made them even more alien in this environment.
At the same time, the green colour of the bronze patina acquired by the Scythian arrowheads also
contributed to the perceived supernatural and magical properties of these objects. This fact may also
explain their inclusion in some strings of glass beads having different colours43. Taking into consideration the symbolism of the arrow among various populations from Asia and Europe, the Scythian
bronze arrowheads placed in Avar age burials (commonly belonging to women) could be interpreted
as magical miniature objects offered upon childbirth to bring good luck, fertility or protection against
illness. Furthermore, their use as pendants in strings of beads or the placing in purses together with
other amulets indicate the intention of the owners to concentrate a large number of objects or instruments able to protect them against multiple perils.
Regarding the interpretation of the functions fulfilled by the Scythian arrowheads, it is important to also note that only one was found in every context, suggesting a certain functional rule. The
single exception is the double burial from rtnd. As already shown, the woman in question had one
arrowhead which was probably included in the string of beads worn around the neck and was acquired
well before her death. The second arrowhead, found between the ribs in the hearts area, could indicate the action of a shaman who performed a magical healing ritual attempting to resolve a problem
that appeared perhaps during childbirth; his tentative seems to have failed according to the archaeological data. This is one rare example of a magical healing ritual that can be archaeologically identified.
Conclusions. The Scythian bronze arrowheads belong to the relatively numerous category of
antiquities discovered in the funerary inventories of the Avar period. Similarly to the majority of
the antiquities discovered in Europe during the post-Roman provincial period, these come mostly
from female or child burials, while in male burials these are rarely found. This fact suggests that such
relics were used as amulets, a hypothesis confirmed by the analysis of archaeological contexts. In the
case of Scythian arrowheads, both the ethnographic analogies and the contexts of discovery more
likely indicate a magical healing function. Their wearing around the neck as pendants or parts of some
strings of beads, or their placing in purses together with other amulets contributed to the creation of
some complex magical instruments meant to protect the owner against multiple perils, like the evil
eye, bad luck, infertility etc., while also fending off illnesses or sudden pains caused by the shooting
actions of some demonic spirits.
The Scythian arrowheads were mostly found in the Great Hungarian Plain, a region which was
inhabited by different communities at the end of the Early Iron Age, having strong connections with
the steppes from the northern Black Sea region. During the Avar age, a series of settlements and
cemeteries were established above some Early Iron Age sites, leading to the accidental destruction of
certain Scythian contexts (mainly graves) which also contained such arrowheads. Their reuse for
magical purposes, as amulets, became relatively popular. The quite large number and the distribution
indicate that at a certain date such objects became quite well-known, being deliberately sought and
purchased. As a consequence, some of these arrowheads could have been exchanged. The trade with
Eliade 1968, 465466.
Eliade 1968, 466.
43
For the magical apotropaic properties of the beads and colours see Paine 2004.
41
42

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103

such relics was also suggested in the case of other European regions. Several fragments of La Tne
blue glass bracelets were found in the funerary inventories of some Merovingian graves, albeit these
objects were produced in Central Europe during the Late Iron Age while missing from the western
areas. As a consequence, their presence in the Western European Merovingian environment could be
related to a trade or exchange of such relics during the period in question44.
One relatively similar situation is suggested by the amphora-shaped glass beads, translucent white
or greyish and rarely blue, which were produced in the Mediterranean environment during the 5th3rd
centuries BC, from where they reached the Celtic communities in the Carpathian Basin. During the
Avar period, such beads are also commonly encountered in strings discovered in female burials. This
presence indicates not only that these beads, which played an apotropaic role, were deliberately selected, but were also exchanged across the entire Carpathian Basin. Furthermore, this practice seems
to anticipate the subsequent widespread trade with religious relics dating from the first centuries of
the Christian period. The latter played, up to a point, the role of antiquities from the pagan environment of the early Medieval Age, like in the Carpathian Basin during the Avar period.

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