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The importance of teachers

perceived organizational support
to job satisfaction
Whats empowerment got to do with it?
Ronit Bogler
Department of Education and Psychology, The Open University of Israel,
Raanana, Israel, and

Adam E. Nir

Perceived
organizational
support
287
Received 10 March 2010
Revised 6 October 2010
25 November 2010
8 December 2010
Accepted 9 December 2010

School of Education, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

Abstract
Purpose The paper aims to investigate the mediating effect of teacher empowerment on the
relationship between teachers perception of their school support and their intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfaction.
Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from a sample of 2,565 teachers affiliated
with 153 Israeli elementary schools. A path analysis procedure was employed to test the mediating
effect of teacher empowerment on the relation between perceived organizational support and job
satisfaction.
Findings The results reveal that teacher empowerment mediated the relations between perceived
organizational support and satisfaction, adding more than 30 per cent to the explained variance of each
of the satisfaction types. Teacher empowerment shows different relationships when intrinsic versus
extrinsic type of satisfaction is considered. The most influential dimension of empowerment predicting
teacher intrinsic satisfaction is self-efficacy, a psychologically oriented variable, while the most
powerful dimension of empowerment predicting extrinsic job satisfaction is earned status and respect,
a sociologically oriented variable.
Research limitations/implications The results reinforce the notion that both types of job
satisfaction are two different entities that should be addressed differently. Taking a theoretical
perspective, it appears that teacher empowerment should be conceived as a multi-dimensional scale,
where its various components are differently associated with the two types of satisfaction.
Practical implications Moreover, it seems that teacher empowerment has a much stronger
impact on teacher satisfaction when it takes place in an organizational context that supports
individuals. Hence, school leaders need to focus on different qualities of teacher empowerment,
depending on the qualities of satisfaction that they wish to promote.
Originality/value Little is known about perceived organizational support in the educational realm.
Studying it in relation with teacher empowerment and job satisfaction, key concepts in the school
arena, is unprecedented.
Keywords Satisfaction, Empowerment, Perceived organizational support, Teachers, Israel,
Job satisfaction
Paper type Research paper

The authors would like to thank Avner Caspi, the reviewers, and the editor of this journal for
their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article.

Journal of Educational
Administration
Vol. 50 No. 3, 2012
pp. 287-306
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0957-8234
DOI 10.1108/09578231211223310

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Theoretical framework and purpose of the study

There is much evidence in the professional literature that advocates the importance of
employee satisfaction which, in turn, affects professional conduct (Judge et al., 2001a;
Liu and Ramsey, 2008). In the educational realm, teacher satisfaction is considered
influential in its relationship to school effectiveness and school outcomes; therefore, it
is conceived of as a key factor in improving school performance (Thompson et al., 1997;
Sargent and Hannum, 2005).
While the importance of teacher satisfaction is well documented (e.g. Reyes and
Shin, 1995; Rossmiller, 1992), less is known about the way organizations promote their
employee satisfaction through organizational processes. In particular, the literature
lacks substantial evidence indicating the impact of the schools appreciation of its
teachers as a means to promote their satisfaction. While organizational appreciation
may be viewed through various organization measures, the current study specifically
focuses on perceived organizational support (POS) and teacher empowerment. This
relationship may be theoretically explained in considering that POS and empowerment
are process variables testifying for a schools organizational behavior while
satisfaction is an outcome variable. Therefore, we assume that satisfaction is likely
to be influenced by the qualities of organizational processes. Taking into account
previous research evidence indicating the significant connections between POS and
satisfaction, the following study takes a unique perspective as it attempts to assess the
contribution of POS to teachers satisfaction through the mediating effect of
empowerment. The theoretical rationale for this research endeavor may be better
understood when considering that while these variables are organizational processes,
POS is viewed by employees as a perceived measure for the organizational backing in
their professional conduct while empowerment expresses the extent to which
employees experience organizational backing through an actual change in their
authority. Therefore, it is our assumption that POS through the mediating effect of
empowerment is likely to provide a powerful measure when attempting to appraise
employees satisfaction.
Perceived organizational support
Perceived organizational support has been studied in relation to various organizational
outcomes, such as affective attachment and obligation to the organization (Shore and
Wayne, 1993), job performance (Eisenberger et al., 1990), job retention (Eisenberger
et al., 2002), employee turnover (Maertz et al., 2007), withdrawal behavior (Eder and
Eisenberger, 2008) and job satisfaction (Eisenberger et al., 1997).
According to Eisenberger et al. (1986, p. 503) employees develop global beliefs
concerning the degree to which the organization values their contributions and cares
about their well-being. These beliefs represent the employees perception about their
organizational support. Based on Eisenbergers findings, it seems that individuals tend
to rationalize their interaction with their organization. This may be evident in their
tendency to evaluate the proportion between what they invest as opposed to what they
obtain while interacting with the organization, which eventually, influences their
overall investment. Both Eisenberger et al. (1986) and Shore and Tetrick (1991) asserted
that employees showed consistent agreement with various statements regarding the
extent to which the organization appreciated their contributions and treated them
favorably or unfavorably under different circumstances. Social exchange theorists

claim that people tend to value more the receipt of resources that are thought to be
discretionary rather than being dictated to by conditions that are beyond the donors
control (Eisenberger et al., 1997). The exchange idea, where employees feel obligated to
repay the organization beyond what is expected of them within the formal role
definition in response to the goodwill of the organization (Rhoades and Eisenberger,
2002), assumes that both employers and employees will take into account the needs of
the other when needed (Hochwarter et al., 2003). Trust is an important element within
the exchange relationship associated with POS. When trust prevails, the employees
believe that they will be rewarded for their good deeds, and the organization assumes
that by providing adequate rewards, it will bring about the employees continued
positive behavior (Hochwarter et al., 2003, p. 439) that may result in increased job
satisfaction. Therefore, it is expected that teachers who believe that their school is
committed to them and acts voluntarily on their behalf will feel a high level of job
satisfaction, and will consequently strive to improve their work performance.
A growing line of research has reported on the antecedents and consequences of
POS (for a thorough review, see Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002). Among the
consequences are organizational commitment, performance, aversive psychological
and psychosomatic reactions, desire to remain, and job-related affect. With regard to
job-related affect, POS was hypothesized to contribute to overall job satisfaction by
fulfilling socio-emotional needs and enhancing performance-reward expectancies. As
stated by the organizational support theory, employees develop a sense regarding the
extent to which the organization appreciates their contribution and cares about their
well-being (Eisenberger et al., 2004), a state that, if the organization indeed contributes
and cares about their well-being, may result in an increase in their affective
commitment to the organization. The employees appreciation may also lead to a
personification of the organization, and consequently to their greater sense of
obligation to assist the organization in fulfilling its goals. Nevertheless, it is important
to note, that POS refers to the extent to which the organization is perceived to care
about employees well-being, a measure testifying for the qualities of extrinsic job
circumstances. POS does not imply, however, role modifications evident in expanded
role authority, responsibilities or degrees of freedom.
Employees tend to perceive their managers as direct representatives of their
organizations (Podsakoff et al., 2010). When asserting that the organization cares about
their well-being, employees actually mean that these perceptions are reflected in their
managers/supervisors behavior. It is important to be aware of this observation as we
move to discuss teachers perceptions about their feeling of empowerment in the job,
which we would argue is a perceived outcome of the role modification evident in the
authority and autonomy that one experiences on the job.
Teacher empowerment
Empowerment is used by organizational leaders as a means to express the appreciation
and support of their employees. Short et al. (1994, p. 38) define empowerment as a
process whereby school participants develop the competence to take charge of their
own growth and resolve their own problems. Rinehart and Short (1991) found that
reading recovery teacher leaders were more highly empowered than reading recovery
teachers or classroom teachers. This finding was explained as a result of the teacher
leaders having more opportunities to make decisions and grow professionally, having

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control over daily schedules and feeling a high level of teaching competency. Other
studies have also emphasized that ones obligation, which is considered significant for
individual conduct, is likely to increase when employees are granted degrees of
freedom that better enable them to control their work (Nir, 2002; Rosenholtz, 1989;
Rosenholtz and Simpson, 1990). According to Maeroff (1988), teacher empowerment
consists of improved status, increased knowledge and access to decision-making. Short
and Rinehart (1992) identify six dimensions of teacher empowerment:
(1) involvement in decision-making;
(2) opportunities for professional growth;
(3) earned status and respect;
(4) self-efficacy;
(5) autonomy in the job; and
(6) having an impact on other teachers, students and events that take place in the
school.
In previous studies, empowerment was found to mediate between the teachers
participation in decision-making and professional commitment (Bogler, 2005), and
between participation in decision-making and organizational citizenship behavior
(Bogler and Somech, 2005). In this study, we attempt to determine which subscales of
teacher empowerment can best predict the constructive intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfaction, and in what manner this construct mediates between the teachers
perceived organizational support and satisfaction.
It is our assumption that teachers who feel empowered (i.e. are characterized by
their involvement in decision-making, opportunities for professional growth, earned
status and respect, self-efficacy, autonomy in the job and impact on others) will tend to
report a higher level of job satisfaction. This may be better understood in considering
that empowerment implies actual changes in employees professional authority and
conduct, evident in their increased autonomy and involvement in broader
organizational issues beyond their daily routine tasks. In previous studies, Wu and
Short (1996) revealed that teachers self-efficacy and professional development
predicted teacher satisfaction. This finding is not surprising. When teachers report that
they work in a supportive, nurturing and stimulating environment that encourages
their perceptions of competence and ability to act, it is reasonable to expect that they
will feel satisfied with their school (Wu and Short, 1996). Others have shown that
participation in decision-making, another component of teacher empowerment, may
increase employees job satisfaction (e.g. Sagie et al., 2002; Somech, 2010; Witt et al.,
2000). Taylor and Tashakkori (1997), who studied job satisfaction among teachers,
found that those teachers who indicated greatest job satisfaction were those who
reported high levels of actual participation in decision-making. Butts et al. (2009) found
a full mediation effect of empowerment in the relationship between high involvement
work processes and job satisfaction among employees.
Teacher job satisfaction
Teacher job satisfaction has been studied as an overall construct and as a facet
construct (Holdaway, 1978, p. 46). In his research, Holdaway found that overall
satisfaction was closely related to working with students, societal attitudes, status of

teachers, recognition, and achievement. Zigarelli (1996) referred to teacher job

satisfaction as a single, general measure that is a statistically significant predictor of
an effective school. Evans (1997), who addressed problems of the conceptualization and
construct validity of teacher job satisfaction, presented a more critical view on this
subject. She argued that the source of the concepts ambiguity is rooted in the
distinction between satisfactory and satisfying. The lack of a clear distinction
between the two terms results in problems of construct validity. Evans suggested
solving this ambiguity by reconceptualizing job satisfaction in terms of two
constituents:
(1) job fulfillment (how well the job is performed); and
(2) job comfort (ones satisfaction with the conditions of the job).
Job fulfillment seems to relate to properties characterizing internal growth while job
comfort mainly focuses on issues of context where the job is performed. The essence of
these two variables was captured in the work of Bhal and Ansari (1996) who use the
internal and external facets of satisfaction. In this current study, teacher job
satisfaction was examined using both dimensions as proposed by Bhal and Ansari
intrinsic vs. extrinsic satisfaction the first, capturing the notion of self-fulfillment
and accomplishments, represents the psychologically-oriented considerations; the
second, depicting job conditions (job security and social aspects of work), denotes the
socially-oriented aspects. Previous research has shown that there are several factors
that promote teacher motivation which are related to teacher job satisfaction, such as
participation in decision-making, self-esteem, freedom and independence (see, for
example, Evans, 1998). These factors are among the ones that make up the concept of
teacher empowerment.
In their thorough review, Judge et al. (2001a, p. 26) asserted that job satisfaction has
perhaps been the most widely studied topic in all of industrial/organizational
psychology. Job satisfaction has been perceived as being comprised of both the
cognitive and the affective dimensions (Locke, 1976, p. 1300), expressing a pleasurable
or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience.
Some researchers attach greater importance to the cognitive rather than to the affective
aspect (e.g. Brief, 1998). However, according to Judge et al.s (2001a) review, most
researchers view job satisfaction as a global concept that is comprised of a number of
facets, of which the most common distinction is between the intrinsic and extrinsic
facets.
In the present study, we attempt to derive a two-type categorization of satisfaction
since we attach great importance to the contribution of this knowledge to daily school
life as well as to the theoretical framework. Though POS has been studied intensively
in the past two decades, there has been little evidence of its existence in the educational
realm (e.g. Erdogan et al., 2004). Our choice to study the mediating effect of
empowerment on the relation between POS and satisfaction originates from our
understanding that each of these predictors relates to a different aspect of job
satisfaction. POS relates mainly to the circumstances shared by individuals who
perform their job. Empowerment, however, refers to actual changes in ones role, which
are likely to be evident mostly in the level of authority that individuals have on the job.
POS and structural empowerment were both found to be significant predictors of role
satisfaction among middle-level managers, predicting 46 percent of the role

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satisfaction variance (Patrick and Laschinger, 2006, p. 20). Since employee job
satisfaction is made up of internal job qualities as well as of circumstantial job features,
it is suggested that POS through the mediation of empowerment may be viewed as two
organizational features likely to promote satisfaction as a whole.
While previous studies shed some light on the connections between POS and
employee job satisfaction, the relative contribution of empowerment as a mediating
factor between these two variables has been neglected. Moreover, in considering that
both empowerment and satisfaction are composite measures comprised of a number of
different variables, little is known about the unique connections existing between the
various aspects comprising these variables. It is, therefore, our goal to fill this gap in
the literature and to shed some light on the potential effects of POS on teacher job
satisfaction, both intrinsic and extrinsic, while estimating the mediating effect of
teachers perceived empowerment.
Based on the above, we offer the following hypotheses:
H1. Empowerment and POS will both have a positive correlation with satisfaction
(intrinsic and extrinsic).
H2. Teacher empowerment will mediate the POS job satisfaction (intrinsic and
extrinsic) relationship.
H3. Teacher empowerment is a multi-dimensional construct that will affect
intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction differently.
Method
This quantitative study was undertaken to empirically explore the mediating effect of
empowerment on the relation between teacher POS and satisfaction.
Data collection and analysis
With the permission of the central office of the Israel Ministry of Education and the
principal of each sampled school, research assistants administered the surveys within
a single academic year (2002-2003) in 153 elementary schools located in all seven
educational districts in Israel. In the Israeli system, schools socio-economic status
(SES) is represented on a ten-level scale, where 1 indicates a high SES environment.
Schools in the current sample represented the entire range of SES in the Israeli system.
The research assistants contacted each of the schools principals and coordinated the
date and time for the questionnaire distribution. The questionnaires were handed out
during teachers meetings and were collected immediately thereafter. Teachers who
were absent at that time received the questionnaire from the research assistant at a
later date in order to reach all the potential respondents in the targeted sample. The
purposes of the research were explained and confidentiality was ensured. Path analysis
was used to test the conceptual argument that POS would affect teacher satisfaction
via the mediating effect of empowerment, represented by its six subscales. Multilevel
modeling (MLM) was used to control for school random effect because the sampled
teachers were nested in a large sample of schools. SPSS (version 17) was employed for
exploratory factor analyses which included MLM and correlational analysis. Path
analysis was conducted using AMOS 17.0 of SPSS.

Participants
From a random sample of 4,351 teachers affiliated with 153 elementary schools, 2,565
responded and returned usable questionnaires (59 percent rate of return). Of the
respondents, 96 percent were women, with an average age of 40, and 15 years of
teaching experience. The fact that most of the respondents were female is not
surprising as women are dominant in numbers among the teaching force in elementary
schools in Israel (CBS, 2008).
Research instrument
A quantitative questionnaire, combining four-point Likert scales measuring POS, job
satisfaction and teacher empowerment was distributed to the sampled teachers. The
choice of this scale range was aimed to bring the respondents to take a stand regarding
each of the research variables. The respondents were asked to refer to their current
school, and to answer a range of questions regarding their perceptions toward the
variables examined in the study.
Measures
Perceived organizational support was measured using a 22-item instrument of SPOS
(Survey Perceived Organizational Support, shorter version) developed by Eisenberger
et al. (1986, p. 504). This instrument assesses employees global beliefs concerning the
extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their
well-being. The respondents used a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) to indicate their degree of agreement with each item. The
internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha) for the one-scale measure in this
study is 0.93. Sample items include: The school values my contribution to its
well-being; The school strongly considers my goals and values; Help is available
from the school when I have a problem, The school really cares about my well-being,
and The school takes pride in my accomplishments at work.
Teacher job satisfaction was measured using Bhal and Ansaris (1996) scale. On a
four-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 4 (very satisfied), the
respondents were asked to evaluate how satisfied they were with each of the seven
items representing satisfaction with different aspects of the job. Intrinsic satisfaction
was based on four items (reliability coefficient in the current study was 0.86) and
extrinsic satisfaction included three items (coefficient alpha was 0.76). Example items
include: The amount of challenge in your job, the feeling of worthwhile
accomplishment you get from doing your job (intrinsic), the amount of job security
you have, and the friendliness of the people you work with (extrinsic).
Teacher empowerment was measured using the School Participant Empowerment
Scale (SPES), which is comprised of 38 items (Short and Rinehart, 1992). The SPES
assesses teachers general perspectives on empowerment using a four-point Likert-type
scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Factor analysis of the SPES
revealed six dimensions. The dimensions and their internal coefficient alphas in this
study were:
(1) involvement in decision-making (0.82);
(2) opportunities for professional growth (0.74);
(3) earned status and respect (0.78);

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(4) self-efficacy (0.69);

(5) autonomy in the job (0.60); and
(6) impact on other teachers, students and events (0.73).
Though reliability coefficient of 0.7 is considered an acceptable one (Nunnally, 1978),
lower thresholds are sometimes used in the literature. The relatively low reliability
obtained for the autonomy factor may be related to the fact that at the time the data
were collected, elementary schools in Israel were in the initial stages of implementing a
school-based management policy; a policy which created ambiguity regarding its
implications for schools autonomy. These circumstances significantly differ from
previously explored decentralized contexts, indicating higher levels of reliability for
this variable.
The complete scale has a reliability level of .93. Sample items include: I make
decisions about the implementation of new programs in the school; I make decisions
about the selection of other teachers for my school (decision-making); I am treated
like a professional; I function in a professional environment (professional growth); I
believe that I have earned respect; I have the support and respect of my colleagues
(status); I believe that I am empowering students; I perceive that I am making a
difference (self-efficacy); I have the freedom to make decisions on what is taught; I
have control over daily schedules (autonomy); and I believe that I have the ability to
get things done, I perceive that I have an impact on other teachers and students
(impact).
In order to deal with the problem of underestimation of the standard error of the six
factors of empowerment, and to decrease the probability of making a type I error, a
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. The best data-to-model fit was
found for a two-level model in which empowerment were a latent variable at the higher
level, and six latent factors comprised the lower level. The fit indices, indicating how
well the model fits the population, were: The goodness of fit index GFI 0:965;
comparative fit index CFI 0:961; and root mean square residual RMR 0:021
(GFI and CFI range between 0 and 1, where 1 indicates a perfect fit while an RMR of 0
indicates a perfect fit.). The RMR is the square root of the average squared amount by
which the sample variances and covariances differ from their estimates obtained under
the assumption that the model is correct.
Based on the findings obtained, we concluded that the six indicators of
empowerment cohere around the latent construct of empowerment. The model showed
a significant chi-square statistic; X 2(1, N 2; 156 1467:5; p 0:000: Though a
perfect fit with the data should demonstrate a non-significant p value, large samples, as
in the present case, may have an important effect on this probability. With a very large
sample, Cochran (1952) argues that departures from the null hypothesis, which states
that the model fits the population perfectly, are almost certain to be revealed.
Results
The first phase of the data analysis was to examine the descriptive statistics. Means,
standard deviations and intercorrelations for the research variables are shown in
Table I.
An examination of the means of the empowerment (SPES) subscales revealed the
following (from high to low): status M 3:59; professional growth M 3:48;

Variable
1. Decision-makinga
2. Professional growtha
3. Statusa
4. Self-efficacya
5. Autonomya
6. Impacta
7. Intrinsic satisfactionb
8. Extrinsic satisfactionb
9. POSa
10. SPES

SD

10

2.82
3.48
3.59
3.37
3.43
3.28
3.27
3.52
3.22
3.29

0.49
0.42
0.38
0.39
0.46
0.47
0.58
0.46
0.48
0.37

0.60

0.53
0.72

0.58
0.66
0.67

0.58
0.57
0.55
0.56

0.75
0.66
0.64
0.72
0.63

0.53
0.61
0.52
0.61
0.41
0.56

0.42
0.55
0.63
0.47
0.39
0.48
0.51

0.55
0.67
0.60
0.55
0.48
0.59
0.58
0.56

0.87
0.83
0.79
0.83
0.75
0.89
0.66
0.58
0.69

Notes: Variables 1-6 are subscales of teacher empowerment; Rating scale: 1 Strongly disagree;
4 Strongly agree; bRating scale: 1 Strongly dissatisfied; 4 Strongly satisfied. POS perceived
organizational support; SPES School Participant Empowerment Scale (the whole scale). N 2; 565:
All correlations are statistically significant, p , 0.001

autonomy M 3:43; self-efficacy M 3:37; impact M 3:28: The lowest

average score was ascribed to involvement in decision-making M 2:82: These
relatively high scores may indicate teachers high expectations for autonomy, which
characterized the initial implementation stages of the school-based management policy
in the Israeli educational system.
The Pearson correlation matrix revealed that all six subscales were significantly
( p , 0.0001) and positively correlated with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction
(ranging from 0.39 to 0.63) and POS (ranging from 0.48 to 0.67). Thus, the more the
teachers perceived themselves as practicing any of the teacher empowerment
components, the more they experienced intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction with the
teaching job, and perceived the school to be supportive of their actions. Consequently,
the first hypothesis which claimed that empowerment and POS will each have a
positive correlation with satisfaction (intrinsic and extrinsic) was supported.
With regard to satisfaction, the teachers reported a higher level of extrinsic
satisfaction as compared to intrinsic satisfaction (3.52 and 3.27 respectively,
t2564 23:59;p , 0.0001). This finding implies that the teachers attached greater
importance to their social relations with peers, the respect they gain from peers, and
their feeling of security at work as compared to their level of professional development,
sense of self-fulfillment in the job, the challenges they face at work, and the promotion
opportunities in school.
To test the mediating effect of teacher empowerment to the relation between teacher
POS and job satisfaction (intrinsic and extrinsic), a path analysis procedure was
employed as depicted in Figure 1.
This analysis is based on two process variables (POS and empowerment as a
mediator) and one outcome variable (satisfaction). Our research model is based on a
theoretical assumption arguing that POS refers to employees beliefs concerning the
degree to which the organization values their contribution and cares about their
well-being. In this sense, this variable may be viewed as a broader and less concrete
measure for what is perceived by employees as organizational concern. Empowerment
on the other hand may be viewed as a more tangible measure for actual changes in

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Table I.
Descriptive statistics and
Pearsons correlation
coefficients among
research variables

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Figure 1.
Path model depicting the
mediating effects of
teacher empowerment
subscales on perceived
organizational support
and job satisfaction
(intrinsic and extrinsic)

authority that employees perceive on the job. Hence, we assume that employees
perception of organizational support mediated through perceived empowerment will
produce outcomes likely to be evident in employees satisfaction. This line of argument
is consistent with previous studies reflecting similar relationships (e.g. Eisenberger
et al., 1997; Bogler and Somech, 2005; and Hochwarter et al., 2006).
The method of path analysis, which assumes linear and nonrecursive relationships
among interval variables, allows examination of the direct and indirect effects of
teachers POS on the dependent variable: teacher job satisfaction. In the present study,
teacher empowerment, the mediating variable, is not a single variable, but rather a
multiple one. However, MacKinnon (2000) indicates that models with multiple
mediators are straightforward extensions of the single-mediator case, which thus
supports this analysis. This model refers to the two criterion variables: intrinsic and
extrinsic teacher job satisfaction.
Figure 2 depicts the results of testing the model described in Figure 1 with
maximum likelihood as the method of estimation, where the two types of teacher job
satisfaction, intrinsic and extrinsic, are the dependent variables. The model showed a
significant chi-square statistic; X 2(1, N 2; 156 391:5; p 0:000.
Other fit indices, indicating how well the model fits the population, were: goodness
of fit index GFI 0:96; comparative fit index CFI 0:966; and root mean square
residual RMR 0:013: The findings indicate that the indices reflect almost a perfect
fit of the model. Thus, the covariances predicted by the model correspond to the
observed covariances in the data.
The results of the path analysis for both the intrinsic and the extrinsic job
satisfaction suggest that POS has a statistically significant direct effect on both types
of satisfaction (0.23 and 0.25 on intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction, respectively). The
path analysis also shows that the mediation of teacher empowerment contributed to
the relations between teacher POS and satisfaction b 0:23 with intrinsic
satisfaction and b 0:25 with extrinsic satisfaction). Thus, in both cases, the
mediating effect of empowerment added more than 30 per cent to the explained

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Figure 2.
Standardized parameter
estimates for the path
model predicting teachers
job satisfaction

variance of the intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction (35 and 31 per cent, respectively).
This is a significant contribution to the explained variation of the dependent variable,
though not a complete mediation. As indicated by MacKinnon et al. (2007),
psychological behaviors have a variety of causes; therefore it is often unrealistic to
expect that a single mediator would be explained completely by an independent
variable to dependent variable relation. Given that the direct effect of organizational
support was stronger than all but two indicators of empowerment, we conclude that
empowerment only partially mediated the relationship between POS and teacher
satisfaction although its mediating effect significantly added to the explained variance
of job satisfaction[1].
In addition to the finding indicating that teacher empowerment, through its six
sub-factors, had a distinct mediating effect on the relation between POS and job
satisfaction, the analysis also showed that two different patterns emerged. Teacher
empowerment was found to show different relationships when intrinsic vs. extrinsic
type of satisfaction was considered. When intrinsic teacher job satisfaction was the
dependent variable, the results showed that among the six subscales of teacher
empowerment, four were statistically significant predictors of intrinsic job satisfaction
(ranging from b 20:08 in autonomy to b 0:30 in self-efficacy, p , 0.001). When
extrinsic teacher job satisfaction was the dependent variable, the results revealed that
only two of the subscales predicted extrinsic satisfaction: b 0:07 and 0.43 in
professional development and status, respectively, p , 0.001). Thus, the third research
hypothesis was supported: teacher empowerment is a multi-dimensional construct
affecting intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction in different ways.
Table II provides an overview of the direct and indirect effects on intrinsic and
extrinsic teacher job satisfaction, including the nonsignificant paths.
All teacher empowerment subscales affected both intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfaction directly rather than indirectly. POS affected both types of job satisfaction,

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Table II.
Direct and indirect effects
of study variables on
intrinsic and extrinsic
teacher job satisfaction

Effect
Intrinsic satisfaction
Decision making
Professional growth
Status
Self-efficacy
Autonomy
Impact
POS
Extrinsic satisfaction
Decision making
Professional growth
Status
Self-efficacy
Autonomy
Impact
POS

Direct effect

Indirect effect

Total effect

Non-causal covariation

0.53
0.61
0.52
0.61
0.41
0.56
0.58

0.12 *
0.23 *
20.02
0.30 *
20.08 *
0.03
0.23 *

0
0
0
0
0
0
0.36 *

0.12 *
0.23 *
20.02
0.30 *
20.08 *
0.03
0.58 *

0.41
0.38
0.54
0.31
0.49
0.53
0.00

0.42
0.55
0.63
0.47
0.39
0.48
0.56

0.01
0.07 *
0.43 *
20.03
20.01
0.03
0.25 *

0
0
0
0
0
0
0.31 *

0.01
0.07 *
0.43 *
20.03
20.01
0.03
0.56 *

0.41
0.48
0.20
0.50
0.40
0.45
0.00

Notes: POS Perceived organizational support. *p , 0.001

largely through teacher empowerment, and with high direct and indirect effects on job
satisfaction, with noncausal covariation.
It should be noted that since the sampled teachers were nested in 153 schools, it is
likely that the OLS assumption about the independence of residuals is violated.
Therefore, we used MLM (multilevel modeling) to control for school random effect
resulting from differences among schools derived from diverse organizational
characteristics. MLM appears to be most suitable for investigating questionnaire data
that consists of self-report perceptions (see Bonito, 2002; Peugh, 2010; Strijbos et al.,
2004). By fitting an unconditional random effects model and calculating the Intraclass
correlation coefficients (ICC) for each variable, we confirmed the findings of the path
analysis (See Tables III and IV).
For each of the study constructs, the variation that existed at the school level was
relatively small (ICC ranging from 0.032 to 0.061). According to the literature, ICC
values between 0.05 and 0.20 are common in cross-sectional MLM applications in social
sciences studies (Peugh, 2010, p. 90).
Discussion
The current study set out to examine the mediating effect of empowerment on the
relationship between POS and intrinsic and extrinsic teacher satisfaction. While all
three study variables have been assessed and analyzed in the past as individual
constructs, this is a first attempt to test them altogether within an empirical research
undertaking. Overall, the results provided support for the three hypotheses of the
study, including the mediating effect of empowerment.
Teachers in the current study reported on being more satisfied with extrinsic rather
than intrinsic matters of teaching, a finding that is in contradiction to most research
(e.g. van den Berg, 2002; Dinham and Scott, 2002). Usually, teachers stress the
importance of aspects such as students academic achievements, helping students and
self-development. In the current study, however, the social relations with colleagues at

Parameter

Note: Fixed effects Empowerment subscales

Extrinsic satisfaction Fixed effects

Intercept
Decision making
Professional development
Status
Self-efficacy
Autonomy
Impact
Random effects
Residual
Intercept [school]
Intrinsic satisfaction Fixed effects
Intercept
Decision making
Professional development
Status
Self-efficacy
Autonomy
Impact
Random effects
Residual
Intercept [school]

Dependent variable
0.073264
0.022320
0.027162
0.029174
0.028905
0.020778
0.027916

SE

0.087923
0.026948
0.032736
0.035209
0.034787
0.025040
0.033700

0.175591 0.005051
0.005724 0.001890

2 0.320187
0.180366
0.443209
0.028745
0.453673
2 0.098524
0.073989

0.119155 0.003444
0.006569 0.001722

0.629891
0.041406
0.173134
0.568420
2 0.012978
2 0.001717
0.052923

Estimate

2432.320 2 3.642
2564.595
6.693
2554.640 13.539
2564.944
0.816
2525.500 13.041
2553.718 2 3.935
2564.936
2.196

2481.034
8.598
2554.720
1.855
2564.817
6.374
2559.528 19.484
2555.257 2 0.449
2564.800 2 0.083
2556.667
1.896

df

34.766
3.029

34.598
3.816

Wald Z

0.000
0.002

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.414
0.000
0.000
0.028

0.000
0.000

0.000
0.064
0.000
0.000
0.653
0.934
0.058

Sig.

0.165965
0.002997

20.492598
0.127523
0.379018
20.040296
0.385458
20.147625
0.007907

0.112593
0.003930

0.486225
20.002360
0.119871
0.511213
20.069658
20.042460
20.001817

0.185774
0.010934

2 0.147776
0.233209
0.507400
0.097786
0.521887
2 0.049423
0.140072

0.126100
0.010980

0.773556
0.085173
0.226396
0.625626
0.043702
0.039027
0.107664

95% Confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

0.032

0.052

ICC

Perceived
organizational
support
299

Table III.
Multilevel modeling with
intraclass correlation
coefficient (ICC)

0.065419
0.019931
0.006170
0.002891

0.214565
0.012127

0.004054
0.002106

0.140641
0.009107
0.992463
0.705851

0.053213
0.016193

SE

1.799713
0.532586

Estimate

Note: Fixed effects Perceived organizational support

Intrinsic satisfaction

Fixed effects
Intercept
Perceived org. support
Random effects
Residual
Intercept (school)
Fixed effects
Intercept
Perceived org. support
Random effects
Residual
Intercept (school)

Extrinsic satisfaction

Table IV.
Multilevel modeling with
intraclass correlation
coefficient (ICC)

Parameter

2292.402
2459.212

2297.955
2477.967

df

15.171
35.415

33.821
32.889

34.736
4.195

34.696
4.324

Wald Z

0.000
0.000

0.000

0.000
0.000

0.000

Sig.

0.202807
0.007600

0.864176
0.666769

0.132917
0.005788

1.695362
0.500832

0.227005
0.019349

1.120750
0.744934

0.148815
0.014329

1.904065
0.564340

95% Confidence Interval

Lower bound Upper bound

300

Dependent variable

0.053

0.061

ICC

JEA
50,3

work and job security were prevalent. Nevertheless, these findings are in accordance
with research conducted in other countries, such as Cyprus, where teachers were found
to be influenced by motives such as salary, working hours and holidays, in their
decision to develop their teaching career (e.g. Zembylas and Papanastasiou, 2004,
p. 369).
Perceived organizational support, a concept that has attracted the attention of a
growing number of researchers in recent years (e.g. Podsakoff et al., 2010; Watt and
Hargis, 2010), was found in this study a critical variable. It showed a significant
influence on both intrinsic and extrinsic teacher satisfaction. The findings imply that
teachers who consider their school a place that values their contribution and cares
about their well-being are more likely to be satisfied both intrinsically and
extrinsically. In this respect, the current study strengthens previous findings, which
revealed that POS is a vital factor in affecting organizational outcomes (Hochwarter
et al., 2006), helping behavior (Choi, 2006), and role-based performance (Wallace et al.,
2009).
As far as teacher empowerment is concerned, the findings show that the subscales
of empowerment clearly differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction.
Thus, intrinsic satisfaction is explained by variables emphasizing ones self-perception
of ones own ability and autonomy to act, whereas extrinsic satisfaction is explained by
variables that primarily stress ones status within the organization as well as the way
the teacher perceives how others view him/her. The results demonstrate that the most
influential dimension of empowerment as a predictor of teacher intrinsic satisfaction is
self-efficacy b 0:30; p , 0.001) which is more a psychologically-oriented variable
and is therefore less associated with social circumstances typically connected with the
extrinsic satisfaction dimension. The most powerful dimension of empowerment that
predicts extrinsic job satisfaction is earned status and respect b 0:43; p , 0.001)
which, rather, is a sociologically-oriented variable, and was therefore less expected as a
significant predictor of intrinsic satisfaction. Professional development was found to
be a statistically significant predictor of both types of satisfaction. These findings
point at the significance of teacher empowerment as a key factor in affecting job
satisfaction, both intrinsically and extrinsically.
It is important to note, however, that this study is not without limitations. Our
analysis relied on a single administration, self-report survey where both the predictor
and the criterion variable were obtained from the same respondent (Podsakoff et al.,
2003). Yet, both the perception of organizational support and teacher satisfaction are in
the eyes of the same beholders, thus, it might be difficult to obtain independent sources
for both the predictor and the criterion. Recently, Conway and Lance (2010, p. 325) dealt
with the issue of the common method bias. They claim that there are some
misconceptions regarding common method bias in organizational research including
the self-reports of job satisfaction and work behaviors. As they indicate, [s]elf-reports
are clearly appropriate for job satisfaction and many other private events (Conway
and Lance, 2010, p. 329). When examining peoples perceptions, it is only natural that
these perceptions will be studied via self-reports, as did Judge et al. (2000) in their study
on self-report of perceived job characteristics.
Nevertheless, the results of the study offer several theoretical as well as practical
implications. Theoretically, the results reinforce the notion that the two types of job
satisfaction intrinsic and extrinsic are two different entities as previously reported

Perceived
organizational
support
301

JEA
50,3

302

findings indicate (Huang and Van de Vliert, 2003; Kuhnert and Palmer, 1991; Ryan and
Deci, 2000), and therefore, should be addressed differently. Second, the results indicate
that teacher empowerment should be conceived as a multi-dimensional scale, where its
various components are differently associated with the two types of satisfaction. Third,
it appears that teacher empowerment has a much stronger mediating effect on teacher
satisfaction when it takes place in an organizational context that is perceived to
support individuals.
Hence, it appears that organizational leaders can positively affect their followers
satisfaction through organizational processes provided that they act in ways that are
perceived to advance their followers well-being and at the same time, promote
followers autonomy and authority through processes of empowerment.
Taking a more practical perspective, it is suggested that school leaders need to
focus on different qualities of teacher empowerment, depending on the qualities of
satisfaction they wish to promote. Specifically, it is suggested that intrinsic satisfaction
is mostly related to those aspects of empowerment that allow for teacher professional
qualifications to develop as a means to promote individual self-fulfillment. When
attempting to promote extrinsic satisfaction, it appears that school leaders need to
direct their efforts to create a school culture that emphasizes respect and status within
the school community, where professional development and growth play only a limited
role. Hence, it appears that school leaders are capable of promoting teacher satisfaction
both extrinsically and intrinsically. This may hold true provided that they create
organizational circumstances that support teachers personal and professional growth
and, at the same time, enable individual autonomy and status within the school
community.
Note
1. It should be noted that the whole scale of empowerment was also tested as a mediating
variable between POS and each of the two types of teacher satisfaction. When intrinsic
satisfaction was the criterion variable, empowerment added 13 percent to the explained
variance; b 0:24; 0.49 for POS and empowerment, respectively; F 922:22; df 2; 2153;
p , 0.001. When extrinsic satisfaction was the criterion variable, empowerment added 8
percent to the explained variance; b 0:30; 0.38 for POS and empowerment, respectively;
F 687:77; df 2; 2153; p , 0.001.
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About the authors
Ronit Bogler is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Education and Psychology at the Open
University of Israel. Her research interests include educational leadership, teacher empowerment
and school-based management. Her publications appear in Educational Administration
Quarterly, Journal of Educational Administration, Teaching and Teacher Education and
Journal of School Leadership. Ronit Bogler is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
ronitbo@openu.ac.il
Adam E. Nir is a Senior Lecturer and Head of the Policy Administration and Leadership in
Education Program at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. His current interests and
research are in school-based management, educational planning and human resource
management. Among his most recent works are To seek or not seek professional help?
School leaders dilemma in Journal of Educational Administration (2009) and The antecedents
of teacher satisfaction with professional development programs in Teaching and Teacher
Education (coauthored with R. Bogler, 2008).

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