Ch11 Footings

11.3.
2 Complete Footing Plan for the Whole

10.5.3 Reinforced Braced Systems
Structure
Bracing members of braced frames are to be
Footings
designed as struts or ties, as they will be subject to
See Drawing Sheet No 11.1 - Clause 11.16.
alternating compression and tension, and connections

between members are to have greater strength than
each connected member.
In terms of detailing, it is important to provide
11.1
GENERAL
identical system must be adopted. As distinct

from many other elements, location dimensions
11 .1.1 Foundation
adequate lateral restraint along the whole length of

the longitudinal reinforcement when it is subject to
for footings are as much the responsibility of the
The ground on which a structure rests, or is
engineer as that of the architect because the
supported by, is called the foundation .
footing layout affects the strength of the whole
compression in the form of:
Helices. The volume of steel divided by the
A footing is that part of the structure which is

in contact with the foundation . It is essential that the
Closed ties.
footing and foundation are in complete contact and, for
Asv::: 0.30 s Y1 (Ag/Ac - 1) (f'c/fsy.f)
this reason , concrete is the only satisfactory material;
(unless <jJN uo > N*)

Asv ::: 0.09 s Y1 (f'c/fsy.f)
whichever is the greater
where:
s = centre to centre spacing of the ties
= the larger core dimension
Ag = the gross cross-sectional area of column

Ac = the cross-sectional area of the core
measured over the outside of the ties
f'c
transfer the load from the structure to the foundation .
fsy.f = the yield strength of the ties

= a strength reduction factor
Nuo = the ultimate strength in compression of an
of each footing. Detailed dimensions of each

footing are normally given on its own drawing or,
where the footings are rectangular, in a footing
schedule.
Give a reference number for each footing and

for the column or wall which is supported by
11 .1.3 Preparation of the Foundation
it. Normally, the footing reference number will
In certain circumstances, it may be necessary
be the same as the reference number of the
to increase the strength of the surface layers of the

foundation by using special techniques. Some of
supported column; this is mandatory when
the common methods include compacted back-fill,
a column schedule is used, Drawing Sheet
crushed rock, lean concrete, etc, and full details must
No 11.7.
be given in the drawings or Specification.
11.3.3 Individual Footing Plan-Views
The minimum depth at which footings are to be

founded must be indicated so that an estimate of the
excavation cost can be made, together with provision
Where the shape and dimensions of a footing

are not obvious:
Draw the exact shape of the footing with all
for altering as applicable the length of the supported
necessary dimensions for excavating the hole in
column.
the foundation.
axially loaded cross-section without
eccentricity
N* = the axial compressive or tensile force on
Indicate the general shape looking down at each

footing. This view will also show the orientation
when placed and compacted properly, concrete will fill
= the characteristic compressive cylinder
strength of concrete at 28 days

<jJ
locating dimensions.
any hollows in the foundation and, after it hardens, will
or
Y1
structure. Footing centre lines are often used as
11 .1.2 Footing
volume of concrete, per unit length of member must be

greater than 0.12(f'c/fsy.f); or
Define the location of every footing. If

architectural drawings use a grid-line system, the
11.2
AS 3600 REQUIREMENTS
Specify the minimum depth to which the

excavation must be made and, in at least a
The Concrete Structures Standard does not
General Note in the drawing, an indication of the
have a section specifically allocated to footings. For
type of ground expected or allowed for together
design purposes, a footing is considered to act as if
with its predicted bearing capacity. If the
it was a beam or a slab, depending on its shape and
engineer requires soil tests, this can be stated
a cross-section.
in the drawings although it is often given in the
loading condition .
Specification in more detail.

11.3
FOOTING PLAN-VIEWS
dimensions of the column or wall supported by

the footing. Within this shape will be shown the
11.3.1 Types
location of all reinforcement cast with the footing
Two types of drawings are usually required to
but extending into the column or wall.
describe the footing arrangements:
a complete footing plan for the whole structure,

and
an individual plan-view, depending on the types

of footings used in the structure.
Give the location, orientation, shape and
Reinforcement of the footing is usually not shown

in a plan-view except in the case of simple pad
footings . As a general rule, footing details tend to
follow beam rather than slab detailing methods
in that the number of bars should be stated, not
just the spacing .
11 :1
10:4
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook
11.4
FOOTING ELEVATIONS
11 .6
GENERAL COMMENTS ON FOOTING
Drawing Sheet No 11.4.
11.5
FOOTING CROSS-SECTIONS
These differ with the type of footing being
detailed.
Where the footing shape is rectangular, similar
to a strip footing, cross-sections like those of
Refer to Chapter 5 of this Handbook and
walls of concrete or masonry.
11.7.1 Strip Footings for Masonry Walls
nominal-size ties , generally at about 600 mm
in Clause 4.6. The layers are held apart by
Drawing Sheet No 11.2 shows a strip footing
centres.
by the designer; once settled, values can be tabulated
under a masonry wall. See also Drawing Sheet
In heavier construction, strip footings would be
in the General Notes section of the drawings. Note that
N011.1 .
designed individually with trench mesh or bars as
the increase in cover for footings is to accommodate
the uneven nature of excavation.
Where pad-footings or complex footings are

detailed, the shape of the main steel can be
defined by the shape of the section.
main steel. Designed ties are used to maintain
with AS 2870, Residential slabs and footings, for
the footing reinforcement relative to the ground

surface. For masonry, steps should match the
The width of a strip footing is controlled firstly
Footing reinforcement is generally required
course height. The concrete overlap must also
by the width of the wall it supports; accuracy
quickly at the start of a job, and must therefore
be dimensioned.
of excavation is generally not great and it is
be scheduled as shown on the original drawings.
important that the wall above (particularly if it
Once the excavation is completed , the footing
is of masonry) is seated in its design location
11.7.2 Strip Footings for Concrete Walls

Drawing Sheet No 11.3 illustrates a strip
steel and starter bars are fixed, and approval is
(usually central).
footing under a concrete wall. See also Drawing
given to pour a footing, this is done with utmost
The second requirement for the width is to
Sheet No 11.1 .
speed to prevent rain or ground water from
limit the bearing pressure of the footing on the
affecting the foundation .
Where the concrete wall acts structurally in a
foundation. In some cases, the footing width is
similar manner to masonry walls, the strip footing
All starter bars for columns or walls must be
greater than the depth to spread the load and
will be shown in the same way. Wall starter bars
detailed with the footings by which they are
therefore reduce the pressure; in other types
must also be detailed and scheduled with the
supported; generally starter bars are an L-shape
of soil, the width is kept as narrow as possible,
footing.
with the bottom end resting on and supported
depending on the wall width, and the depth is
Longitudinal footing reinforcement is more
by the footing reinforcement. The length of
increased to add flexural strength to the footing .
important in this case than transverse
this part should be at least twice the spacing
Dimensioning of strip footings is described in
reinforcement.
between the footing bars.
Clause 8.7.4. There it is recommended that
Because the bottom RL of a footing can change
the depth of a strip footing be given first to be
horizontal loads, as with a retaining wall,
from that shown on the original drawings,
consistent with a ground beam , regardless of
concrete and reinforcement detailing is critical
provision must be made for adjusting the length
which is the greater - depth or width. However,
because of the heavy loads involved.
of main bars in the columns rather than altering
Where the concrete wall is used to support
a dimensioned drawing is far more descriptive.
Concrete walls are described in Chapter 15,
Traditionally a layer of reinforcement is located
with particular attention being paid to detailing
An extension to the vertical part of the L-shape
in each of the top and bottom of a strip footing
of corners .
starter bars will ensure an adequate lap at the
because the force from the ground below
the column starter bars at the last minute.
Strip footings for residential work must comply

both strength and detailing purposes.
11 .6.2 Starter Bars
beams are suitable. These would show the
L12TM is the most common form of strip

footing reinforcement. Descriptions are given
AS 3600 Section 4.10. Selection of cover must be done
fitment shape and the main reinforcement layout.

See Drawing Sheet No 11.4.
"trenchmesh" such as L8TM , L11TM and
11.6.1 Selection of Cover for Footings
giving the same information as a beam elevation. They

wi ll need to be supplemented by cross-sections. See
STRIP FOOTINGS
Strip footings are traditionally used to support
DETAILS
These are usually given as longitudinal-sections;

that is, as a view taken along the length of the footing
11 .7
Cantilever retaining walls depend on the footing
top of the footing. By "cranking" or "offsetting"
and that from the wall above may not always
the column bars, and locating that portion at the
balance, as can occur at doorways in the wall or
footing reinforcement placed perpendicular to
BOTTOM of the column, additional changes can
soft-spots in the foundation.
the wall is more important for strength than that
be minimised at a higher level of the building.
Ties are used both to separate and position the
parallel to the wall.
The starter bars should not be cranked.
layers; the spacing between ties is often nominal,
Fixing of starter bars must be accurate as
and could range from 300 mm to 800 mm. Such
they affect the position of the whole structure.
ties in residential work are rarely designed as
Inspection for location is just as important as
reinforcement for strength, unless the footing is
checking that the steel layout is correct. If starter

bars are connecting with precast, tie bars may
for support against overturning forces and
very wide.
At corners, the intersecting main steel should
need to be set out using a template or checked
extend across the full width of the intersecting
by survey prior to and after concreting to ensure
strip . Laps within the strip can be specified by
they are in the correct locations .
notes or a drawing. In residential work, the actual

lap should be given rather than a reference to a
Standard; onsite copies of these are rare.
11 :2
Reinforcement Detai ling Handbook
In residential and commercial work,

11:3
PAD FOOTINGS, ISOLATED FOOTINGS
11.8
COMBINED FOOTINGS AND
11 .9
CANTILEVER FOOTINGS
AND SPREAD FOOTINGS
BUILDINGS - SLAB-ON-GROUND
A raft footing is used when the soil foundation

is poor or it is often regarded as a flat slab
that, in most cases, they support more than
upside down with thickenings under the
for a raft but the magnitude of construction is
one column. In the case of a cantilever footing,
column. It enables the mass of the building to
much less . In this case, the wall loads are taken
column over a large area of the foundation .
the second column tends to counter-balance
be supported by the lowest-floor (basement)
directly to the ground by the edge footings or by
Reinforcement must be placed in the bottom
the other at the end of the footing. In Drawing
slab. Similar to the cantilever footing described
internal beams or thickened strips, all poured at
of the pad because the reaction of the ground
Sheet Nos 11.1 and 11.4, element CF3 is a
above, the foundation reaction requires that the
the same time as the slab.
acts upwards on all sides of the column . Note
cantilever footing. Column 10 is at the boundary
top reinforcement between the columns may be
particularly that the reinforcement is placed in
and is counterbalanced by column 7 inside the
heavier than the bottom. However there will be
"fINO directions because of this reaction . Not
building. Footings CF4 and CF8 are similar.
considerable reinforcement in the bottom face
Mesh is the preferred steel for the slabs and is
The upward reaction of the foundation is
under the columns, probably in two directions.
located near the top surface.
Drawing Sheet Nos 11.1 , 11.5 and 11.7.

A pad footing spreads the load from a single
only is the pad footing designed for flexure but it
complex and outside the scope of this
must be checked for punching shear. Avoid the
11 .11 RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL
These footings are similar to pad footings except
These terms mean the same thing. See
11 .10 RAFT FOOTINGS
In domestic construction, raft footings are often
This element follows the same principles as
Reinforcement in the footings resembles that in

strip footings, with trenchmesh predominating.
A vapour barrier must be specified together with
use of shear reinforcement by using a deeper
Handbook. The main design factor is that the
used for reactive clay sites and they consist of
pad footing or higher concrete strength or both.
concentrated downward loads from the columns
beams in two directions intersecting at 4 to 6
will prevent puncturing the membrane for all
The pad bars are often shown as LL-shaped ,
create the upward forces on the bottom of the
metre centres both ways with a slab joining the
habitable areas .
but in many cases, this is not necessary
footing, so that in this case, the TOP surface of
beams.
unless there is a length deficiency for stress
the footing must be the more-heavily reinforced.
development. The cover over the outermost
This is the reverse loading for a normal pad
It is not uncommon for two layers of steel to be

required in each direction top and bottom - that
design because walls will be higher than
bars in one direction is increased by hooks on
footing, and indeed for a suspended beam.
is eight layers altogether. Spacing for pouring
the bars at right angles; thus the number of bars
The elevations and sections in Drawing Sheet
and vibrating must be allowed, bundling pairs of
principles will be similar.
should be stated, not only the spacing.
No 11.4 show that the top has much more
Where the pad is less than 2500 mm wide, one
longitudinal steel than the bottom .
bars where possible.
Where a raft is used for a large multi-storey
Shear reinforcement in the form of mesh or
building , the distance between the top and
together. The cross-wires form part of the
bar stirrups is a critical design factor because
bottom layers may be one metre or more.
transverse steel as well.
the loads are much more severe than for strip
A considerable amount of extra material will
Concrete columns must be reinforced and
footings.
be needed just to support the two grids of
the bars must extend into the footing pad.
reinforcement. The Bill of Quantities if used
As previously discussed, the starter bars are
should indicate the quantities involved, and how
supplied and fixed with the footing reinforcement
to price this work if extras are to be avoided .
11.12 PIER AND BEAM FOOTINGS
above the pad.

The orientation and location of the starter bars
in relation to the column shape is extremely
important for strength and architectural
purposes; a fully dimensioned cross-section will
Where there is a poor soil overlaying a good

material, bored piers are often used to transfer
the vertical loads to the latter. The piers would
be detailed as for columns. Wall loads are
transferred to the piers by beams which are
detailed normally. The piers may be of uniform
cross-section or be belled out at the bottom.
and adequate lap lengths must be allowed
Residential work is controlled by AS 2870;

commercial buildings may need an engineering
permitted by that standard, but the detailing
or two sheets of mesh may be used, nested
reinforcement spacers on a suitable base which
In certain soils, the beam underside must be

separated from the earth below - upward
expansion can be catastrophic if the gap is
inadequate. The method to be used is a design
matter, and the solution must be detailed.
be required for odd-shaped columns .
Embedment of the starters in the pad is a

design matter, and the anchorage requirements
may need to be dimensioned in critical cases.
Generally, the starter bars will be scheduled as
L-shaped to be stood-up on the pad steel. For
fixing purposes, at least three fitments should be
detailed and supplied with the starters - two go
within the pad depth and the other is tied around
the exposed lap length. Provided the starters
do not have to be cranked (see Clause 11.6.2
earlier), the size of these fitments would normally
be the same as those for the column above.
11:4
11:5
11.13 PILES AND PILE CAPS
Reinforcement layout for assembly. Footing
11.14.3 Pad Footings - Standard Detail
The following notes are based on the Detailing
function as a pier when the load exceeds the
Examples shown in Drawing Sheet Nos 11.1 to 11.7
about 1800 kg (1.8 tonnes) , of which the main
Detail for an isolated pad footing under a reinforced
capacity of a single pile. The pile cap distributes
at the end of this Chapter in Clause 11.16.
top bars comprise 1 .2 tonnes. These bars must
concrete column .
system can be very complex and there can

therefore be several layers of bars in both top
and bottom faces. The bars are often not on a
rectangular grid so careful detailing is required
if the required arrangement is to be obtained .
Large scale details may be advisable.
In large buildings and civil engineering structures,
CF4 is heavily reinforced . The total steel mass is
Drawing Sheet No 11.5 illustrates a Standard
be supported upon the foundation (see also
11 .14.1 Example of Strip Footings
Clause 11.1.3) by means of the vertical legs of
Drawing Sheet Nos 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3

illustrates a footing plan for a small building and details
of strip footings. See also the notes in Clause 11.7
for both strip footings supporting a masonry wall and
supporting a concrete wall.
Drawing Sheet No 11.4 shows the details of
The number, orientation and layout of the footing

bars and associated ties are not provided with
the N16 fitments.
the Standard Detail because these vary for
Just to assemble the cage as it is drawn, and tie
each footing; neither are column cross-sections
it together with wire, will not be adequate.
given here. All of these are shown in the column
To maintain the whole cage properly will require
schedule.
additional longitudinal bars to be placed under
11.14.2 Example of a Cantilever Footing
a piling contract is often let well in advance of
Clause 12.9 and Drawing Sheet No 11.7
the fitments resting on strong concrete or
show footing and column details in schedule
purpose-made steel chairs .
format. This combines the application of a

Standard Detail for a footing and one for a
the building contract. If this is done, the actual
cantilever footings CF3, CF4 and CF8. The following
As an alternative, 2 or 3 of the 8-N28-LL-B bars
location of the piles as driven must be given in
com ments discuss factors which must be considered
can be placed first on the supports to form the
column (see also Cause 12.8 and Drawing
the drawings for the building contract. It may be
by designers and detailers to ensure the member can
initial platform free of the earth. The remainder of
Sheet No 11.6).
necessary to alter the pile cap design because
be constructed "as designed". They apply to members
the steel can then be built upon them.
the actual locations differ more than expected
other than footings as well.
Examination of cross-section CF4 shows that
upper-layer pad bars are used as supports for
there are actually three "beam" segments, each
the remainder.
from the original design.
The concrete outlines. The elevation CF4
To assist in construction, note that two of the
The designer should allow for reasonable
defines the concrete length and the cross-
of which can be assembled separately and
variation on the location of piles after driving,
section CF4 clarifies the beam depth and width.
craned into position upon the pre-set supporting
lengths for starter bars would also need to be
bars .
scheduled, such as shown in Table 11.1.
say 75mm. The tolerance permitted must be
Architectural drawings should be used to provide
shown in the drawings, with the required cut-off
the column centreline dimensions.
Splice lengths for column bars and embedment
Problem areas . The N24-1 OO-LL-B bars across
Reinforcement layout for strength. Take the
the bottom of the footing under the columns will
cantilever footing CF4 as an example. It has
need to be assembled early, so that the column
Piling - Design and installation .
been designed as an "upside-down" beam,
starter bars (not shown here) can be tied to
As with many footing designs, the top
that is there is more steel in the top than in the
them .
reinforcement will restrict access to the inside
bottom. (See Clause 11.9).
A width of 2000 mm for 20-N36 bars is
of the cage so that the method by which the
This situation requires strong tie bars to support
inadequate if concrete is to be placed properly
cage is assembled should be a design and
the top steel, each bar of which weighs about
(see Chapter 4). To allow concrete to be cast
N20
400
600
detailing matter. Access is required for placing
60 kg. These tie bars are shown on cross-
and compacted, and the column starter bars to
N24
480
720
2-R10 or 1-L9
concrete and vibrating it, as much as for fixing
section CF4 as three sets of N16-HT at each
be placed through them, the top bars should be
N28
580
840
2-R10 or 1-L10
stirrup.
reinforcement and other embedments.
Reference should be made to AS 2159: 1995
points detailed.
A group of piles is used to perform the same
the column load to the piles. The load transfer
11.14 EXAMPLES OF FOOTING DETAILS
Table 11.1 Embedment Lengths for Starter Bars and

Splice Lengths for Column Bars
Bar
Size
Straight
embedment
in footing of
20 OIA. (mm)
Splice
length
of
30 OIA. (mm)
Number of
fitments at
column bar
crank
i-RiO or 1-L7
grouped into a series of 2-bar bundles or placed
N32
640
960
1-N12 or 1-L11
The top main steel is the group labelled
in two layers with a spacer bar. This requires
N36
720
1080
2-N12 or 1-L12
20-N36-LL-T. In both cases, LL is the shape,
designer's approval, so it is simpler to detail it
T means TOP and the combination is quite
that way in the first place.
adequate to define the bars and location.
The individual stirrups of bars can perhaps be
The bottom main bars are 8-N28-LL-B, and are

drawn inside the fitments.
Because of the heavy downward column loads
and the footing width being 2000 mm, the
ends of the cantilever footing are reinforced
transversely with 6-N24-1 OO-LL -B at one end,
replaced by mesh bent to the fitment shape.

This will reduce the time to tie the bars and will
provide a rigid cage which does not require
bracing.
Drawing Sheet No 11.4 gives two examples of

cantilever footings.
and 4-N24-100-LL-B at the other.

In practice, these 10-N24's are identical because
the footing width is constant. There is no need
to show them on the cross-section because they
have been fully defined on the elevation by the
complete notation, thus eliminating at least one
extra detail.
11:6
11:7
11 .15 DETAILING OF FOOTING SYSTEMS
FOR SEISMIC
11.15.1 General
Adequate footing design is critical for ensuring
Footing Structures for Frames as discussed in
Design Methodology, AS 3600 provides some limited
11 .15.4 Piled Footings

Piled systems supporting structural walls may
guidance regarding footing design and detailing.
be subject to large concentrated forces due to vertical
Although the code stipulates that for footings located
load causing overturning moments and shear forces .
in soils with a maximum bearing capacity of less than
Careful design is therefore required .
that a building structure will be able to resist both the
250 kPa, restraint must be provided in the horizontal
gravity loads and seismic forces calculated.
direction to limit differential movement during an
follow the recommendations set out for columns in

Chapter 12. The end region of a pile under the footing
Detailing of reinforced concrete piles should
Where there is no possibility for inelastic
earthquake. It should be noted that reports from Kobe
deformations to develop under earthquake conditions,
indicate that although liquefaction is a problem in poor
structure should be detailed to ensure full confinement
it is considered that standard detailing of reinforcement
soils, the water in the saturated reclaimed area acted
of the longitudinal reinforcement using closed or
as for gravity loads and wind forces will be adequate.
as a dampener, restricting damage to significantly less
helical ties. The locations of peak moments in the
This will be the situation in the majority of buildings
than that experienced in the adjoining 'dry soil ' areas.
pile may necessitate the length confinement being
constructed in Australia.
However, where design indicates the
The Code considers that there is no possibility
indicate no tension loads, it is recommended that
occurrence, or possible occurrence, of reinforcement
loading, and that standard detailing of footings for
min imum longitudinal reinforcement be provided. The
yield ing during seismic action , the foundation structure,
gravity and wind induced loads only will be sufficient.
arrangement of longitudinal reinforcement should be
like the superstructure, must be detailed accordingly.
However, the author considers that certain additional
as for columns, and the reinforcement should be fully
As already mentioned, as a result of code loading
precautions can be warranted.
of the structure may be elastic.

Paulay and Priestley suggest footing systems
11 .15.2 Isolated Footings

These can prevent a problem with rocking
that may support elastic superstructures. (See as a
or tipping if a plastic hinge forms in the base of the
Reference: Paulay, T. and Priestley, M.J.N . Seismic
column. Unless precautions are taken, permanent
Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Buildings,
deformation of the footing can occur due to plastic
John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1992). Two of these will be
deformation of the soil despite both the column and
relevant to Australian designers:
footing remaining elastic. The detailing of the colu mn/
Elastic Footing Systems . In regions of low

seismicity (as is generally the case in Australia)
or for low buildings with structural walls, it will be
possible to design and detail the entire structure
to respond within elastic limits.
Ductile Footing Systems . In certain cases, the

potential strength of the superstructure with
respect to the specified seismic forces may be
excessive (eg large shear wall structures). The
designer might therefore consider that it will be
preferable for the footing system rather than
the superstructure to be the principal source
of energy dissipation during inelastic response.
A potential drawback for this system is that
damage may occur during moderately strong
earthquakes. Large cracks may form if yielding
of reinforcement has occurred. Further, repairs
to footings may be difficult and costly if required
below the water table or under a floor slab.
--~-';:"",-",--
anchored within the pile cap. In non-critical regions ,

nominal transverse ties or spiral hoops should be
Fully anchor reinforcement

into pilecap
Provide at least minimum

longitudinal reinforcement
throughout entire length
Ligature spacing
$16 x diameter of
longitudinal bars
Ensure full confinement of

longitudinal reinforcement
in end region of pile
considerably extended. Further, even if calculations
for inelastic deformations to develop under earthquake
requirements or design decision, the seismic response
, - j -- - - -
Potential location of plastic hinges (possible location of

peak moment may vary). Provide closed ties as for columns.
Top hinges will always occur under large, stiff footings.
Bottom hinges are considered to be less likely to form and
ductility demands are likely to be much lower.
The designer must judge the necessity of confinement based
on site geological conditions and expected loading.
provided. Paulay and Priestley (see Reference in

Clause 11.15.1) recommend that vertical spacing not
Figure 11.1 Piled Footings
exceed 16 times the diameter of longitudinal bars. See

Figure 11.1 .
footing joint must be carefully considered .

11 .15.3 Combined Footings
It may prove more feasible to absorb large
moments transmitted by plastic hinges at column
bases by using stiff tie beams between footing s,
whereby a high degree of elastic restraint against
column rotations can be provided. In fact, thi s detail is
such that reinforcement yielding is unlikely to occur and
it is considered that no special detailing requirements
for ductility need be provided. It WOUld, however, be
necessary for' the tie beams to have sufficient reserve
strength over that of the hinging columns.
If it is required to reduce the bearing pressure
under the footing pads, they may be joined to provide
one continuous footing .
Stub columns do require special consideration
if inelastic deformations and shear fail ure are to
be avoided . Paulay and Priestley (see Reference
in Clause 11.15.1 ) consider that plastic hinges
should therefore be restricted to the column section
immediately above the beam.
11:8
11 :9
Reinforcement Detai ling Handbook
11 .16 DETAILING EXAMPLES - DRAWING
11 .16.1 Drawing Sheet Number 11.1
SHEETS NUMBERED 11.1 TO 11.7
cp
The following Drawing Sheets represent

selected detailing examples for a small building
covering mainly footings and columns. They have
SEE SHEET NO .11 .7 FOR

COLUMN SCHE DULE
been referenced throughout Chapter 11 and are also
--
referenced in Chapter 12.
SF1 -3(Xl> 60J
C2 I
f-
'--
2
2
0
0
0
0
'-
(')
r-
BANK
DOWN
0
0
(')
u:
C6
(f)
(f)
SEE COLUMN SC HEDULE

(SHEET NO. 117) FOR
G SIZES
.---+--,
C~
PAD_F_O_O_TI~
C5
--E9--
f - - f--
0
0
\2.J
(')
x
0
0
(')
0
0
0
0
(')
0
0
CD
f'-.
LL
(')
(f)
BANK
DOWN
(')
C7
EEl
--
..
0
0
~
x
0
0
CD
(')
LL
()
5
4
I
I
-~
(f)
LL
~
C8
c--E3-(f)
-- -
/ _~~~-L
CD
()
ffi
\.V
_____ _
IZ
o
<Xl
LL
()
'<t
LL
5
4
I ir
0
0
CD
OJ
=:>
(l]
-Bj
C11 I
SF2 - 300 x 600
C12
1
FOOTING PLAN
WALLW2
. --.UOO
S
- - c--
BOUNDARY
WALL W1
<l ~
N
X
F3 - 600 x 300
1lf
0
0
1-
C9
f----~ f+.~
0
0
0
I
I
OJ
LL
\.V
0
0
L()
ffi
CD
LL
.'-~
0
0
CD
(')
C3
SEE SHEET NO . 11 .6 FOR

COLUMN DETA ILS
L--+-----l
C?
x 300
THE FOOTINGS ARE TO

BE FOUNDED ON SANDY
CLAY HAVING A MINIMUM
BEARING CAPACITY OF
250 kPa.
DETAILING EXAMPLE A
DRAWING SH EET NO. 11 .1
11 :10
11 :11
500
'---+-~
400
N12-300
CORNER BARS
2-N16-HT
AT EACH
SET OF
STIRRUPS
1-N16-HT
AT EACH
SET OF
STIRRUPS
N12-300, EW
IN CENTRE
2-N 16-HT
AT EACH
SET OF STIRRUPS
1200
2000
2N12 T&B
'--+---"'--
CF4
CF3, CF8
SECTION ( } )
SECTION ( ] )
SF5 , SF6, SF7
SECTION
G)
400 LAP -
4-225
--+-<11:>
..
1-1000
.I
20-N36-LL-T
~ CJ
FOOTING
600 x 300 -
___-I
N12-300
STARTER BARS -
I.
4N12 T&B
2N16-400
+-I-a.-l
R10
STIRRUPS - 450
600
6-N24 100 CRS

I
COGGED EACH END
I~BOUNDARY
CF4 - 690 X 2000
SF1 , SF9 , SF10 (SF2 SIMILAR)
SECTION
ED
2N16 T&B
COL C10
COL C12
WALLS W1 , W2 , FOOTINGS SF3 , SF4
SECTION
GROUND LEVEL
EB
12-N36-LL-T
J ~
COLUMN
( , - -01
N12-300
~R1 0
STIRRUPS - 600
1_ _
::JJ
L . -- # - ---i
300
300
1150
N12-300, EW
IN CENTRE
I~ BOUNDARY
CF3, CF8 - 600
1200
DETAILING EXAMPLE A
DRAWING SHEET NO. 11 .4
600
TYPICAL STEP DETAIL IN STRIP FOOTING

DETAILING EXAMPLE A
DRAWING SHEET NO. 11.2
PLAN WALL W1 (W2 OPPOSITE HAND)

DETAILING EXAMPLE A
11 :13
11 :12
11.16.6 Drawing Sheet Number 11.6

STAN DARD COG
CJ
ROOF
100
.f---...--+ +- _ 50 MAX. (SEE NOTES 1 & 2)

STARTER BARS SAME NUMBER
AND SIZE AS COLU MN BARS
TIE SPACING, 'S'
SCABBLE SURFAC E
2 SETS OF TIES FOR SUPPORT OF STARTER BARS
32 DIA.
f
20 D IA.
TWO SETS OF TIES AT TOP OF CRANK
1
,
1; 17
COGS MAY BE NEEDED

SEE TEXT CLAUSE 11.8
:~ 1/
TIE SPACING , 'S'
rt
$
II ,
75
I
I
50 mm BLINDING LAYER
(I F REQU IRED)
SECTION
9-=-
EXTEND AND COG CORN ER BARS ON LY
CD
~
-
1--1-
32 DI A.
100
NOTES
-. -
1 FOR LEVEL TO UNDERSIDE OF FOOTINGS, DIMENSIONS AND REINFORCEMENT SEE SHEET NUMBER 11 .7.
2 OVERBREAK BELOW FOOTINGS TO BE FILLED TO UNDERSIDE OF FOOTIN G WITH GRADE N15 CONCR ETE.
: ~ II
~I
I
::-
CJ Y
3 SETS OF TIES MINIMUM FOR

SUPPORT OF LOWER BARS
v
.......
I
1
3 OVERBREAKS AROUND FOOTINGS TO BE FILLED WITH CONCRETE OF SAME GRADE AS FOOTING .
GROUND, FIRST, SECOND FLOOR
50 TO FIRST TIE
+,
50 MAX. (SE E NOTE 1)
50 MAX. (SEE NOTE 2)
4 DETAILS ABOVE APPLY UNLESS SHOWN OTHERWISE ON DRAWINGS.
~ TIE SPACING, 'S'

LOWER
COLUMN BARS
5 REFER ALSO TO STANDARD NOTES ON SHEET NUMBER ..
DETAILING EXAMPLE A
d!
~ CRANKED UPPER
I
~
COLUMN DETAILS
NOTES
1 50
mm BELOW SLAB WITH 3 BEAMS OR LESS.
2 50
mm BELOW SHALLOWEST BEAM WITH 4 BEAMS.
COLUMN BARS
q,
SIMILAR FOR CO LUMN S

WITH 6 AND 8 BARS
SECTION
(1)
3 FOR SIZE AND REINFORCEMENT DETA ILS, SEE COLUMN SCHEDULE ON SHEET NUMBER 11 .7
4 REFER ALSO TO STANDARD NOTES ON SHEET NUMBER ..
DETAILING EXAMPLE A
11 :15
11:14
~
~
~ N12-HTTIES
~[ 'F- -ie-'- - =1'r:
L...,........,.
I...
-I
380
~ 2-N12-HT
r1-N12-HT
AT EACH TIE
['---~'
300
Columns
I. .
/ J
TIE SPACING , 'S' = 300
TIE SPACING , 'S' = 300
380
-I
380
~~
rI..
1-N12-HH
AT EACH TIE
~./
12.1
size which progressively pick up the vertical loads on

each floor and, together with any lateral forces due
-I
380
to wind or earthquake resulting in shear forces if the

columns are part of a moment frame, finally transfer all
forces down to the footing.
TYPE 3
The vertical load in the column is smallest at the

roof and greatest at footing level. The load is carried by
TYPICAL COLUMN TYPES
COLUMN SCHEDULE
1, 3
COLUMN MARK
2,4,6
GENERAL AND PURPOSE

Columns are vertical members of relatively small
TIE SPACING, 'S' = 300
TYPE 2
TYPE 1
AT EACH TIE
11
7, 9
Maximum square column size (mm) for bar size

___
N um b er __________________________________
of bars N12
N16 N20 N24
N28 N32
N36
4
6
8
210
280
350
420
500
570
640
260
350
430
520
610
690
780
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
10
330
450
560
670
790
890
1010
12
360
490
610
730
both the concrete and the embedded reinforcing bars.
860
980
1110
14
390
530
660
790
To carry this increasing load downwards from roof to
930
1060
1190
16
570
600
850
1000
1130
1280
18
420
440
700
footing, four alternatives may be considered .
750
900
1060
1200
1350
20
470
630
790
950
1110
1260
1430
(1) The concrete size is increased floor by floor, but
10, 12
this makes formwork costs excessive.
ROOF
~x~~x~~ x ~~ x ~~x~~x~~ x ~
SECOND
FLOOR
COLUMN SIZE
MAIN BARS
CONCRETE GRADE
COLUMN TYPE
~x~~x~~ x ~~ x ~~ x ~~x~~ x ~
FIRST
FLOOR
COLUMN SIZE
MAIN BARS
CONCRETE GRADE
COLUMN TYPE
~x~~x~~x~~x~~ x ~~x~~x~
GROUND
FLOOR
COLUMN SIZE
MAIN BARS
CONCRETE GRADE
COLUMN TYPE
~ x ~~x~~ x ~~x~~ x ~~x~~x~
TOP OF
FOOTING
COLUMN SIZE
MAIN BARS
CONCRETE GRADE
COLUMN TYPE
4-N20
N25
1
4-N20
N25
1
8-N20
N25
3
6-N20
N25
2
4-N20
N25
1
4-N20
N25
1
(2) The concrete size is kept constant and the

number of longitudinal bars is increased, but this
4-N20
N25
1
4-N20
4-N24
8-N24
6-N20
4-N24
4-N24
4-N20
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
leads to steel congestion after its area exceeds
STARTER BARS
REINFORCEMENT
FOOTING SIZE
FOOTING DEPTH
4-N24
N25
1
4-N28
N25
1
4-N24
N25
1
8-N32
N25
3
6-N28
N25
2
4-N28
N25
8-N32
6-N28
N25
N25
2
4-N28
N25
1
4-N32
N25
1
4-N28
N25
4-N32
N25
4-N24
N25
1
4-N24
N25
(3) The concrete size is kept constant and its
6-N28
SEE
SHEET
NO. 11.4
4-N28
4-N32
4-N24
SEE
SHEET
NO.11.4
SEE
SHEET
NO. 11.4
SEE
SHEET
NO.11.4
2, 4, 6
7, 9
11
10, 12
1,3
8-N24 bars -
H~
compressive strength (t'e) is increased.
(4) A combination of alternatives is used.
600 x 600
I ~'"
8-N24 bars
buildings. Solution (2) is suitable for low-rise buildings

to ensure internal dimensions remain constant floor by
floor.
300 x 1200
12.2
AS 3600 REQUIREMENTS (Section 10.7)
Figure 12.1 Maximum Column Sizes for Minimum

Steel Areas
The Concrete Structures Standard has a
4-N24
4-N28
8-N32
6-N16 EW 7-N16 EW 8-N20 EW
1400 SO. 1750 SO . 2450 SO.
400
360
540
COLUMN MARK
~"
about 4% of the cross-section.
This last solution is common with high-rise
FOOTING
Table 12.1
Maximum Square Column Size for 1% Steel Area
Section complete in itself on the design of columns

and detailing of reinforcement. The major headings are
listed here.
Example 12.1
12.2.1 Limitations on the Longitudinal Steel Area
A 600 mm square column must contain at least

4-N36 bars or 6-N28 bars or 8-N24 bars to be
above the lower limit of 1% steel.
The minimum area of steel is 1% of the crosssectional area unless the column is lightly loaded (Refer
Clause 10.7.1 of AS3600). See also Table 12.1 and
FOOTING LEVELS
See also Clause 4.3.3 for minimum column widths

based on concrete placement and Clause 4.3.1 for
fire resistance.
Figure 12.1 . The maximum steel area is 4%.
COLUMN MARK
7,10
8, 11
9, 12
UNDERSIDE OF
FOOTING LEVEL
100.040
100.000
100.540
100.100
99.900
101 .710
101.300
101.400
101 .500
DETAILING EXAMPLE A
11 :16
12:1
11 .1 6.7 Drawing Sheet Number 11.7
Columns
r1-N12-HT
AT EACH TIE
N12-HTTIES
3S[
~"
3wI
-I
380
1~.
r- 1-N 12-HH
AT EACH TIE
1--
= 300
-I
380
TIE SPACING, 'S'
1--
= 300
380
GENERAL AND PURPOSE

Columns are vertical members of relatively small
size w hich progressively pick up the vertical loads on

each floor and, together with any lateral forces due
-I
TIE SPAC ING, 'S'
TYPE 2
TYPE 1
12.1
TIE SPACING, 'S'
~r ~.L
1--
.L2-N12-HT
AT EACH TIE
columns are part of a moment frame, finally transfer all

forces down to the footing.
= 300
TYPE 3
The vertical load in the column is smallest at the

roof and greatest at footing level. The load is carried by
both the concrete and the embedded reinforcing bars.
COLUMN SCHEDULE
1, 3
-
ROOF
COLUMN SIZE
MAIN BARS
FIRST
CONCRETE GRADE
FLOOR
COLUMN SIZE
MAIN BARS
GROUND
CONCRETE GRADE
FLOOR
MAIN BARS
N25
N25
4-N24
8-N24
6-N20
4-N24
4-N24
4-N20
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
FOOTING SIZE
x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380
4-N24
4-N28
8-N32
6-N28
4-N28
4-N32
4-N24
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
N25
COLUMN TYPE
STARTER BARS
RE INFORCEMENT
x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380
4-N20
380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380
4-N24
4-N28
6-N28
4-N28
4-N32
4-N24
8-N32
CONCRETE GRADE
FOOTING
FOOTING
N25
COLUMN TYPE
COLUMN SIZE
TOP OF
N25
380
4-N24
6-N28
4-N28
4-N32
4-N24
6-N16 EW 7-N1 6 EW 8-N20 EW
SEE
SEE
SEE
SEE
1400 SO .
1750 SO.
2450 SO.
SHEET
SHEET
SHEET
360
400
540
NO. 11 .4
NO. 11.4
SHEET
NO. 11 .4
FOOTING DEPTH
4-N28
2, 4, 6
1, 3
COLUMN MARK
8-N32
7, 9
210
280
260
350
N24
N28
350
420
500
570
640
430
520
610
690
780
N32
11
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
10
330
450
560
670
790
890
1010
12
360
490
610
730
860
14
390
530
660
790
930
980
1060
11 90
420
570
700
850
1000
11 30
1280
600
750
900
1060
1200
1350
20
470
630
790
950
111 0
1260
1430
(1) The concrete size is increased floor by floor, but

(2) The concrete size is kept constant and the
number of longitudinal bars is increased, but this
leads to steel congestion after its area exceeds
~..,
about 4% of the cross-section.

(3) The concrete size is kept constant and its
8-N24 bars -
(4) A combination of alternatives is used.

This last solution is common with high-rise
$)
compressive strength (t'e) is increased.
600 x 600
I~" ""
- 8-N24 bars
buildings. Solution (2) is suitable for low-rise buildings

to ensure internal dimensions remain constant fl oor by
floor.
300 x 1200
12.2
AS 3600 REQUIREMENTS (Section 10.7)

The Concrete Structures Standard has a
Figure 12.1 Maximum Column Sizes for Minimum

Steel Areas
Section complete in itself on the design of columns

and detailing of reinforcement. The major headings are
listed here.
Example 12.1
12.2.1 Limitations on the Longitudinal Steel Area
A 600 mm square column must contain at least

4-N36 bars or 6-N28 bars or 8-N24 bars to be
above the lower limit of 1% steel.
The minimum area of steel is 1% of the crosssectional area unless the column is lightly loaded (Refer
Clause 10.7.1 of AS3600) . See also Table 12.1 and
FOOTING LEVELS
See also Clause 4.3.3 for minimum column widths

based on concrete placement and Clause 4.3.1 for
fire resistance.
Figure 12.1 . The maximum steel area is 4%.
COLUMN MARK
7,10
8, 11
9, 12
UNDERSIDE OF
FOOTING LEVEL
100.040
100.000
100.540
100.100
99.900
101.710
101 .300
101.400
101.500
DETAILING EXAMPLE A
11 :16
Reinforcement Detai lin g Handbook
1110
440
NO. 11.4
10, 12
N36
16
N25
COLUMN TYPE
N20
this makes formwork costs excessive.
N25
380
N16
18
10 , 12
N25
COLUMN TYPE
COLUMN SIZE
11
N12
To carry this increasing load downwards from roof to
x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380 380 x 380
4-N 20
4-N20
8-N20
6-N20
4-N20
4-N20
4-N20
CONCRETE GRADE
FLOOR
7, 9
of bars
footing, four alternatives may be considered.
380
MAIN BARS
SECOND
2,4, 6
N um b er Maximum square column size (mm) for bar size
to wind or earthquake resulting in shear forces if the
TYPICAL COLUMN TYPES
COLUMN MARK
Table 12.1
Maximum Square Column Size for 1% Steel Area
12:1
Table 12.5 Fitment Bar Size Required to Restrain a Cranked

Column Bar of Length 10db.main
Table 12.4 Mesh Substitution for Ties

(After AS 3600 Clause 1O.7.4.3d)
Main bar
and tie
arrangement
Single
R6 @ 15db.m
Equivalent
Mesh:
Smallest main-bar size db.main in the column

N12
180
SL52
Single
R10 @ 15db.m 180
Equivalent
Mesh:
SL82
Bundles
R12 @ 7.5db.m 90
Equivalent
Mesh:
N16
240
SL52
240
SL72
120
N20
N24
N28
N32
N36
300
SL52
300
SL62
150
360
Floor Systems
If the concrete strength specified for the
floor system is greater than or equal to 0.75 times
N24
N28
N32
N36
420
480
540
splice must be dimensioned in relation to the floor level
28
32
37
41
46
50
transmission of forces through the joint is deemed to
Slope (mm)
120
160
200
240
280
320
360
be provided.
210
240
270
RL918 RL818 RL718 SL92 SL92 SL82 SL82
Grade D500N1 N12
N12
Grade R250N2 R10
R10
L8
L9
L10
N12
L11
N12
L12
N12
N12
N12
R10
2-R103 2-R103 2-R123 2-R123
Notes:
1 N10 is the smallest size of Grade D500N bar.
2 R10 is the most common. Use wire instead if necessary.
3 Use two fitments of common size rather than one larger-size bar.
bearing, welding or by mechanical splices; the form of

splice can be defined by notes, but the location of the
below the splice.
23
L7
The main bars are spliced by lapping, end-
reinforcement is continuous through the joint,
Offset (mm)
1.12db.m + 10
Mesh and wire L5
12.4.2 Location of Main- Bar Splices
that specified for the column and the longitudinal
If the concrete strength specified for the
Fitment bar sizes, db.fit based on a 90 bend located at a crank
SL62 SL52 SL52 SL52

180
Calculations
Bar size, db.main
based on force
in main bar
N12 N16 N20
12.2 .11 Transmission of Axial Force through
A "kicker", or a small (50 mm) plinth, can be

cast above the floor to help define the column area
and to provide a strong seating for the next set of
floor system is less than 0.75 times that specified
column formwork. Kickers should be detailed. Current
for the column and the longitudinal reinforcement
construction practice does not normally use kickers .
is continuous through the joint, then the effective

compressive strength of the concrete in the joint can be
calculated by formulae given in AS 3600 Clause 10.8.
The formulae is different depending on whether there
12.4.3 Lap Splices

Lapping is usually done at floor level so that
the lower end of the new (upper) bar is supported on
are four beams or two beams on opposing sides at the
hardened concrete. The lap length must be specified in
joint.
the drawings.
The main bars may extend more than one floor
12.3
Author's Note:
The values in the Tables 12.3 and 12.4 appear illogical
because a smaller effective area of mesh will provide
"strength equivalent to bar fitments" as the latter spacing
increases. The reverse would appear more logical.
Example 12.3
Referring to the Example 12.2, the mesh substitute
is SL92 for the bundled bars because the fitment
spacing is 150 mm. Where the smaller column size
controls the tie spacing, mesh SL52 is used as an
equivalent for spacing of R1 0 at 300 mm.
COLUMN PLAN-VIEWS
The location and orientation of all columns is
12.2.10 Restraint of Column Bars at Crank Points

The most popular and economical method
of splicing column bars is by lapping bars which are
shown on footing and floor plans-views. The scale is far

The column shape is indicated but full
must be less than 1 in 6 to attempt to prevent the
details are given separately on cross-sections or by
bars from buckling at the crank due to the horizontal
reference to the column schedule. Columns which
component of the downward force on the bars.
are rectangular or circular are easy to define but other
Additionally, extra ties should be required at the offset.
shapes will require full dimensioning.
12.4
COLUMN ELEVATIONS
This Handbook is based on the premise that

concrete elements are detailed on an element-byelement basis, and that the art of detailing is in showing
how the pieces can be joined together structurally.
Splicing of column reinforcement is critical. Suitable
methods include lap-splices, welding , mechanical
splicing, and end-bearing for columns only if always in
compression.
The length of compressive and tensile lapsplices is given in Chapter 6 for both single and
bundled bars.
The bar size of the ties depends on the
is obtained throughout, Figure 12.6. See AS 3600
Unless extra cross-Sections and other details

each storey of a column . If this approach is used, only
one bar shape need be drawn in full on the elevation
The Table assumes that corner main bars are
(see Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet No 11.6). Where a
restrained by a 90 corner of a tie, carrying 1.5 times
column schedule is not used, the basic design notation
the horizontal component; hence both legs share
consisting of number off and bar type-size is given on a
the load. The 1.5 factor is not stated in AS 3600, but
leader to this bar and other bars can be arrowed by an
comes from AS 1480:1982 which was not a limit state
extension of this leader.

Where circular and rectangular columns are
shown on the same sheet, more than one column
links with one leg, of the same size shown in the Table,
elevation may be useful because the arrangement of
provide restraint for a force of 1.0 times the horizontal
ties will probably differ.
component.
to 1200 mm. The splices should be staggered within
are provided, it is advisable to use only one bar size in
cranked portion. These forces are derived from
For an internal bar, a separate link or pair of
These splices can best be done when located

at a convenient working height above a floor, say 600
12.4.1 Column Main-Bars
factored loads.
standard.
Welded Splices
Clause 10.7.5 and Clause 12.4.6 of this Handbook.
slope of 1 in 10. A length of 300 mm along the crank is
horizontal component of the vertical force in the
12.4.4 Location of End-Bearing and
the column storey to ensure adequate tensile strength
Table 12.5 gives some values for the type and size
of reinforcement needed to provide this restraint for a
comment made on avoiding steel congestion at

column-to-floor intersections.
too small to show reinforcement.
offset-bent (cranked). The slope of the inclined part
commonly used by schedulers.

12.2 .9 Splicing Column Steel
if there are no changes in column dimensions. Within
Chapter 13 on beam detailing, there is considerable
End-bearing
splices
600
'---1'-+--
Extra tie above

and below splices
Where column sizes change throughout the

height of the structure, adequate elevations and
sections must be used to define offsets to concrete
and bars.
Figure 12.6 Location of End-Bearing Splices
12:4
12:5
12.4.5 Main-Bar Arrangement at Lap-Splice Level
(3) The offset occurs through the beam or floor
Lapped longitudinal bars are achieved by using
level. Unless the beam steel can be moved
cranked bars (shape CC) .

If a column face is offset by 75 mm or more, the
scheduling and fixing problems in deciding how
main bars are not continued through the construction
to get beam steel through the cranked portion .
joint. Separate short straight bars are to be used to
Beam-column intersection problems will always
splice the lower and upper main-bars. The splice length
be severe with narrow beams. Band beams
above and below the jOint w ill depend on the stress,
provide a good solution, Figure 12.9.
Figure 12.7. See also Clause 6.12 and others.

With CC bars, the slope in the crank must not
100
-+---
.....1-114--+-
exceed 1:6 and is common ly specified as 300 mm for
Orientation of the lap at the top and through
Splice bars
(same as upper
column bars)
I IIII
II
II
32dbmn
II
I il
I
robust tying of the main bar to prevent rotation

during the column pour. Remember that the
size. This allows the overlapped portions to be tied
crank is waving around in the air one floor or
together.
more up. Only one floor lift can be made at one
the offset portion of the main bars at a lap splice.
tv II
the beam is critical and must be ensured by
all sizes. The normal offset of the centre-line is one bar
There are three common methods of arranging
I II
I ~-=--=-- ~
sideways, the cranked portion creates
'--__-+-
Tie to support
splice bars
time unless beam details are to be altered on
'---1-+-
Beam bars moved

to accommodate
cranked column bars
alternate floors to accommodate the crank.
(1) The offset is located just above the lap at the

"working floor level" . Orientation problems of the
12.4.6 Main Bars with End-Bearing and

Figure 12.7 Splice Treatment at Offset Column Faces
Mechanical Splices
crank are eliminated, the bar continues straight
An elevation is essential for defining the
through the floor above and fitment dimensions
location above floor level of the end-bearing splices.
can be made identical on each floor and

through the joint itself if shear steel is needed ,
In particular, cross-sections are required for bundled
Figure 12.8. See also Clause 12.2 above.
bars. Bundled bars in col umns require careful attention
Column bars can be continuous through two
to layout to ensure bars in each column lift can be
floors or more depending on lifting capacity and
kept concentric with the columns above and below,
a continuous mesh cage can provide full-height

rigidity. Beam details can be standardised to
Cranked column
bars
Figure 12.10. A sleeve of some form, or a mechanical

connection, must be fixed around each splice to ensure
that the sawn ends are concentric.
provide repetition of prefabrication.
Bar lengths should be multiples of the floor
This method is illustrated on the column
height for any method.
elevation in Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet
All bars used with end-bearing splices must be
No 11.6, where one floor lift is detailed . Note

particularly how variations in the levels of the
straight and have ends sawn or machined square. The
footings can be accommodated without any
ends must be aligned concentrically by a clamp.

as crimped sleeves may not require special end
strongly recommended that this method be used
Figure 12.10 Bundled Bars Must be Kept Concentric
preparation unless specified otherwise by the
wherever possible.
manufacturer.
(2) The column bars are straight and are not
Threaded connections require special treatment
concentric throughout adjacent columns. This
with reliable protection for both female and male
method has many of the virtues of the first
threads.
method above, although the changes in location

wall construction , and with wide blade columns,
Allow for sleeve thickness when

detailing bundled bars, for
end-bearing and mechanical
splices, to maintain concentricity
Bars spliced by mechanical means such
need to replace bars previously supplied. It is
from lift to lift may be of concern. However in
Figure 12.9 Cranked Column Bars within Band

Beams
Figure 12.8 Cranked Column Bars above Working

Floor Level
it has much to commend it for the internal bars,

if not for the corner bars .
12:6
12:7
12.4.7 Location of Column Ties within the
Column ties may be required within the depth
Column Height
of a beam or slab under special circumstances.
Spacing is generally uniform but it is necessary
See earlier for appropriate guidance on
to indicate the location of the highest and lowest
quantities.
ties, usually 50 mm above the floor or kicker
Details of ties which act as shear reinforcement
12.6
within the beams or slab depth.
CONSTRUCTION
Allowances for adequate tolerances for fixing

main bars into corners of ties or at lap splices,
Column ties should be located above and
etc . Generally values are obtained from the
below and 50 mm below the highest soffit
below end-bearing type splices to resist forces,
AS 3600 and are not stated in the drawings
above, Figure 12.11 . See the AS 3600 because
particularly during construction.
- perhaps they should be.
The following comments are offered to assist

column construction and to reduce cycle times.
For scheduling purposes, the number of ties is
handled on site and could reduce the number of

ties making concrete placement simpler.
12.5
taken as the height from floor to soffit-above,

off to the next higher number.
The number of turns of a circular helix is given in
size bars may be an advantage in many cases,
The concrete strength f e for each lift, particularly
provided the extra ties do not increase fixing
if the column -concrete strength and the
time.
horizontal force there. This is a design matter.

See Clause 12.2.10.
~---~----1-N12-300
concrete f e.
HT + DT
near to its correct position is one of the most
The orientation, shape and dimensions of the
time-consuming tasks on site. It is advantageous
concrete outline for formwork construction. The
if all column bars have the same size and
use of a North Point or relationship to gridlines is
dimensions, and this should normally be
essential.
possible .
The shape and dimensions of the ties (usually
When method (1) of Clause 12.4.5 for designing
determined from the concrete shape) with the
main bars is used, small variations in floor-to-
basic design notation clearly stated. This should
~'"
'.
floor heights can be taken up within the splice

length above the floor.
2-SL62 LDI
consist of the number-off, the steel type and
I--
Method (3) of Clause 12.4.5 requires every
the nominal spacing, Figure 12.12. If there is

Tie spacing, S
Three sets of ties

minimum for support
of lower bars
I--L..
more than one tie at each spacing , the same
IT
is rectangular or circular. This must include

changes to the column size and the appropriate
U
I
J-'f-- - -
-I
50 to first tie
column; this leads to longer sorting times, more
L~~
chance of the wrong bars being used, reordering
NOTE:
For shape designations,
see Figures 9.1 and 9.2
Figure 12.12 Examples of Tie- Bar Notations
of replacement bars because the leftovers will

not fit, additional delays, etc.
(note 1)
column, even if the loads are eccentric. Murphy's
50 max (note
Tie spacing, S
this is not acceptable, restrict changes to one
How the bar arrangement is to be modified
face only.
progressively throughout the height of the

building from the footings . A grid system and
templates for setting out the centre lines of
below the change point must be detailed. The

beam reinforcement layout may also require
contract drawings rather than requiring repeated
re-detailing.
calculations based on nominal concrete
2. 50 mm below the
shallowest beam
with all four
intersecting beams
dimensions and concrete cover by several other
but additional splice bars are to be used,
steelfixers.
Figure 12.11 Location of Column Ties within Column

Height
12:8
Where column faces are offset 75 mm or

more, the main bars are not to be cranked
people such as schedulers, formworkers and

v
If the same column size cannot be maintained,

the column bar arrangement above and
the starter bars should be detailed on the
1. 50 mm below slabs
with three or less
intersecting beams
Maintain the same column section from footing

to roof, particularly if bundled bars are used. If
alongside the lower bar.
>
Never use more than one bar size in anyone

law of material interchange will strike again .
Any special bar arrangements at lap-splices;

that is, whether the upper bar is lapped inside or
NOTES:
column bar to be detailed for a particular
bar re-arrangement.
, _lj~omal.
100
lI
The layout of all main bars within the section,

often by a "typical drawing " if the section
I
32 dia.
information must be restated .
75
Finding the correct bundle of steel for each

column, sorting the steel and then moving it
column, varies from the remainder of the floor-
where the main bar is cranked to resist any
r----t
the above comment, a greater number of smaller

1-N12-300 HT + HH
floor-concrete strength in the vicinity of the
One or more ties should be shown at the point
Manual hoisting of column bars into place is

heavy and time-consuming work. Contrary to
to a larger scale than used with a plan -view. Essential
used to make the helix.
Two sets of ties

at top of crank
information includes:
Figure 9.1 for shape SP, as is the length of wire
COLUMN CROSS-SECTIONS
To be of use, these sections must be drawn
divided by the spacing, the result being rounded
Use the fewest number of bars possible at any

section . This reduces the quantity of bars to be
the rule is quite complex.
DETAILING COLUMNS FOR
Figure 12.7.
Keep the tie layout as simple as possible . The

number of ties is controlled by the centre-tocentre spacing of the bars in each face.
12:9
12.7
IDEAS FOR PREFABRICATION
12.9
EXAMPLE OF A COLUMN SCHEDULE

Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet No 11.7
Column cages can often be fabricated away

from the forms and lifted into place by a crane or other
provides a column schedule for a pad footing and the
mechanical method. For this to happen, a reasonably
column above. The example is from the footing plan
rigid cage is required. It is not essential that all the bars
given in Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet No 11.1 and
be tied or welded before erection.
Examples of Footing Details Clause 11.14.2.

Column cross-sections accompany the column
Often the corner bars can be fixed firmly to the
12.10 DETAILING FOR SEISMIC
(INTERMEDIATE MOMENT-RESISTING
FRAMES)
12.10.1 General
As discussed in Clause 10.5.2, MomentResisting Frame Systems , it is desirable to ensure that
outer cage of bars or mesh, and the remainder secured
schedule. Each section is defined by a "type number"
any plastic hinges that may form should do so in the
inside during the lift. Once the cage and corner bars
which is common for all columns having the same
beam elements rather than the columns by ensuring
are placed over the starter bars at each floor level , the
general shape (rectangular or square, say), the same
that the flexural capacity of the column is higher than
others are released and moved into position . Some
number of bars and same tie layout. A well -designed
that of the beam by a significant margin to allow for
flexibility should be permitted in the cage until it is
schedule can save detailing time if the number of
any 'overstrength ' due to design or materials. This is
positioned , then additional tying will be needed.
possible combinations is reduced to a practical
known as the 'weak beam/ strong column' philosophy.
minimum. Future amendments can be done merely by
Although it may not always be possible to achieve
changing the type number.
this, especially with such forms of construction as
To prevent movement during concreting , the

number and spacing of spacers should be specified in
Column orientation is important; a north-point
the drawings.
By placing the lap-splice crank at the bottom
may be necessary especially for rectangular columns.
of the column, a mesh cage for the fitments can be

used full height and even through the floor above. This
method is compatible with the concept of beam caging
The cantilever footings are detailed in

Clause 11.14.2 and Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet
The pad footings are detailed in Clause 11.14.3
described in this Handbook. As well as simplifying

column-bar placement, this concept enables the main
and Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet No 11.5.

Table 12.6 is an example of the type of details
beam bars to be pre-assembled outside the form,
without excessive spalling of cover concrete. Adequate
project, or on the same sheet as the column schedule.
region to maintain its axial-load-carrying capacity and
between column and beam bars. There are no
to prevent buckling of the longitudinal compression
AS 3600 requirements for the bottom bars required
reinforcement and subsequent failure. Plastic hinge
Clause 11.16 Drawing Sheet No 11.6

illustrates the lapping arrangement for one column of
the same size above a floor as below. Another column
where the face above is offset from that below is
shown in Figure 12.7.
(c) RECTANGULAR COLUMNS
regions are particularly susceptible where substantial

Table 12.6 Embedment Lengths for Starter Bars and
Splice Lengths for Column Bars
legitimate.
FOR A REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN
~'
transverse reinforcement must therefore be provided
column cage in such a way that there is no interference
EXAMPLES OF STANDARD DETAILS
Unconfined
concrete -----..
the structure to achieve the design level of ductility
to confine the compressed concrete within the core
12.8
..,
(b) SQUARE COLUMNS
In many cases, the ultimate compression
which can be given in the General Notes for the
through a support; "continuity" by splicing is perfectly
Unconfined
concrete
failure in the column will not occur.
and for shorter splicing bars to be passed through the
at mid span of a beam to be "continuous" into or
(a) CIRCULAR COLUMNS
band beams (see below), care should be taken that

catastrophic collapse, especially due to brittle shear
strain of unconfined concrete is inadequate to allow
No 11.4.
Unconfined
concrete -----111~
axial forces are present, eg in columns where inelastic

deformations must occur to develop a full-hinge
Bar
Size
Straight
embedment
in footing of
20 DIA. (mm)
N20
400
640
i-RiO or 1-L7
such as at the base of all columns, see Figure 10.1 ).
N24
480
770
2-R10 or 1-L9
12.10.2 Confinement
N28
560
900
2-R10 or 1-L10
N32
640
1030
1-N12 or 1-L11
N36
720
1160
2-N12 or 1-L1 2
Splice
length
of
32 DIA. (mm)
Number of
fitments at
column bar
crank
is based upon weak beam/strong column philosophy,
Unconfined
concrete
...
mechanism.
(Note: This may occur even where the design
Close-spaced transverse reinforcement acting

in conjunction with longitudinal reinforcement restrains
the lateral expansion of the concrete. This enables the
concrete to withstand higher levels of compression.
Circular or helical ties, due to their shape,
are placed in hoop ten sion by the expanding
concrete and provide confinement to the enclosed
(d) SECTION BETWEEN MAIN BARS
... +Unconfin ed
concrete
-+
++++++.... +-
I-
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+ ,-
..
(e) SECTION AT MAIN BARS
Figure 12.13 Confinement of Column Sections by

Transverse and Longitudinal Reinforcement
concrete Figure 12.13(a). Rectangular ties apply full

confinement only near their corners as the pressure of
the concrete bends the legs outwards. This tendency
12:10
concrete between longitudinal bars are shallower, and
should be counteracted by the use of cross-ties or
consequently a greater area of concrete is confined.
interconnected closed ties. This has the additional
The presence of a number of longitudinal bars,
benefit of increasing the number of legs crossing
enclosed by closely spaced ties will also significantly
thk section. The profiles of the unconfined zones of
aid confinement. Figure 12.13(b), (e) , (d) and (e) .
12:11
Reinforceme nt Detailin g Hand book
12.10.3 Lapped Splices
The confinement of concrete is addressed in
It is inevitable that splices will occur in the
Appendix A of AS 3600 by the provision of closed ties ,
column reinforcement of multi-storey buildings. It is
where requ ired, over a distance of either:
important therefore to ensure that these are detailed
The maximum dimension of the column cross-
and located such that failure will not occur under
section; or
earthquake action. Splicing is usually achieved by the
One-sixth of the least clear distance between
longitudinal reinforcement against the core concrete.

In circular columns, the clamping force is provided by
transmission occurs due to the bond between the bars
Further, the spacing of the closed ties is to be
induced above and below the column joint and
been shown to be very efficient at resisting the radial
simultaneously occurring reversals of beam moment
cracks that can develop. Further, these ties can restrain
across the joint, cause the region to be subject to
an unlimited number of splices .
both horizontal and vertical shears of much greater
Unless the capacity has been checked by
calculated shear force in a joint resisting earthquakeinduced forces , transverse reinforcement must be
the splice under cyclical loading at up to but still below
provided through the joint to prevent the occurrence
yield stress of the reinforcement, they will not ensure
of brittle joint shear failure, rather than obtaining the
forces are to be transmitted by bond, splitting of the
a satisfactory ducti le response. This is especially true
desired flexural beam hinges. (See Reference details
concrete can occur. To prevent these occurrences,
where large-diameter bars are lapped in the p lastic
at end of this Clause). This transverse reinforcement
ties are required to provide a 'clamping force' to the
hinge zone. The splice w ill fail after a few cycles of
is provided by continuing the closed ties required for
loading large enough to induce inelastic behaviour
columns adjacent to the joint.
Under severe cyclical loading , column splices
face. (Note: do in this case is taken from the
tend to progressively 'unzip'. Further, where large steel
larger column dimension) . The overall crosssectional area of the ties must obviously be
sufficient to satisfy the shear requ irements of the
column Figure 12.14.
beams and columns themselves . However low the
be placed in potential plastic hinge reg ions. Whilst
response of concrete between adjacent bars.
the first tie located at 50 mm from the support
in the longitudinal reinforcement, with a consequent

Recommended pract ice:
Lap splices only within centrer=
half of clear column height
unless calculations show
otherwise
Recommended practice:
J - Lap splice to be confined by at least 2 closed ties
p5Sc
Column
ties
Closed ties may be spaced at 2S c (or Sc with 0.5Asv) for the depth of the shallowest
beam provided beams frame int the column from at least two directions at right angles.
For all other conditions, use ties spaced at Sc
occur at the base of first-storey columns. (Note: This is
Y1
= the larger core dimension
true for all frame types). Consideration should therefore
Ag
= the gross cross-sectional area of
Ac
= the cross-sectional area of the core
fc
= the characteristic compressive cylinder
~'D.4<\
New Zealand practice allows that columns that
t.
fsy.f = the yield strength of the ties
plastic hinges - providing the column shear strength
<I>
is similarly higher, ie matching the column flexural
Nuo = the ultimate strength in compression of
Fully scabble al I
construction joi nts
an axially loaded cross-section without
then splicing of longitudinal bars by lapping may be
eccentricity
undertaken immediately above the floor level.
couplers (eg Alpha or Lenton) is often done where bar
N* = the axial compressive or tensi le force

on a cross-section .
The area of reinforcement required may,
congestion may prove problematic. It is recommended
however, be reduced by half where equal resistance to
that under no circumstances should these be situated
joint rotation provided in at least two directions at right
in a potential plastic hinge region, in order to help
angles, but only over the depth of the shallowest of the
ensure a strong column/ weak beam failure .
framing members. (See Figure 12.14).
Site welding of bar splices requires special
Asv = cross sectional area of ties

Sc = closed tie spacing not to exceed 0.25d o' Sd b, 24d f or 300 mm
S = column tie spacing not to exceed the smaller of Dc or 15db
consideration and care during execution . It is
Dc = smaller dimension of column cross-section

D= largest column dimension, but not less than one-sixth clear height
welding is acceptable, provided it is carried out using
do = effective depth of member 2: O.S D

db = diameter o'f smallest longitudinal bar enclosed by the tie
welded splices are never used in a potential plastic
df = diameter of tie bar
= a strength reduction factor
capacity. If the formation of plastic hinges is precluded ,
Splicing by welding or the use of mechanical
Supplementary cross ties may be used if of the same diameter as the closed tie
and secured with the closed tie to the longitudinal bars
'-
strength of concrete at 28 days
of the adjoining beams are unlikely to yield and form
/ID=4d f
l-9J-Sc
measured over the outside of the ties
have greater than 1.25 to 1.4 times the flexural strength
Closed ties must be provided in all joints and in the columns for a distance, D,
above and below joints
(9
the column
be to locate the splice at mid-height of the column.
Closed tie hooks at each end
1350
where:
be given to carrying the column bars above first floor

level before splicing . A less preferred alternative would
Recommended practice where plastic hinge formation possible:

When welded splices or mechanical connection are used, not more than alternate bars
may be spliced at any section with vertical distance between splices 600 mm or more
Closed
D ties
0.09SY1 (fc/fsy.f)
= centre to centre spacing of the ties
+
Lo Clear
column
height
or
~
~
bars (see Reference: Paulay, T. and Priestley, M .J.N.
Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
[unless <l>Nuo > N*]
example, a plastic hinge would normally be expected to
+ Sc
0.30SY1 (Ag /Ac - 1)(f c/fsy.f)
Recommended practice:
Provide double ties at bends
Closed
D ties
The area required Asy is to be the greater of:
gradual deterioration of bond transfer between the
Buildings, John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1992). For
135
Closed
ties
magnitude than those experienced by the adjoining
design, it is recommended that splices should not
transverse ties may ensure strength development of
and the surrounding concrete, as well as due to the
the least of 0.25d o, 8db , 24df or 300 mm with
Under seismic loading, reversing moments
helical or circular ties. This form of reinforcement has
use of overlapping parallel bars. In this method, force
consecutive flexural members framing into it.
12.10.4 Beam/Column Joints
recommended that lap welding should be avoided. Butt
a proper procedure but, again, it is recommended that
hinge region. (Figure 12.14).

\
Figure 12.14 Typical Column Details for Intermediate Moment-Resisting Frame Structures
12: 1 3
1 2:12
l'
Figure 12.15(a) shows the effects of shear
transfer of concrete compression forces and some

bond forces which, especially at external beam/column
connections, require special consideration with
Internal actions
and crack pattern
regard to reinforcement anchorage. A considerable
Flange
(floor slab)
Beams
13.1
Web or
stem
GENERAL
length of the top bars is ignored when calculating

13.1.1 Purpose
the development length because of expected bond
RECTANGULAR BEAM
T-BEAM
For most practical purposes, a beam is a
deterioration under cyclic load reversal. It should also

be noted that the bottom beam bars are bent upwards
horizontal member of relatively small size which carries
at the end, Figure 12.15(b). If they are not, this will
a vertical load and transfers that load to its supports.
result in poor behaviour of the joint in the direction of
These supports can be either another beam, a column
loading, In addition, proper anchorage of the bottom
or a wall.
For structural design purposes as interpreted by
beam bar is necessary in order to transfer shear
Flange
(floor slab)
Web or
stem
AS 3600, some of the methods used to design beams
through the joint via a strut mechanism. However,
Transfer of
concrete forces
tests have shown that U-bars are not as effective as
may also be used for slabs and walls . The physical
top and bottom bars anchored separately. (Reference
shape of the member, that is its cross-section, has
NZS 3101:1995) .
See the following references for more information:
considerable effect on the method to be used.
L-BEAM (AND SPANDREL)
BAND BEAM
Figure 13.1 Beam Shapes
For simplicity of description, beams are usually

called "rectangular", "T-beams" or "L-beams" because
(i) Paulay, T. and Priestley, M.J.N. Seismic
Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry

Buildings, John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1992
have their own particular methods of design although
illustrates the manner by which the vertical loads are
many are common.
applied to the top face of the beam - directly on to
(ii) American Concrete Institute, ACI 318-89
All of these apparently different types of beams
of the way they look and because this shape also
The span of a beam is a term often used here
(revised 1992) Building Code Requirements
the rectangular beam , or on to the attached slab for
and includes "sing le span", "continuous span", "simply
for Reinforced Concrete and ACI 318-89R
the T-beam and L-beam . In the case of the latter two
supported span", etc.
Transfer of
some bond forces
(revised 1992) commentary Chapter 21
Special Provisions for Seismic Design.

(iii) Irvine, H. Max and Hutchinson, G.I. (eds)
Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual

3rd Edition, Techbooks, 1993.
(a) Shear transfer of concrete compression forces and some bond

forces from longitudinal bars by diagonal compression
strut mechanism
types, the attached slab is called the "flange" and this

is a very important part of the total beam cross-section.
Example 13.1
Beams can also be upstand or downstand. For an
1. In Clause 11.14.2, the cantilever footing detail CF4

would have been designed as a beam - it is called
a footing because of its location - although the load
along it comes from the earth below due to the
vertical downwards column loads.
upstand beam, the slab should remain propped until

the top section of the beam is cast and cured.
Figure 13.1 illustrates various beam shapes.

The rectangular part of a T- or L-beam below
the slab is called the "web", in the bottom of which is
Not
permitted
0.5 he or 8db whichever is lesser

(this length is disregarded becausE
of loss of bonding during cyclic
loading)
the main "bottom tensile" reinforcement. The deeper

the beam, the greater will be its load-carrying capacity.
The flange at the top carries the compressive forces in
2. In Chapter 12 on columns, the fact that some

columns must be designed as beams did not
need to be known for detailing purposes, but it is
important for the designer. Columns do not always
have the main bars arranged uniformly around the
edges.
the concrete to balance the tensile forces in the bottom

reinforcement. To a lesser degree, the wider the flange
Plastic hinge
the greater the load carrying capacity as well.

Wide shallow beams (known as "band beams")
Not
permitted
are a compromise between shallow beams and deep

O.She or 8d bwhichever is lesser
(this length is disregarded becaUSE
of loss of bonding during cyclic
loading)
(b) Anchorage of beam bars when the critical section of the

plastic hinge forms at the column face
slabs, whilst narrow closely-spaced beams (called

"ribs") are another form with particular uses.
"Prestressed" and "precast" concrete beams
including beam shells are not included in this
Handbook. Refer to the Precast Concrete Handbook,
jointly published by National Precast Concrete
Figure 12.15 Shear Transfer at Beam/Column

Connections and Suggested Beam Reinforcement
Anchorage at External Columns
Association Australia and Concrete Institute of Australia,

for details of these.
13:1
12:14
RAinforcement Detailinq Handbook

Ch11 Footings

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Ch11 Footings

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

11.3.

2 Complete Footing Plan for the Whole

Bracing members of braced frames are to be

designed as struts or ties, as they will be subject to

See Drawing Sheet No 11.1 - Clause 11.16.

alternating compression and tension, and connections

identical system must be adopted. As distinct

adequate lateral restraint along the whole length of

for footings are as much the responsibility of the

The ground on which a structure rests, or is

engineer as that of the architect because the

supported by, is called the foundation .

footing layout affects the strength of the whole

compression in the form of:

Helices. The volume of steel divided by the

A footing is that part of the structure which is

footing and foundation are in complete contact and, for

Asv::: 0.30 s Y1 (Ag/Ac - 1) (f'c/fsy.f)

this reason , concrete is the only satisfactory material;

(unless <jJN uo > N*)

Ag = the gross cross-sectional area of column

transfer the load from the structure to the foundation .

fsy.f = the yield strength of the ties

Nuo = the ultimate strength in compression of an

of each footing. Detailed dimensions of each

Give a reference number for each footing and

11 .1.3 Preparation of the Foundation

it. Normally, the footing reference number will

In certain circumstances, it may be necessary

be the same as the reference number of the

to increase the strength of the surface layers of the

supported column; this is mandatory when

the common methods include compacted back-fill,

a column schedule is used, Drawing Sheet

crushed rock, lean concrete, etc, and full details must

be given in the drawings or Specification.

11.3.3 Individual Footing Plan-Views

The minimum depth at which footings are to be

Where the shape and dimensions of a footing

Draw the exact shape of the footing with all

for altering as applicable the length of the supported

necessary dimensions for excavating the hole in

axially loaded cross-section without

Indicate the general shape looking down at each

when placed and compacted properly, concrete will fill

= the characteristic compressive cylinder

strength of concrete at 28 days

any hollows in the foundation and, after it hardens, will

structure. Footing centre lines are often used as

volume of concrete, per unit length of member must be

Define the location of every footing. If

Specify the minimum depth to which the

The Concrete Structures Standard does not

General Note in the drawing, an indication of the

have a section specifically allocated to footings. For

type of ground expected or allowed for together

design purposes, a footing is considered to act as if

with its predicted bearing capacity. If the

it was a beam or a slab, depending on its shape and

engineer requires soil tests, this can be stated

in the drawings although it is often given in the

Specification in more detail.

dimensions of the column or wall supported by

location of all reinforcement cast with the footing