SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS IN THE THEORY OF SHELLS BY

NUMERICAL-ANALYSIS METHODS*
UDC 539.3

Ya. M. Grigorenko

We shall consider some approaches to the solution of problems in the theory of shells
using numerical methods and attempt co analyze their features on the basis of exmmples of
the solution of characteristic classes of problems in the "computer age" -- that is, from the
late 1950s or early 1960s to the present.
In connection with this, we shall consider only
those classes of static shell-theory problems in linear and geometrically nonlinear formulations on the basis of a classical model that provide examples which we can use for following
most completely the development of the approaches to the solution of such problems by the
methods of numerical analysis using computers.
These approaches are also used to a greater
or lesser extent for solving c l a s s e s o f shell-theory problems in different formulations.
i. General Characteristics of Approaches to the Numerical Solution of Problems in the
Theory of Shells.
One of the main characteristics of the development of the theory of plates
and shells is the interrelation between the process of constructing a mathematical model of a
a given class of problems and the working out of a method for solving the problems described
by this model.
This is evidenced by Kirchhoff's theory of thin plates and the Kirchhoff--Love
theory of thin shells, in which investigators, at the same time as they strove to give an
appropriate description of the deformatiOn of plates and shells, also pursued the goal of
keeping these models simple, so that they might obtain solutions for a number of problems by
the computational methods existing at the time, Another example of such an approach can be
found in the Mushtarl--Donell--Vlasov theory of shells,rinwhich the simplifications made in
the fundamental equations made it possible to construct the solutions of some classes of
problems covering a fairly wide range, as evidenced by the following names given to this
theory: the technical theory of shells, the theory of shallow-slope shells, and the theory
of shells with large indicators of variability of the stressed state [90, 19, 32]. This interrelation is even more clearly observable today, when computers are widely used in solving
shell-theory problems and when the construction of mathematical models for certain classes
of shells must provide for all the features and possibilities connected with the solution of
the problem.
Proceeding to discuss the approaches to the numerical solution of shell-theory problems
by means of computers, we shall pause briefly to consider the characteristics of the methods
used for solving shell-theory problems in the "precomputer" age. To do this, it is best to
use monographs by leading scientists, which reflect fairly fully the advances made in the
solution of shell-theory problems at that time.
In the field of linear problems of shell theory, we may mention the monographs of V. V.
Novozhilov [90], V. Z. Vlasov I19], A. I. Lur'e [84], and A. L. Gol'denveizer [32]. One of
the main approaches described in those monographs is based on the method of complex transformation of the equations of shell theory, which makes it possible to reduce the order of
the equations and obtain the resolving differential equation in a form that can be used for
finding its solution in elementary or special functions.
In constructing the solutions of
the differential equations of shell-theory problems, a number of variants of the method of
asymptotic integration have come into widespread use by virtue of their particular features.
In some cases it has been possible to obtain fairly exact solutions by retaining one term
of an asymptotic series, and in others, depending on the nature of the stressed state, one
*This article was written on the basis of the materials of the plenary report delivered at the
Thirteenth All-Union Conference on the Theory of Plates and Shells, Tallinn, September, 1983.

Mechanics Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Kiev. Translated from Prikladnaya
Mekhanika, Vol. 20, No. i0, pp. 3-22, October, 1984. Original article submitted October 20,
1983.

0038-5298/84/2010, 0881508.50

9 1985 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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or another asymptotic representation has been used, Investigators have also obtained some
approximate solutions of shell-theory problems in analytic form by disregarding the small
terms in the fundamental equations.
The approaches to the solution of geometrically nonlinear problems in the theory of
plates and shells that were used at that time are described chiefly in the monographs of
P. F. Papkovich [98], V. I. Feodos'ev [122], and A. S. Vol'mir [20], A number of nonlinear
problems for flexible plates and shallow shells were solved by means of diverse variational
approaches, in particular by constructing series expansions for one of two resolving functions: by P. F. Papkovich's method, when the function used is the deflection and the stress
function is found by integrating the equations of compatibility; or else by the method of
K. Z. Gallmov [27], in which we construct a representation for ~the stress function and the
deflection is determined by integrating the equation of equilibrium. Beyond this the problem
is solved by using the Bubnov-Galerkin procedure. Another approach used for solving nonlinear problems was one based on the use of the Bubnov-Galerkin method for the entire system
of equations, The possibility of solving various shell-theory problems by analytic methods
has also been discussed in [5, 56, 74, 75, 102, 120, 76, 129, 130, 86],
The use of these approaches for solving linear and nonlinear problems in the theory of
plates and shells made it possible, on the one hand, to obtain solutions in analytic form;
the advantages of such solutions lie primarily in the fact that they are general and closed.
However, on the other hand, analytic methods were successful only in constructing solutions
for simple problems; plates and shells of uncomplicated shape for well-defined types of loading. Thus, in the "precomputer"age the possibilities of obtaining solutions for problems
in shell theory were severely limited.
The invention of computers and their widespread introduction into the work of practical
calculation made it possible to use the methods of numerical analysis for solving problems
in the theory of shells and thus to expand substantially the class of solvable shell-theory
problems. As early as the beginning of the 1960s, A. A. Dorodnitsyn [62] wrote that "highspeed electronic computers have expanded by a factor of tens and even hundreds of thousands
the computational possibilities open to us even today, and in the near future the productivity
of computers will be increased by several more orders of magnitude. This has created a completely new qualitative situation. The 'precomputer' age was characterized by a crisis of
computing equipment, but during the period following the appearance of computers the old
methods of numerical analysis have been exhausted very rapidly, and today we have a 'crisis
of methods'. Therefore at the present time the development of accurate numerical methods
in all branches of the exact sciences is an extremely important task of theoreticians."
As V. I. Feodos'ev remarks in his book [125], today's computers have such capabilities
that when they are used, "quantity becomes quality. The computer becomes a means for studying
phenomena, and we are faced with a new branch of mathematics -- computer analysis."
L. I. Sedov, in his report at the Fourth All-Union Congress on Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, remarked that a characteristic feature of today's mechanics is the widespread use
of computers. Furthermore, "together with the development of experimental methods of investigation for solving the problems that arise, the main trend is the development of methods
of numerical solution using hlgh-speed computers" [117].
In a report delivered at the All-Union Conference dedicated to the memory of Yu, A.
Shlmanskll, V. V. Novozhilov discussed in detail the question of the approach to the solution
of the problemas a whole: from the formulation of the problem to the use (or interpretation)
of the results obtained. "The ability to solve a problem in a simple manner represents a
profound understanding of the problem" [91]. To do this, we must consider problems for cruder
models, which will enable us to understand the phenomenon as a whole and to give some estimate of the results that can be expected. In R. W. Han~ning's book [128] the motto for the
engineer is "The purpose of calculations is not to find numbers but to gain understanding";
on the other hand, V. V. Novozhilov proposes replacing this motto with the following: "The
purpose of calculations is not only to find numbers but also to gain understanding" [91, 92].
Actually, in solving a problem by means of computers, we must consider the certain chain
consisting of the following links: the mathematical model, the method, thealgorithm, the
program, the computation, and the analysis of the results; we must also take account of the
connections between all these links. Special attention is drawn to this by A. A, Samarskii
in his discussion of a computational experiment [115]. Therefore in constructing the mathe-

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matical model of a problem, we must provide an opportunity for efficiently realizing it,
taking account of the choice of the method, the algorithm, and the formulation of the program, and it is no less important to have feedback between all these links and the mathematical model. Only if we combine all these features can we obtain an effective solution
of the problem. All of this is fully applicable to the solution of problems in the theory
of shells.
In analyzing the various approaches to the numerical solution of problems in the theory
of plates and shells,* as noted earlier, we shall discuss linear and geometrically nonlinear
problems of shell theory. The characteristics of the solution of linear problems in shell
theory by numerical methods using computers w i l l b e analyzed by considering two major classes
of problems: shells of revolution of arbitrary design with axially symmetric and asymmetric
loading, and shells of complicated shape, The problems relating to the first of these classes
are described by ordinary differential equations. The second class of problems leads to the
solution of partial differential equations for regions of complicated shape, The solution
of nonlinear problems in shell theory by numerical methods is considered for shells of revolution under axially symmetric deformation and for some shells of different shape which are
described by two-dlmensional nonlinear equations.
2. Linear Problems. Shells of Revolution of Arbitrary Design with Thickness Varying
along the Generator, under Axial!ySymmetricand Asymmetric Loading, This class of problems
is distinguished by the fact that under axially symmetr$c types of loading it can be described
immediately by boundary-value problems for systems of ordinary differential equations with
variable coefficients, and in the case of loadings which are not axially symmetric this class
admits of the separation of variables, using expansions of the loading and of the desired
functions in Fourier series in the circular coordinate [90, 40]. Therefore the methods for
solving this class of problems are applicable also to other classes of problems in shell theory
which are described by ordinary differential equations. To solve the class of problems discussed here, the following methods have been used,
The Finite-Difference Method (FDM). One of the methods used to solve boundary-value
problems relating to the deformation of shells of revolution of arbitrary design is the FDM,
by means of which the solutionof one-dimensional boundary-value problem can be reduced to
the solution of a system of linear algebraic equations. Since shell-theory problems involve
local and boundary effects of the stressed state, the system obtained may prove difficult
to justify. For the solution of such systems the method of difference factorization is used
[114,28]. The computational difficulties in connection with this method arise out of the
need to preserve the information of the forward course, which for large systems may occupy
a large part of the computer,s operational memory [143]. Such an approach also requires a
certain degree of inventiveness in the approximation of the boundary conditions, especially
if they are expressed in terms of the leading derivatives.
By using the MFD, V. N. Bulgakov [16] solved a number of problems for toroidal shells
acted upon by axially symmetric distributed, contour, and centrifugal forces, Ya. M.
Grigorenko [38] used the FDM toobtain solutions for conical shells of variable rigidity
under antisymmetric loads such that as the aperture angle of the cone decreased, the eigenvalues of the matrix of the system of equations became substantially different, leading to
instability of the computation, and in those cases the method of difference factorization
was used to solve the problem [114, 28]. In the monograph of V. V. Bolotin and Yu. N. Novichkov [15] the following approach was used for solving problems in the theory of plates and
shells in addition to the usual approaches: the boundary-value problem is reduced to finitedifference equations with constant coefficients; the theory of finite-difference equations
is used to solve them [29], and solutions which are exact in this sense are constructed at
a discrete set of points.
The Finite-Element Method (FEM). The first work on the solution of problems for shells
of revolution under axially symmetric loads by using the FEM was done by non-Soviet authors
[64]. They considered shells of revolution of a specified shape and proposed various finiteelement constructions for their calculation. For the solution of problems relating to the
stressed-deformed state of shells of revolution, other numerical methods, which will be
considered below, apparently proved more effective, The finite-element method is more widely
used for solving two-dimensional problems in the theory of shells.
*Here we consider chiefly the work of Soviet authors, since the results that can be achieved
by using numerical methods depend substantially on the computers used.
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However, we should draw attention here to some studies in which the FEM was used to
construct computing complexes for solving problems relating to shell-type systems, Such a
computing complex for calculations relating to shells of revolution under axially symmetric
loads was developed by L. A. Rozin and L. B. Grinze [Iii], who used an algorithm based on
the method of separating the operators of the equations of shell theory and realized it in
the form of a universal program. The algorithm is in fact the solution of a separated
problem using the FEM [105]. In the studies by V. A. Postnov and V. S, Korneev [104], the
FEM was used to work out an algorithm and set up a computing complex for solving problems
for shells of revolution. Here the finite element chosen was a conical element. B. Ya.
Kantor and V. M. Mitkevich proposed an approach to the solution of problems relating to the
stressed--deformed state of shell-type structures of revolution with a branched meridian.
To solve the problem, the entire structure is subdivided into segments and the finite-element procedure is applied to these. Such an approach was realized in the computing complex
of [71].
The Integral-Equation Method. I. A. Birger and his pupils [12, 13, 65] considered a
class of problems concerning the stressed-deformed state of shells of revolution acted upon
by axially symmetric and antisyn~netric loads. The problem can be described by means of
modified boundary-value and normal integral equations of the Fredholm and Volterra types,
which simplifies their construction from the original differential relations. The integral
equations so obtained can be solved by iterative numerical methods. For poorly defined
problems the integral-equation method is used in conjunction with the orthogonal-factorization method [63].
Methods of Reduction to Cauchy Problems. By virtue of the linearity of the class of
probiems on the deformation of shells of revolution which we are considering here, solutions
for them can he found by the usual method of reducing a boundary-value problem to a number
of Cauchy problems [8] each of which can be solved by one of the known numerical methods
~Runge-Kutta, Adams--Starmer, and others). However , in such cases, as already mentioned,
owing to the boundary and local effects occurring in thin shells, this approach may be unsuitable, since the computation becomes unstable [18, 31, 8]. In the cases indicated the
problem becomes rigid [119]. To overcome these difficulties, investigators have worked out
a number of methods by which the numerical solution of the boundary-value problem is reduced
to a stable computation process. Such methods include: the method of factorlzation in differential form, proposed by I. M. Gel'land and O. V, Lokutsievskil [28], the method of continuous orthogonalization devised by A. A. Abramov [1], and the method of discrete orthogonalization devised by S. K. Godunov [30].
We shall now consider the properties and possibilities of using these methods for solving problems in shell theory. The method of differential factorlzation [28, 8] consists in
an equivalent replacement of a boundary-value problems for a system of linear differential
equations with a number of Cauchy problems for systems ofnonllnear differential equations,
which are then solved numerically. These methods yield stable processes for the forward and
reverse course. On the basis of physical representations, an analogous approach to the solution of boundary-value problems for shells of revolution with axially symmetric loading has
been used in a monograph by V. S. Chuvikovskli, O. M. Palii, and V. E. Spiro [131]. Some
aspects of the differential-factorization method in the solution of problems in structural
mechanics have been described in an article by V. L. Biderman [9]. In using this method, we
may encounter difficulties caused by the unbounded increase in the elements of the factorization matrices and the factorization vector [Ii, I0].
The method of continuous orthogonalizatlon [i, 87] is actually based on the continuous
orthogonalization of the solution vectors of Cauchy problems as the argument varies; it makes
it possible to carry over any number of boundary conditions. In this method, unlike the preceding one, there is no increase in the matrices, but the right sides of the equations are
much more complicated, and therefore its use requires a far larger amount of computation.
Some features of the use of this method in the solution of shell-theory problems were first
considered by Ya. M. Grlgorenko in [42, 39].
The method of discrete orthogonalization [30] makes it possible to obtain a stable computation process by orthogonalizing the solution vectors of Cauchy problems at finite number
of points in the interval of variation of the argument. The effectiveness and high accuracy
of the method were also noted in the book by R. Bellman and R, Kalaba [6], Today the method
of discrete orthogonalization is widely used for solving problems in shell theory. The features of the use of this method in shell-theory problems are discussed in a monograph by
884

Ya. M. Grigorenko [40]. Grigorenko also shows that the amount of stored information can be
substantially reduced by a slight modification of the algorithm.
The effectiveness of using
this method in shell-theory problems is noted in monographs by A. V. Karmishin, V. A, Lyaskovets, V. I. Myachenkov, and A. N. Frolov [73] and by V. L. Biderman [ii]. Algorithms for
calculating various shell-type systems by Godunov's method have been realized in computing
complexes and program packages [40, 73, 43, 88].
Some other approaches to the numerical solution of problems for shells of revolution
under axially symmetric and non-axially-symmetric loads have been described in [135-142].
The proposed numerical methods are usually designed for use with computers that have large
operational memories.
3. Linear Problems.
Shells of Complicated Shape. In order to characterize the use
and development of numerical methods in problems for shells of complicated shape, it is
desirable to analyze the existing schemes for solving certain classes of problems, with due
regard for their use in calculations for shell-type structures.
Therefore we shall consider
below only those approaches to the numerical solution of problems which have been effectively
used for solving certain classes of problems in shell theory.
The Finite-Difference Method.
The FDM has been widely used for the calculation of
shallow shells in the works of A. A. Nazarov and his pupils [89]. These studies discuss
some methods for approximating the differential relations by difference relations for various
cases of deformation of shells whose contours are fixed in different ways, including the
case of a free boundary and that of an elastically built-in boundary.
The accuracy of the
method is explained by the use of examples.
The FDM is applied to the calculation of shallow
shells and coverings with double curvature.
V. I. Gulyaev and E. A. Gotsulyak [58, 33] have made effective use of the FDM for the
calculation of various shell-type systems.
In investigating shells of complicated shape,
it proved to be desirable to use the FDM in conjunction with the apparatus of tensor analysis,
so that it was possible to describe in general form the geometry of the deformed surface.
Such an approach is combined with the possibility of arbitrary choice of the arrangement and
density of the difference network and the ability to take account of its variation in the
process of deformation.
The tensor representation of the geometric and mechanical characteristics of the shells under investigation in an arbitrary curvilinear coordinate system considerably expands the range of problems without increasing the amount of input information
required.
An attempt to construct finite-difference equations in explicit form leads to
cumbersome expressions which are hard to represent in analytic form. Since the relations of
the theory of shells are linear combinations of stresses, strains, and displacements, it was
found convenient to set up a program for formulating equations from subprograms which realize
the corresponding analytic transformations and repeat the fundamental steps of the derivation
of the resolving equations of shell-theory.
By using the approach so worked out, investigators
have solved a number of problems in the determination of the stressed state of spiral shells,
wave-shaped shells whose middle surface varies according to a sinusoidal law in two coordinate
directions, and spherical shells with noncoaxial skew cuts [58, 57].
The Method of Calculating Skew Shell Systems.
I. F, Obraztsov and his associates [93,
95, 94] worked out an effective approach to the calculation of thin-walled shell systems of
skew type, which are widely used in aviation technology and other areas.
In the general case
they consider a conical shell of arbitrary arrangement, which is a universal calculation model
for a skew thin-walled structure.
On the basis of Lagrange's variational principle, they
construct a general method for calculating a conical shell of arbitrary arrangement, based
on a special choice of basis functions and on reducing a two-dimensional boundary-value problem
to a one-dimensional one by the Vlasov--Kantorovich method.
In the case of rigid equations,
the use of the method of discrete orthogonalization [30] is proposed.
The approach so worked
out is successfully being used in the calculation of various structural elements of modern
aircraft.
The Method of Parametrizing the Middle Surface of a Shell by Means of a Fictitious Deformation.
V. N. Paimushin [97, 96] has worked out an approch to the solution of shelltheory problems for noncanonical regions.
In considering such problems, we encounter difficulties involved in satisfying the boundary conditions when different approximate methods
are used for finding the solution.
To overcome these difficulties, we must reduce such
problems to "classical" form.
In the above-mentioned studies Paimushin~ by constructing a
parametrization for the middle surface of the shell, reduces the problem to a "classical"
885

one~ which can be solved by known numerical methods. He has worked out methods for parametrizing the middle surface for shells in which that surface has a complicated shape, shells
which have complicated shapes in the plane, and in general case, shells with arbitrary geometry, which are based on the construction of a mapping of some canonical region onto the
middle surface by means of a fictitious deformation of that surface. The two-dimensional
problem is then reduced by some method to a one-dimensional one, which is solved by the
method of finite sums. The numerical method of calculating shells with complicated geometry has been realized in the form of a computing complex [97] which has been used for
solving a number of problems for elements of shell-type structures of complicated shape.
The Finite-Element Method. The FEM has been widely used in problems of the theory of
plates and shells. By means of the FEM a continuous problem is replaced with a problem that
has a finite number of parameters. The subdivision of the region into finite elements makes
it possible to consider shells of fairly complicated configuration. In such an approximation
as a rule, we do not know that some relations of the theory of shells are satisfied, and as
a result, the state of each element and "of the entire system is described only approximately.
We then use some variational principle to solve the problem. Therefore the FEM is both a
network method and a variational method [105]. In comparison with the classical variational
methods, the FEM is more algorithmic and leads to a system of algebraic equations with sparsely filled band matrices of limited width. However, the use of the FEM for calculating
thin shells involves difficulties in ensuring that the deformations of adjacent elements are
compatible and in approximating smooth surfaces by distorted elements. A great deal of attention is therefore devoted to approaches that make it possible to overcome these difficulties,
The realization of the algorithms constructed on the basis of the FEM depends to a large extent
on the computers used. The FEM is widely used for solving shell-theory problems in the studies
carried out by V. A. Postnov and his pupils [105, 107, 106] and by L. A. Rozin and his pupils
[105, 109, ii0], in which the FEM is used to construct computing complexes and to solve a
number of complicated problems in shell-theory. Some aspects of the use of the FEM in problems in the theory of plates and shells have been discussed in the works of A. G. Ugodchik
and his associates [121]. The use of the FEM for calculating shells with double curvature
has been discussed in the monograph of A. V. Aleksandrov, B, Ya. Lashchenikov, N, N. Shaposhnikov, and V. A. Smirnov [3]. Complicated and isoparametric finite elements have been used,
so that it has been possible to combine elements not only at nodal points but at intermediate
points as well. The FEM has been further developed for the calculation of complicated structures in the method of superelements [103], in which the entire structure is separated into
individual parts or substructures. This method, unlike the FEM, has certain theoretical
features of its own.
Methods of Reducing Problems to One-Dimensional Ones. For solving some classes of twodimensional problems in the theory of shells, investigators have used the method of integral
relations worked out by A. A. Dorodnitsyn and his associates [61, 62, 7], which is in a
certain sense a generalization of the Vlasov--Kantorovich method and of the method of straight
lines [19, 72, 7, 8]. The process of solving the problem by the method of integral relations
consists of two stages. In the first stage the original system of partial differential equations with given boundary conditions or regularity conditions is approximated by a system of
ordinary differential equations of high order with the Corresponding boundary conditions.
In the second stage, the solution of the one-dimensional boundary-value problem so obtained
is carried out by using some numerical method. This method was used by Ya. M, Grigorenko,
A. T. Vasilenko, and E. I. Bespalova to solve a whole class of problems for closed and open
shells with variable parameters in one direction [40, 44, 43],
In addition to the method of integral relations, another method used for solving twodimensional problems in shell theory is the method of straight lines, in which the transition from the two-dimensional to the one-dimensional problem is carried out by means of a
finite-difference approximation with respect to one variable, The resulting boundary-value
problem for a system of ordinary differential equations can be solved numerically, This approach was used by Ya. M. Grigorenko and A, I. Shinkar' [45, 43] to calculate noncircularcylinder shells and shells of revolution with variable parameters in two directions,
N. P. Fleishman and Ya. G. Savula [113, 112] calculated shells of complicated shape by
the method of reducing a two-dimensional boundary-value problem to a one-dimensional one,
based on the discretization of only the desired components of the displacement vector, without subdividing the region into finite elements, This eliminates the very serious error
introduced into the calculation results by the representation of the shell in the form of a

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collection of elements of specified shape. This approach has been used for solving problems
in the calculation of pipes with an arbitrary curvilinear axis,
The Variation-Difference Method (VDM). The VDM is widely used for solving two-dimensional problems in shell-theory [134, 52]; it is based on a variational formulation of the
problem and the reduction of this formulation by means of a difference approximation to a
variational problem for discrete values of the desired functions at the nodes of the network
region.
The original functional is discretized and replaced with a sum whose minimum condition leads to the solution of a system of algebraic equations for the nodal values.
In comparison with the network method, the VDM considerably simplifies the realization of the boundary conditions, and leads to a well-determined symmetric matrix of coefficients of the system of algebraic equations.
The use of the VDM enables us to avoid a number of difficulties
resulting from the use of the FEM, in particular the cumbersome numerical integration, the
requirement of making the adjacent elements compatible, and the isolation of the displacements
of the shell as a rigid entity [121]. The VDM has been widely used for the calculation of
shells of complicated shape in the works of A, L. Sinyavskii [118] and A, G, Ugodchikov and
his associates [121].
Some comparative estimates of the finite-element method and the variation-difference method are given in V. G. Korneev's study [78],
The Method of R-Functions.
In recent years increasing attention has been given in the
calculation of plates and shells of complicated configuration to the so-called method of Rfunctions, or the structural method, proposed by V. L. Rvachev [108, i01], The essence of
the method consists in the following.
The picture of the desired field depends not only on
the physical laws taken into account by the fundamental differential equations of the corresponding problem but also on the shape of the region and its boundary.
The existence of
geometric information in problems involving the calculation of fields creates specific dif ~
ficulties arising out of the need to take account of this information at the analytic level.
The method of R-functions makes it possible to include the geometric information in the structural formula in such a way as to satisfy the boundary conditions of the problem,
Then we
can use some variational procedure with a numericai realization,
The method of R-functions
has been used for solving problems relating to the flexure of plates with complicated shapes

[101].
4. Nonlinear Problems.
Shells of Revolution under Axially Symmetric Deformation.
In
order to analyze the numerical approaches to the solution of nonlinear one-dimensional problems in shell theory, we shall confine ourselves to considering shells of revolution, which
admit of axially syrmnetric deformation because of special features of the deformation process,
thin walls, and other factors [35].
The Finite-Difference Method.
One of the methods widely used in problems in the theory
of flexible plates and shells is the finite-difference method, in which differential relations are approximated by their finite-difference analogous, and a nonlinear boundary-value
problem is reduced to that of solving a system of nonlinear algebraic or transcendental equations.
M. S. Kornishin [79] investigated in detail the features of the application of the FDM
to the solution of nonlinear problems concerning circular plates and shallow shells of revolution. Questions of the use of finite-difference methods with high accuracy have also been
considered.
For the solution of the systems of nonlinear algebraic equations there has been
proposed an approach to the choice of the initial approximation by extrapolation for other
values of the parameters, which prevents the accumulation of e=rors as the parameter varies,
In the studies of V. I. Feodos'ev [123, 25, 126] the FDM was used for solving a problem
concerning the deformation of a spherical shell under uniform pressure.
The solution of a
problem by the FDM was obtained for the entire interval of variation of the load, including
upper and lower critical values, for different values of the relative deflection.
For fixed
values of the geometry and the load, the FDM yields solutions for the "nonlinear" and "linear"
parts of the shell, which are joined at the common boundary [25], In [126] the method of
difference factorization is used for calculating a nonshallow spherical shell, The solution
found by the FDM is taken as an exact solution and is used as a standard for comparison with
the results of solutions obtained by other methods [123].
The Method of Reducing a Nonlinear Boundary-Value Problem to a System of Nonlinear Equations and a Cauchy Problem.
A number of problems in the theory of flexible shells and plates
can be described by means of nonlinear systems of ordinary differential equations with ap-

887

propriate boundary conditions. These include, in particular, problems relating to the axially
symmetric deformation of circular plates and shells of revolution, The method of reduction
is based on the equivalent replacement of the initial boundary-value problem with a system of
nonlinear algebraic or transcendental equations and a Cauchy problem with an initial value
which is the solution of that system of equations. This yields a system of nonlinear equations which is not given in explicit form but is determined algorithmically. Consequently
the solution of this system is found by means of the discrete analog of Newton's method,
where the derivatives in the Jacobian are approximated by difference ratios and are calculated
from the solutions of Cauchy problems [133, 17, 53],
The reduction method makes it posslbleto find a solution of a nonlinear boundary-value
problem both in the subcritical and in the supercritical region. The difficulties in the
numerical realization of this method are due to the choice of the initial approximation and
the rigidity of the Cauchy problems for the cases of strong boundary and local effects. Using
the reduction method, N. V. Valishvili [17] solve many problems concerning the stressed--deformed state of spherical and conical shells with axially symmetric loading, over their entire
region of deformation, including the limiting values.
The Step Method for Solving a Nonlinear Boundary-Value Problem. V. I. Feodos'ev [123,
124] proposed an approach to the solution of nonlinear problems in shell theory which is
based on the consideration of deformation as a time-variant process. Time is regarded as a
parameter defining the development of the deformations. The static equations of equilibrium
are replaced by equations of motion containing inertial terms. The other relations remain
unchanged, although the functions appearing in them are now also dependent on time, It is
assumed that the forces are given functions of time. In the case of static loading it is assumed that the variation of the forces is proportional to time. By means of the Bubnov-Galerkin method, the problem is reduced to a Cauchyproblem for the coefficients of the desired expansions of the displacements, and these coefficients depend on a time parameter.
The resulting Cauchy problem can be integrated by a stepwise numerical method. On the basis
of this method a spherical cupola can be calculated over its entire region of deformation.
The Linearization Method. The linearization method of solving nonlinear boundary-value
problems [133, 53] is an analog of Newton's method for solving a system of nonlinear equations in the functional space of vector functions of the desired solutions of the nonlinear
boundary-value problem. In this method we carry out the linearization of a system of differential equations and boundary conditions and construct an iterative process for solving
the nonlinear boundary-value problem, for which we are given the initial approximation, and
at each step we solve a linear boundary-value problem. In shell-theory problems a linear
boundary-value problem can be solved by the method of discrete orthogonalization [30],
The previously mentioned method of reducing a nonlinear boundary-value problem to a system of nonlinear equations and a Cauchy problem, as noted in the monographs by A. V. Karmishin
et el. [73], "... has a serious shortcoming due to the properties of problems for shell-type
structures. As a result of this, it is applicable to a fairly narrow class of problems, defined by the characteristic length of the shell, and consequently cannot be used for automating the calculations of shell-type structures." The reason for this is apparently that in
the solution of Cauchy problems, owing to their nonphysical nature, there may arise difficulties caused by the rigidity of the system of differential equations, To solve rigid
Cauchy problems, we must use special methods which entail additional computational difficulties. In these cases it is found that for the solution of nonlinear boundary-value problems
it is more effective to use iterative processes such that at each step we solve a linear
boundary-value problem which admits of a solution by some stable numerical method of factorization, when in its realization the process of solving the Cauchy problems in bounded intervals of integration is stable [73, 36, 53]. The above-mentioned process of linearization
with the use of the discrete-orthogonalization method is one method of this kind. Using such
an approach, V. I. Myachenkov and A. I. Frolov [73, 36, 88] solved a number of nonlinear
problems for shells of revolution in the subcritical region,
Ya. M. Grlgorenko and N. N. Kryukov [48, 53] gave a generalization of this approach to
the case of solving nonlinear problems for shells of revolution over the entire region of
deformation, including the limiting values of the load. This approach is based on regarding
the load as components of the desired vector function, which depends on the characteristic
parameter, where the parameter selected is the maximum value of the deflection. This transformation enables us to obtain a uniquely defined process for constructing the relation between loading and deflection.
888

The Method of Parametric Continuation of the Solution,

In solving nonlinear boundaryvalue problems for systems of ordinary differential equations by the method of reduction to
nonlinear equations and a Cauchy problem or by the method of linearization, we sometimes
encounter difficulties caused by the choice of the initial approximation to ensure convergence of the iterative process.
One way of overcoming these difficulties is to use the method of parametric continuation [133, 53].
In this method, instead of the original nonlinear
boundary-value problem, we consider a boundary-value problem containing a parameter, so that
at its initial value the solution of the problem is known and at the maximum value of the
parameter the boundary-value problem is equivalent to the original one, Thus, the desired
vector function can be regarded as a function of the parameter, and this enables us to formulate the Cauchy problem for the desired vector function on the basis of the parameter.
This is achieved by differentiating with respect to the parameter the system of equations
we have obtained.
The solution of the Cauchy problem can be found directly by integrating
the system of differential equations by some numerical method, or else we can use a discrete
method for its solution, solving the nonlinear boundary-value problem at each step, for example
by the linearization method.
In this connection I. I. Vorovich [21] believes that the method
of parametric continuation can be treated as a variant of the step method proposed by V. I.
Feodos'ev [123, 124]. If the load is used as the parameter, then in solving the problem we
find the value of the desired vector function for some range of this parameter,
I. I. Vorovich and V. F. Zipalova [21] showed that the method of parametric continuation
enables us to obtain by computer the numerical value of any functional of the solution when
the problem is solved by the direct method in high approximations.
The method is illustrated
by using the solution of a problem concerning the action of a uniform pressure and a concentrated load on a spherical cupola.
In [22, 23] I, I. Vorovich and N, I, Minakova, using
the method of parametric continuation of the solution and the Bubnov-Galerkin procedure,
obtained the solution of a problem concerning the deformation of a nonsha!low spherical shell,
They established the limits of applicability of the results of the calculations performed for
shallow shells.
The method of parametric continuation was used in combination with the method of linearization and discrete orthogonalization by A. N. Frolov and T. I. Khodtseva to investigate
the supercritical deformation of shells of revolution [127].
The development of this approach is given in a study by S. A. Kabrits and V. F. Terent'ev [68]. Problems concerning
the deformations of toroidal and spherical shells have been solved by this method [127, 68],
E. I. Grigolyuk and V. I. Shalashi!in [37] proposed special forms of the process of continuous and discrete parametric continuation of the solution which have some advantages in
their algorithms.
Using this approach, V. I. Shalashilin [132] solved a problem on the deformation of part of a closed circular-toroidal shell acted upon by a uniform pressure and
demonstrated the process of formation of a depression at the top of the torus. Ya. M, Grigorenko and N. N. Kryukov [47, 53] used the method of parametric continuation of the solution to
solve a problem concerning the deformation of an annular plated acted upon by a transverse
contour load and investigated the process of solving the problem as the parameter varies.
A. V. Korovaitsev [81, 82], using a direct transition to the Cauchy problem and applying the
parametric-continuation method [133], obtained the solution of a problem concerning the deformation of nonshallow spherical shells.
The question of the formulation of the boundary
conditions at the top of the shell was investigated.
It should be noted that the method of
parametric continuation of the solution requires a large amount of computation, since a nonlinear boundary-value problem is solved at each step [133, 53].
Numerical Methods Based on Variational Principles,
For the solution of nonlinear shelltheory problems, variational methods are also used in addition to the methods listed above,
M. S. Kornishin [79] and B. Ya, Kantor [69] made extensive use of Ritz's method for solving
this class of problems.
In the realization of this method, a procedure reducing the original
variational problem to a system of nonlinear algebraic equations is used; the algebraic system is then solved numerically.
Using the Ritz method and the representation of the desired functions in displacements,
M. S. Kornishin obtained solutions for a number of problems concerning plates and shallow
shells [79]. B. Ya. Kantor, solving nonlinear problems in the theory of shells of variable
thickness, used the variational equations of mixed type proposed by N, A. Alumya~ [4]. He
solved problems concerning the axially symmetric deformation of conical and spherical cupolas
acted upon by forces and temperatures.
One of the fundamental conditions for the effective

889

use of this approach is the automation of the computing process. This approach has been
further developed in the variational-segmental method, in which a variational method is
used for individual segments, after which the joining condition is realized [70].
Some questions of improving the effectiveness of the numerical realization of variational methods and the Bubnov-Galerkin method in solving nonlinear problems in the theory
of plates and shells are discussed in I. V. Svirskii's monograph [116].
We should also mention at this point the survey articles by i. I, Vorovich and N. I.
Minakova [24] and by E. I. Grigolyuk and V. I. Mamai [35], which are devoted to the use
of numerical methods in investigating nonlinear deformations of spherical shells.
5. Nonlinear Problems. Shells of Various Shapes. The solution of two-dimensional
nonlinear problems in the theory of plates and shells entails severe computational difficulties, and therefore even fewer such classes of problems in shell theory than of linear
problems have been brought to numerical realization. Here we shall discuss only a few approaches to the numerical solution of nonlinear problems in shell theory which have been
most widely used for specific calculations.
The Finite-Difference Method. The finite-difference method is widely used for solving
two-dimensional nonlinear boundary-value problems in the theory of flexible shells and plates.
One of the first to investigate the properties of the use of this method in solving nonlinear
problems on the deformation of flexible plates and shells is M. S. Kornishin [79, 80]. He
obtained numerical results for various cases of plate and shell deformatlon~ He considered
questions concerning the realization of the FDM at boundary points and gave an estimate of the
the effectiveness of various methods and of the error in the solutions obtained. He used
computers for solving the systems of nonlinear algebraic equations,
A. S. Vol'mir and A. Yu. Birkgan [14], using the FDM, obtained solutions of a number
of problems on the deformation of flexible plates and shells. The problems were solved on
computers on the basis of the method of successive approximations. The investigators achieved
the necessary accuracy, which was greater than the accuracy of the solutions obtained by variational approaches in cases with a small number of parameters.
The solution of nonlinear problems for shells of complicated shape in the works of V. I.
Gulyaev and E. A. Gotsulyak [59, 34, 26] was carried out by the FDM, using computers, Initially the vector differential relations are replaced with their vector finite-difference analogs,
and then, by projection in a local basis, the transition to scalar relations is made, Such
an approach enables us to eliminate completely the error caused by rigid displacements in approximating the covariant derivative of the vector function, which leads to a much faster
convergence of the solutions of shell-theory problems, In addition to this, we must also note
some other important advantages of the proposed scheme= the validity of the difference relations at the break-points o f t h e middle surface of the shell along the network lines, the absence of any nodes outside the contours, ~nter a l ~ at the free boundary, and the reduction
of the order of differentiation of the functions describing the geometry of the middle surface of the shell. The resulting system of nonlinear difference equations can be solved by
the parametric-contlnuation method [60, i33], using Newton's method for a fixed value of the
parameter. The method has been used for solving problems concerning tube shells with variable
configuration of their cross section and a curvilinear center llne, and also those concerning
toroidal shells made up of skew cylinders.
The Finite-Element Method. The use of the FEM in solving nonlinear boundary-value problems in shell theory leads to a nonlinear system of algebraic or transcendental equations
and its numerical solution. To solve such systems, V. A, Postnov and his pupils [105-107]
propose using various successive-approximation procedures, In particular, for calculating
flexible composite shells (cylindrical and toroidal), the solution of the nonlinear system
of algebraic equations is constructed by the method of iteractions, using the idea of a step
process of loading.
Studies carried out at Gorky University under the direction of A. G, Ugodchikov [121]
dealt with a number of problems concerning the stressed state of thick-walled shells, using
various finite-element schemes in a geometrically nonlinear formulation~. The studies analyzed
the stressed--deformed state of articulated structures of the type of shells with cut-in tubes
and with various kinds of "Inflows," from the standpoints of the theory of thin shells and
the mechanics of a continuous medium.

890

Vo Vo Kabanov and L. P. Zheleznov [66] have developed an algorithm for investigating

the FEM used to obtain the nonlinear deformation of circular-cylinder shells under loads
which are not axially symmetric. The finite element used is a curvilinear quadrilateral.
The system of nonlinear equations is solved by the method of iteractions in combination with
the step method with respect to the loading. The algorithm is realized on a computing complex.
Methods of Reduction to One-Dimensional Problems. In the works of V. V. Petrov [I00,
99], nonlinear boundary-value problems in the theory of plates and shells are solved by the
method of successive loadings. In this method the entire process consists of successive
stages, at each of which we solve a linear boundary-value problem for a small part of the
load, taking account of the internal stresses and deformations known from the preceding stage.
Such an approach enables us to linearize the original nonlinear differential equations and
reduce the problem to the successive solution of linear problems. At each state of loading,
the problem is described by a new calculation system, In this method, when we linearize the
nonlinear operator, we actually use the Frechet derivative. Some mathematical Justification
for this kind of iterative method is given in L. Collatz's book [77]~ The method of succes~
sive loadings and the Vlasov--Kantorovich method have been used in combination for solving a
number of two-dimensional nonlinear problems relating to plates and shells,
This combination of methods is widely used in the works of V. A. Krys'ko [83] for calculating flexible shells with rectangular cross section in the plan view, The process yields
at each approximation a system of ordinary differential equations, which is solved by the
method of auxiliary functions.
Ya. M. Grigorenko and N. N. Kryekov [49-51, 53], in order to solve two-dimensional nonlinear problems in shell theory, used an effective approach based on reducing the two-dimensional problem to a one-dimensional one by the method of straight lines and solving the latter
problem by the linearization method in combination with the method of discrete orthogonalization. This approach has been used for solving'a number of problems relating to the deformation of circular plates and shells of revolution with variable thickness in two coordinate
directions under a load which is not axially symmetric [49-51],
Ya. M. Grigorenko and A. M. Timonin [54, 55] proposed an approach to the solution of
two-dimensional problems concerning the deformation of flexible shells of revolution with
variable parameters along the generator under loads which are not axially symmetric. For
this class of nonlinear problems, using Fourier series in the circular coordinate, it is possible to separate the variables, as in the case of a hinge-supported flexible plate [120],
and reduce the problem to a one-dimensional one, retaining a finite number of terms of the
expansion. The solution of the problem so obtained is found by the method of simple iteration, which makes it possible to separate the entire system of equations into subsystems of
minimal ordera Stepwise loading [55] is used for satisfactory convergence of the process,
Linear boundary-value problems are solved by a stable numerical method [30]. Solutions for
some shells of revolution has been obtained.
V. V. Kabanov used the following approach [67, 66] for investigating the nonlinear deformation of circular-cylinder shells. The desired solution of the original boundary-value
problem for a system of partial differential equations is sought in the form of a series in
trigonometric functions. Using the Bubnov-Galerkin procedure, the two-dimensional problem
is reduced to a one-dimensional one. For each harmonic, we obtain a related system of ordinary
differential equations. This system is solved by a step method with respect to loading, The
nonlinear boundary-value problem is solved by the method of linearization, and the linear
problem is solved by the method of difference factorization. Using the foregoing approach,
the stressed--deformed state of cylindrical shells has been found in cases with loadings
which are not axially symmetric.
6. Conclusion. Summing up our analysis of some approaches to the numerical solution
of linear and nonlinear boundary-value problems in the theory of shells, we note the following fundamental features.
In the numerical solution of linear problems in shell theory, we use essentially methods
which have already been tried and proven. In the case of one-dimensional nonlinear problems,
especially if the solution is found in the entire region of deformation, including the limit
points and branch points [24, 35], the search for the most effective methods of solution is
still continuing. For two-dimensional nonlinear problems, there are a few studies in which
supercritical deformation is investigated~

891

Numerical methods are widely used in the solution of linear problems and nonlinear
problems in the subcritical region.
One characteristic of the numerical solution of problems is that in each of the proposed
approaches there is a tendency to cover a certain class of problems in shell theory and make
effective use of all the possibilities of the numerical solution of the problems of that
class. That is to say, the need to solve individual problems leads the investigator to
search for a class of problems which include the problems originally encountered. Here we
need not as yet raise the question of automating the entire process oY individual stages of
the solution of problems on computers, which requires much more effort and time. As examples
of such approaches, we may cite the solutions of certain classes of shell-theory problems
mentioned in [iii, 71, 2].
The next step in the numerical solution of shell-theory problems may be regarded as being
the creation of partly or totally automated computing complexes for solving certain classes
of problems. As a rule, a totally automated computing complex can be worked out for a more
restricted class of problems. One of its main advantages is that it can be used by unskilled
personnel. For broader classes of problems, the computing complex consists of a standard and
a nonstandard part. The standard part of the complex is fully automated, while the nonstandard part is set up for each subclass of the given class of problems according to the minimal
initial information. Such approaches to the solution of shell-theory problems have been realized in [41, 73, 104].
Further progress in the field of algorithmization, programming, and computer improvement
will lead to the creation of program packages for solving applied problems in broad fields,
including problems in the theory of shells. The packages of applied programs are worked out
on the basis of the modular principle of programing, i.e., representing the entire problem
as the sum total of relatively elementary problems which are independent in some sense. Consequently the entire package consists of individual but interconnected program modules. In
shell-theory problems, packages of applied programs have been formulated in [88, 46, 59].
In the realization of individual programs, computing complexes, and packages of applied
programs for the computerized numerical solution of shell-theory problems, a significant role
is played by the following factors. The effectiveness of constructing an approach to the
solution of the problem depends to a large extent on the rational correspondence between the
class of problems considered and the method chosen for its numerical solution. Sometimes a
failure to take account of some features of the class of problems in question can have a
serious impact on the effectiveness of the approach used. In the practical application of
methods of numerical analysis to the calculation of shell-type structures a major role is
played by the physical interpretation of the results obtained, which is very important in
estimating the reliability of the numerical solution of the problem. Together with many
other inductive methods, the evaluation of the results from the physical point of view sometimes makes it possible to avoid theoretical errors. In the elaboration of approaches to
the numerical solution of shell-theory problems there naturally arises the question of some
optimization of each stage of the solution of the problem, However, in the broad sense, an
optimal or rational approach must embrace the entire calculation process of the solution of
a given class of problems in shell theory, takiBg account of all its stages [85].
Computers can be effectively utilized to solve shell-theory problems only when they are
taken in a rational combination with numerical methods and mathematical models of the classes
of problems under consideration.
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THREE-DIMENSIONAL STATIC PROBLEM FOR AN ELLIPTICAL CRACK IN

AN ELASTIC BODY WITH INITIAL STRESS
UDC 539.3

A. N. Guz' and Yu. V. Klyuchnikov

Within the framework of the formulation of [2, 3], a method of solving three-dimensional
static problems of the mechanics of brittle fracture of materials with initial stress is
proposed [4, 6]. Using this approach, the problem is solved for a circulardisk-shaped crack
in an elastic body with initial stress [5]; the case of an external disk-shaped crack was
considered in [8]. Below, the results outlined in [7], where the inaccuracy assumed in [6]
and elsewhere is eliminated, are used.
Following [7], consider the three-dlmensional static problem for an elliptical crack in
an elastic body with initial stress. In the case where there is no initial stress, analogous
problems were considered in [ii, 13, 14] and elsewhere.
In [13, 14], a more detailed review
and analysis may be found. In investigating problems for materials with an initial stress,
the approaches of [4, 6, 7] are used in combination with the corresponding results of [14]
for transversally isotropic materials with no initial stress.
i.

Formulation of the Problem

A Cartesian coordinate system (y~, y2, y3) is introduced in the initial deformed state,
as well as a rectangular coordinate system (y~, Y2, zi) in the initial deformed state, where
!
q - -

~ = y~n~ ~

(i = I, 2, ~.

(I. 1)

Institute of Mechanics. Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev. Translated from
Prikladnaya Mekhanlka, Vol. 20, No. i0, pp. 22-31, October, 1984. Original article submitted
September 20, 1983.

898

0038-5298/84/2010-0898508.50

O 1985 Plenum Publishing Corporation