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Mobile Broadband
Module 1:
3GPP mobile broadband technologies
Table of contents
1.4.2
1.5. System Architecture Evolution (SAE) and Evolved Packet Core (EPC).......29
1.6. QoS in 3GPP mobile networks.....................................................................35
1.6.1
QoS in UMTS....................................................................................35
1.6.2
QoS in LTE/LTE-Advanced...............................................................40
1.6.3
1.7.2
an assumption that the limited capacity of terminals, the limited bandwidth and
different pricing of the mobile network, makes it necessary to develop new
services tailored to this context. Those may, of course, be built on the
corresponding services of the fixed Internet but will, anyway, be different.
Fact is that the Next-generation Mobile Internet architecture will be
flexible, open, and standards-based. It will facilitate a smooth migration from
existing hierarchical circuit-switched technology to peer-to-peer, packet-switched
networks. These wireless networks of the not-so-distant future will be able to take
advantage of the true peer-to-peer communications technology of IP to deliver
better value to service operators and end users alike (Figure 1.2).
There are four key deliverables that the wireless IP network of the future
must provide:
Superior end-user experience: The network must be customizable, easy to
use, and allow fast access to all services from a single device.
Orderly network migration: There must be a smooth migration path from
existing network protocols to the new wireless IP network, and the new
network must demonstrate superior performance.
Reduced cycle time to commercialize applications: The network must
make Internet applications easy to implement in the wireless world. Thus,
existing services are made immediately available, while new applications
may be made available in the wireless world at the same time or faster
than they are made available to wireline users.
Reduced cost of ownership: The new network must make the business
case for the wireless Internet achievable, particularly for worldwide
operators and service providers.
IndividualsusingtheInternet
80
Fixedtelephonesubscriptions
70
Per100inhabitants
Mobilecellulartelephonesubscriptions
96.8
Activemobilebroadbandsubscriptions
Fixed(wired)broadbandsubscriptions
60
47.2
50
40
43.4
30
14.5
20
10
10.8
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015*
Note:*Es timate
Source: ITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicatorsdatabase
Figure 1.3. Global ICT developments in the 21st century (ITU statistics).
Maximum
uplink bitrate
(Mbit/s)
UMTS/HSPA Release 6
14.4
5.76
21.1
11.5
42.2
11.5
84.4
23
168.8
46
675.2
184
1.2.1 UMTS
The 3G in Europe was named Universal Mobile Telecommunications
Services (UMTS). 3G concepts war developed based on Wideband CDMA
(WCDMA) technologies. WCDMA has been adopted by UMTS as the multiple
access technology and it is also referred to as UMTS terrestrial radio access
(UTRA). In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), each user is assigned a
unique code sequence (spreading code) that is used to spread the information
signal to a wideband signal before being transmitted. The receiver knows the
code sequence for that user, and can hence decode it and recover the original
data. At the same time parallel 3G activities were going on in Japan, in the US, in
Korea, etc. The 3G work in 3GPP is carried out with relevant ITU
recommendations in mind and the result of the work was also submitted to ITU,
to include them to IMT-2000 (that is, 3G mobile networks).
The first main 3G technology developed by 3GPP is UMTS. The UMTS
system utilizes the same well-known architecture that has been used by all main
2G systems (GSM for example). Functionally the network elements are grouped
into the Radio Access Network (RAN, UMTS Terrestrial RAN - UTRAN) that
Node B
RNC
MSC/
VLR
GMSC
Node B
HLR
Node B
RNC
Node B
UTRAN
PSTN,
PLMN, ISDN
etc.
PS domain
GGSN
Internet
GGSN
Other data
network
SGSN
Core Network
External networks
1.2.2 HSPA
The High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) technology is available as a
relatively straightforward upgrade to existing UMTS networks and offers
improved bandwidth to the end-user, improved network capacity to the operator,
and improved interactivity for data applications.
HSPA pushes the data rates up to 12 Mbps in practice and even beyond
3Mbps in good conditions. Since HSPA also reduces network latency to below
100 ms, the end user experienced performance is similar to the fixed line DSL
connections, no or only little effort is required to adapt Internet applications to the
mobile environment. Essentially, HSPA is a broadband access with seamless
mobility and extensive coverage. Radio capability evolution from GPRS to HSPA
is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Higher cell capacity and higher spectral efficiency are required to provide
higher data rates and new services with the current base station sites. Figure 1.7
illustrates the estimated cell capacity per sector per 5MHz with WCDMA, with
basic HSPA and with enhanced HSPA in the macro-cell environment. Basic
HSPA includes a one-antenna Rake receiver in the terminals and two-branch
antenna diversity in the base stations. Enhanced HSPA includes two-antenna
10
equalizer mobiles and interference cancellation in the base station. HSPA can
provide substantial capacity benefit.
12
Regarding the UMTS frequency bands and access schemes there are
Two different operation modes have been standardized for the UTRAN radio
interface:
UTRAN FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) mode;
UTRAN TDD (Time Division Duplex) mode.
Overall, the key benefits of HSPA can be categorized in 3 ways:
Improved speed for end user applications (peak data rates can be
further improved with MIMO techniques),
Improved interactivity for end user applications (low network latency of
60 ms),
13
14
The ITU has set the definition for the next generation mobile networks
referred to as 4G (i.e., fourth generation of mobile systems and networks). They
are targeted to provide higher data rates to mobile users, and therefore can be
referred to as mobile broadband networks and technologies. The requirements
for 4G radio interface are specified in ITU-R report M.2134, and are referred to
as IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced).
Similar approach was used for the definition of the third generation of mobile
networks (the 3G) which was named IMT-2000 (International Mobile
Telecommunications 2000). When 3G was already on the ground, with its first
implementations, the future development of mobile networks (beyond 3G) was
specified in the ITU-R recommendation M.1645.
IMT-Advanced is in fact umbrella specification of all requirements set to a
given mobile system with aim to use 4G label on it (although in practice LTE is
also labeled as 4G technology). So, a mobile network is 4G if it satisfies all
requirements set in IMT-Advanced. There are given several key features for the
IMT-Advanced systems:
High degree of commonality of functionality worldwide while still being
flexible to support different applications and services.
Compatibility of services in IMT environment (i.e., the 4G) and fixed
networks.
Interworking with other radio systems, including previous generations
of mobile technologies (e.g., 3G).
Mobile services with high quality.
Ubiquitous end-user mobile equipment (i.e., mobile terminals).
User-friendly services and applications.
Roaming capability on a global scale (something that is present with
GSM mobile networks of the second generation).
Higher bit rates in the radio interface, which in the time of 4G
development and implementation (2nd decade of the 21st century)
means over 100 Mbit/s for high mobility and over 1 Gbit/s for low
mobility of the users.
In some way to limit different speculations about the expectations from
certain technologies, ITU-R states what is high bit rate in the umbrella
recommendations such as IMT-Advanced (specified to define the requirements
for 4G mobile networks) and previously IMT-2000 (specified to define the 3G
mobile technologies). Then, there are two approaches to increase bitrates:
To increase the spectrum that can be used by the given (4G)
technology,
To increase the spectrum efficiency, i.e., to have more bits per second
per Hertz (bit/s/Hz) in the radio interface.
15
Figure 1.11. Relationship between IMT-2000 and beyond IMT-2000 (i.e., IMT-Advanced).
16
17
Objectives
END USER
CONTENT
PROVIDER
SERVICE
PROVIDER
NETWORK
OPERATOR
MANUFACTURER /
APPLICATION
DEVELOPER
18
19
20
Figure 1.14. 3GPP Architecture Evolution towards SAE (System Architecture Evolution).
21
3GPP Internet Protocol Connectivity Access Network (IP CANs) like GSM EDGE
Radio Access Network (GERAN), UTRAN and Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) and
also the mentioned non-3GPP IP CANs (WLAN, WiMAX and etc.) and even
wired technologies. For more details about EPS (SAE and EPC) see the
following section (section 1.5).
This access independent evolution of the packet core system architecture
is the first major step towards the realization of an All-IP Network and reaching
the point where LTE-Advanced meeting IMT-Advanced. 3GPP has not only
evolved beyond addressing the Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network
(UTRAN) requirements to providing bandwidth intensive services. It has also put
in a significant effort to evolve and simplify the packet core network. Branded as
System Architecture Evolution (SAE), 3GPP has proposed a framework to evolve
the 3GPP system to a higher data rate, lower latency.
In Rel-8, LTE defined new physical layer specifications consisting of an
OFDMA based downlink and SCFDMA99 based uplink that supports carrier
bandwidths from 1.4 MHz up to 20 MHz. Rel-8 defined options for both FDD and
TDD LTE carriers. Rel-8 also defined a suite of MIMO capabilities supporting
open and closed loop techniques, Spatial Multiplexing (SM), Multi-User MIMO
(MU-MIMO) schemes and Beamforming (BF). Because OFDMA and SC-FDMA
are narrowband based technologies, LTE supports various forms of interference
avoidance or coordination techniques called Inter-Cell Interference Coordination
(ICIC).
Finally, Rel-8 provided several other enhancements related to Common
IMS, Multimedia Priority Service, support for packet cable access and service
brokering, VCC enhancements, IMS Centralized Services (ICS), Service
Continuity (SC) voice call continuity between LTE-HSPA VoIP and CS domain
(called Single Radio VCC or SRVCC) and User Interface Control Channel (UICC)
enhancements.
Despite LTE/LTE-Advanced uses a different form of radio interface, using
OFDMA/SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many similarities with the earlier
forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use. Moreover, 3GPP
LTE can be seen for provide a further evolution of functionality, increased speeds
and general improved performance. In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based
network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. There is also no basic provision for
voice, although this can be carried as VoIP.
Let we summarise which new technologies has LTE introduced, when
compared to the previous cellular systems. They enable LTE to be able to
operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also to provide
the much higher data rates that are being required.
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM technology has
been incorporated into LTE because it enables high data bandwidths to be
transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to
reflections and interference. The access schemes differ between the
uplink and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access is used in the downlink; while SC-FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access) is used in the uplink. SC-FDMA is
22
used in view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is small and
the more constant power enables high RF power amplifier efficiency in the
mobile handsets - an important factor for battery power equipment.
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): One of the main problems that
previous telecommunications systems has encountered is that of multiple
signals arising from the many reflections that are encountered. By using
MIMO, these additional signal paths can be used to advantage and are
able to be used to increase the throughput. When using MIMO, it is
necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to be
distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna
matrices can be used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to
a base station, the same is not true of mobile handsets, where the
dimensions of the user equipment limit the number of antennas which
should be place at least a half wavelength apart.
SAE (System Architecture Evolution): As part of the Evolved Packet Core
(EPC). With the very high data rate and low latency requirements for 3G
LTE, it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the
improved performance to be achieved. One change is that a number of
the functions previously handled by the core network have been
transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provides a much "flatter"
form of network architecture. In this way latency times can be reduced and
data can be routed more directly to its destination.
23
Details
100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)
50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)
All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit
switched.
1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20
FDD and TDD
0 - 15 km/h (optimized),
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)
Idle to active less than 100ms
Small packets ~10 ms
Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA
Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA
OFDMA (Downlink)
SC-FDMA (Uplink)
QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)
24
Finally, the LTE Rel-12 and beyond will provide the initial enablers of
meeting these challenging demands as well as a smooth way into the Beyond 4G
era. Rel-12 enhancements focus on the four areas of Capacity, Coverage,
Coordination (between cells), and Cost. Improvements in these areas are based
on using several technology enablers: small cell enhancements, macro cell
enhancements, New Carrier Type (NCT) and Machine-Type Communications
(MTC). Small cell enhancements are also known as enhanced local access. NCT
helps achieve the required changes in the physical layer and initially provides
base station energy savings, flexibility in deployment and ways to reduce
interference in heterogeneous networks (HetNets).Improvements in capacity and
a more robust network performance are achieved by 3D Beamforming/MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output), advanced user equipment (UE) receivers and
evolved Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP) techniques, as well as through SelfOrganizing Networks for small cell deployments. Finally, new spectrum footprint
and new business will be opened up by optimizing the system for Machine-Type
Communications, as well as by, for example, using LTE for public safety.
LTE evolution continues strongly in Rel-12 and beyond by enhancing LTE
and LTE-Advanced operation. Rel-12 features aim at boosting performance and
at entering new areas and spectrum. In the end, the Tables 1.4 and 1.5
summarize the most promising Rel-12 features.
25
Table 1.5. Benefits from 3GPP Release 12 Expand to new areas and new spectrum.
26
Improved radio network coverage as well as spectral efficiency (at the cell
edges and the average one), which is achieved through robust
interference management.
Higher peak user bitrates by incorporation of higher order MIMO in
downlink and uplink (however, MIMO is not exclusively used in LTEAdvanced, but it is also used in LTE and HSPA).
So, there are several important improvements in the radio interface in
LTE-Advanced, which are aimed in fulfilling the goals for higher capacity, better
cost-efficiency and greater flexibility.
Carrier aggregation
Carrier aggregation is considered as one of the main features of the LTEAdvanced for provision of higher bit rates than LTE and for fulfilling the IMTAdvanced requirements for 4G set by ITU. LTE introduced flexible spectrum
allocations by specification of different spectrum bands for the radio interface,
including FDD (Frequency Division Duplex), i.e., paired bands, and TDD (Time
Division Duplex), i.e., unpaired bands. LTE-Advanced provides possibility for
spectrum allocations of up to 100 MHz. That is accomplished by carrier
aggregation of multiple (separate) component carriers on the physical layer, with
allocations of 1.4 MHz, 3 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, and 20 MHz. Maximum
27
28
The 3GPP Rel-8 specified the elements and requirements of the Evolved
Packet System (EPS) architecture that will serve as a basis for the nextgeneration networks. The specifications contain two major work items, namely
LTE and System Architecture Evolution (SAE) that led to the specification of the
Evolved Packet Core (EPC), Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (E-UTRAN), and Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA),
each of which corresponds to the core network, radio access network, and air
interface of the whole system, respectively. The EPS provides IP connectivity
between a User Equipment (UE) and an external packet data network using EUTRAN. In Figure 1.16, we provide an overview of the EPS, other legacy Packet
and Circuit Switched elements and 3GPP RANs, along with the most important
interfaces. In the services network, only the Policy and Charging Rules Function
(PCRF) and the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) are included, for simplicity. In
the context of 4G systems, both the air interface and the radio access network
are being enhanced or redefined, but so far the core network architecture, i.e. the
EPC, is not undergoing major changes from the already standardized SAE
architecture.
29
UTRAN (E-UTRAN) and non-3GPP IP CANs like WLAN, WiMAX and even wired
technologies. This access independent evolution of the packet core system
architecture is the first major step towards the realization of an All-IP Network
and also it is fully compatible with LTE-Advanced, the new 4G technology.
The new SAE network is based upon the GSM / WCDMA core networks to
enable simplified operations and easy deployment. Despite this, the SAE network
brings in some major changes, and allows far more efficient and effect transfer of
30
data. Moreover, there are several common principles used in the development of
the LTE SAE network:
a common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies.
an optimised architecture for the user plane with only two node types.
an all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.
a split in the control / user plane between the MME, mobility management
entity and the gateway.
a radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used
on WCDMA / HSPA.
integration of non-3GPP access technologies (e.g. cdma2000, WiMAX,
etc) using client as well as network based mobile-IP.
The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved
Packet Core. This connects to the eNodeBs. It is also possible that one physical
network element in the EPC implements multiple logical nodes. Also, in Figure
1.17 is given a detail illustration of EPC/SAE architecture.
As seen within the Figure 1.17, the LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core,
consists of four main elements as listed below:
Mobility Management Entity, MME: The MME is the main control node
for the LTE SAE access network, handling a number of features:
o Idle mode UE tracking
o Bearer activation / de-activation
o Choice of SGW for a UE
o Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location
o Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and
implements roaming restrictions
o It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS)
o Provides temporary identities for UEs
o The SAE MME acts the termination point for ciphering protection for
NAS signaling. As part of this it also handles the security key
management. Accordingly the MME is the point at which lawful
interception of signalling may be made.
o Paging procedure
o The S3 interface terminates in the MME thereby providing the
control plane function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access
networks.
o The SAE MME also terminates the S6a interface for the home HSS
for roaming UEs. It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME
provides a considerable level of overall control functionality.
Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane
element within the LTE SAE. Its main purpose is to manage the user
plane mobility and it also acts as the main border between the Radio
Access Network, RAN and the core network. The SGW also maintains the
data paths between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In this way the
SGW forms a interface for the data packet network at the E-UTRAN. Also
31
when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW
serves as a mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.
PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity
for the UE to external packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry
and exit point for UE data. The UE may have connectivity with more than
one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs.
Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name
for the entity within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the service flow,
enforces charging policy. For applications that require dynamic policy or
charging control, a network element entitled the Applications Function, AF
is used.
32
33
As shown in Figure 1.19, both the S-GW and P-GW are built on core
routing and switching technologies supporting the Layer 2 and Layer 3 suite of an
All IP Network. Transfer of data in control plane (i.e., signalling) and user plane
(e.g., web, email, voice, etc.) is done through use of tunnelling protocols based
on GTP (GPRS Tunnelling Protocol) and SCTP (Stream Control Transmission
Protocol) for reliable IP-based signalling.
34
Some of the most important attributes that defines Radio Access Bearer
Service are (given in Figure 1.20):
Traffic class (conversational, streaming, interactive, background), it is
used to optimise the transport for that traffic type.
Maximum bit rate it is used to limit the delivered bit rate to applications
or define maximum desired RAB bit rate for applications able to work with
different bit rates.
Guaranteed bit rate it can be used to facilitate admission control based
on available resources, and for resource allocation within UTRAN.
Delivery order - indicates whether the UMTS bearer shall provide insequence SDU delivery or not and specifies if out-of-sequence SDUs are
acceptable or not.
Maximum SDU size - maximum packet size that can be delivered at the
radio interface.
SDU format information. This is the list of possible exact sizes of SDUs.
Delivery of erroneous SDUs. This indicates whether SDUs detected as
erroneous will be delivered or discarded.
Transfer delay. The attribute is used to specify the delay tolerated by the
application and allows UTRAN to set transport formats and ARQ
(Automatic Repeat Request) parameters.
36
MT
UTRAN
CN Iu
edge node
UE
CN
Gateway
TE
Core Network
End-to-end service
Local bearer
service
External bearer
service
Iu bearer
service
UTRA FDD/TDD
service
Physical bearer
service
Core Network
bearer service
Backbone
bearer service
Since the end-to-end path extends across different system levels each
having their own QoS properties, the QoS is handled and split in different parts
taking into account the special characteristics of each component
The layered architecture of a UMTS bearer service is depicted in Figure
1.21. The end-to-end service used by the TE (Terminal Equipment) will be
realised using a TE/MT Local Bearer Service, a UMTS Bearer Service, and an
External Bearer Service.
QoS differentiation becomes useful for the network efficiency during high
load when there are services with different delay requirements. The qualitative
gain of the QoS differentiation is illustrated in Figure 1.22. Considerable
efficiency gains can be obtained just by introducing a few prioritisation classes
(Step 2) within interactive or background class by using allocation and retention
parameters, ARP.
37
Conversational
Conversational
Conversational
Streaming
Streaming
Streaming
Interactive
Interactive
Interactive
10
Background
ARP=1
ARP=2
ARP=3
ARP=1
ARP=2
ARP=3
ARP=THP=1
ARP=THP=2
Prioritization
ARP=THP=3
ARP3
Figure 1.23. Example ten categories by taking a subset of UMTS QoS classes.
38
VoIP
Streaming
Push-to-talk
Browsing
MMS
Best-effort RAB
Internet access
Figure 1.24. No QoS differentiation all services use the same QoS parameters.
VoIP
Streaming
Push-to-talk
Guaranteed bitrate
conversational RAB
Guaranteed bitrate
streaming RAB
Interactive RAB,
THP=ARP=1
Browsing
MMS
Internet access
Interactive RAB,
THP=ARP=3
Background RAB
Figure 1.25. QoS differentiation with two guaranteed bit rate classes and three classes
for non-real time prioritization.
Figure 1.26 illustrates the mechanisms to define the QoS parameters in radio
access bearer set-up.
1. The UE can request QoS parameters. In particular, if the application
requires guaranteed bit rate streaming or conversational class, it has to
be requested by UE, otherwise, it cannot be given by the network.
2. The Access Point Node (APN), in GGSN can give QoS parameters
according to operator settings. Some services may be accessed via
certain APNs. That allows the operator to control the QoS parameters
for different services and makes it also possible to prioritize operator
hosted services compared to accessing other services.
39
Figure 1.26. The role of UE, GGSN and HLR in defining QoS class.
40
Priority
Delay
budget
Loss
rate
Example
application
GBR
100 ms
10-2
VoIP
150 ms
10-3
Video call
300 ms
10-6
Video streaming
50 ms
10-3
Real-time gaming
100 ms
10-6
IMS signaling
100 ms
10-3
300 ms
10-6
TCP applications
(web, email, p2p file
sharing, http video,
chat, buffered video
streaming, etc.)
QCI
1
Non-GBR
41
Traffic Class
Bearer type
Traffic Handling Priority
SDU error ratio
L2PLR
Residual bit error ratio
Max bit rate for uplink
MBR
Max bit rate for downlink
ARP
ARP
Not applicable
Delivery order
Delivery order
Transfer delay
L2PDB
GBR
Not applicable
AMBR
42
43
LTE
HSPA+
3GPP2
MDN
802.11
HSPA
TDSCDMA
Non-3GPP
Defined
Radio
Accesses
802.16
IP Multimedia
Subsystem
3GPP
WCDMA
Defined
Radio
EDGE
Accesses
(packet-based)
GPRS
xDSL
Cable
Fixed
Accesses
Fiber
44
IPTV, VoD and many other Internet multimedia services rely on IMS. For more
details on IMS in NGN one may refer to ITU-T Rec. Y2211.
For nowadays and future Internet users, IMS-based services enable
person-to-person and person-to-content communications in a variety of modes
including voice, text, pictures and video, or any combination of these in a highly
personalized and controlled way. The user can connect to an IMS network in
various ways, most of which use the standard Internet Protocol (IP). IMS
terminals (such as mobile phones, computers, lap-tops, etc.) can register directly
on an IMS network, even when they are roaming in another network or country
(the visited network). Fixed access (e.g., Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable
modems, Ethernet), mobile access (e.g. W-CDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS,
EDGE, LTE) and wireless access (e.g. WLAN, WiMAX) are all supported by IMS
and of course in Future Internet. Other phone systems like plain old telephone
service (POTSthe old analogue telephones), H.323 and non IMS-compatible
VoIP systems, are supported through special gateways.
For operators, IMS takes the concept of layered architecture one step
further by defining a horizontal architecture, where service enablers and common
functions can be reused for multiple applications. The horizontal architecture in
IMS also specifies interoperability and roaming, and provides bearer control,
charging and security. What is more, it is well integrated with existing voice and
data networks, while adopting many of the key benefits of the IT domain.
This makes IMS a key enabler for fixed-mobile convergence and it is
integral part of Future Internet architecture. For these reasons, IMS is becoming
preferred solution for fixed and mobile operators. IMS enables services to be
delivered in a standardized, well-structured way that truly makes the most of
layered architecture. At the same time, it provides a future-proof architecture that
simplifies and speeds up the service creation and provisioning process, while
enabling legacy interworking.
The horizontal architecture of IMS enables operators to move away from
vertical stovepipe implementations of new Internet services eliminating the
costly and complex traditional network structure of overlapping functionality for
charging, presence, group and list management, routing and provisioning.
For fixed and mobile operators there are benefits of introducing the IMS
architecture today. On longer term, IMS enables a secure migration path to an
all-IP architecture that will meet end-user demands for new enriched services.
According to said above, IMS provides a very good fit with the user and
operator requirements outlined and will therefore be the natural technology
solution and undoubtedly a key platform for Future Internet and Mobile
Broadband. It provides an open, standardized way of using horizontal, serviceoriented, layered network architecture.
45
servers to execute value-added services for the user. Generic service enablers
as defined in the IMS standard (such as presence and group list management)
are implemented as services in a SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) Application
Server (AS). SIP Application servers (AS) host and execute services, and
interface with the S-CSCF using Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). An example of
an application server that is being developed in 3GPP is the Voice Call Continuity
function (VCC Server). Depending on the actual service, the AS can typically
operate in SIP proxy mode or SIP UA (user agent) mode. An AS can be located
in the home network or in an external third-party network. If located in the home
network, it can query the HSS with the Diameter protocol messages (for a SIPAS).
The control layer comprises network control servers for managing call or
session set-up, modification and release. The most important of these is the
46
CSCF (Call Session Control Function), also known as a SIP server. There are
three types of CSCF servers: Proxy-CSCF (P-CSCF), Serving-CSCF (S-CSCF)
and Interrogating-CSCF (I-CSCF):
Proxy-CSCF (P-CSCF) is the first contact point for the User Equipment
(e.g., mobile terminal, fixed terminal) within the IMS.
o It acts as a SIP proxy and it interacts with the admission control
subsystem to provide authorization only of media components that
can be provided with appropriate QoS level.
o P-CSCF should not modify SIP messages for session initiation.
o The P-CSCF may also behave as a user agent.
o This entity is also an endpoint of security associations between the
IMS and the UE (with IMS capabilities), with aim to maintain
confidentiality of SIP sessions.
o The P-CSCF for a given terminal can be located in a home network
or in a visited network (when its IP address is assigned locally in
the visited network based on certain roaming agreement between
the operators).
S-CSCF is the central node of the signalling plane. It is a SIP server, but
performs session control too. It is always located in the home network. It
uses Diameter-based interfaces to the HSS to download user profiles and
upload user-to-S-CSCF associations (the user profile is only cached
locally for processing reasons only and is not changed). All necessary
subscriber profile information is loaded from the HSS.
o It handles SIP registrations, which allows it to bind the user location
(e.g. the IP address of the terminal) and the SIP address.
o It sits on the path of all signaling messages of the locally registered
users, and can inspect every message
o It decides to which application server(s) the SIP message will be
forwarded, in order to provide their services.
o It provides routing services, typically using Electronic Numbering
(ENUM) lookups.
o It enforces the policy of the network operator.
o There can be multiple S-CSCFs in the network for load distribution
and high availability reasons. It's the HSS that assigns the S-CSCF
to a user, when it's queried by the I-CSCF. There are multiple
options for this purpose, including a mandatory/optional capabilities
to be matched between subscribers and S-CSCFs.
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49
50
51
Mobile broadband Internet after 4G will continue with the next generation,
called 5G, which is currently in the research phase (first technologies should
appear around 2020).
However, the question is whether 5G will be just an evolution of 4G, or the
new mobile broadband technologies will cause significant disruption that will
require full rethinking of mobile principles.
Overall, the 5G mobile network concept can be foreseen as user-centric
concept, instead of operator-centric in 3G or service-centric concept in 4G.
One may expect that the terminals will have access to different
wireless technologies at the same time and the mobile terminals
should be able to combine different flows from different access
technologies (i.e., heterogeneous networks),
to obtain very high bitrates (e.g., 10 times higher rates for individual
users than those in 4G, and 1000 times higher aggregate bitrates).
While in 4G there are delays in the mobile networks (including core
and access) in the range of 10ms, it is expected that the delay in 5G
mobile networks will be pushed down to 1ms (providing basis for socalled tactile Internet).
So, like previous generations, 5G is expected to be a set of evolved
network technologies. But 5G aims to provide unlimited access to information
and the ability to share data anywhere, anytime by anyone and anything for the
benefit of people, businesses and society. The exact performance levels and
requirements that systems and equipment will need to meet to label themselves
5G are yet to be defined. The standardization activities are expected to start
around 2016, leading to commercial availability of equipment and devices
sometime around 2020.
Simply said 5G is the next chapter of telecom networks designed to meet
a more advanced and more complex set of performance requirements. But 5G
represents a new way of thinking. It encompasses innovative network design for
deploying machine-type communication (MTC). And 5G networks will be able to
efficiently support applications with widely varying operational parameters,
providing greater flexibility to deploy services. As such, 5G is an important
enabler of the Networked Society. Moreover, in contrast to previous generations,
5G is much more than another new set of technologies that will require massive
equipment upgrades. The aim of 5G is to build on the maturity that telecom
systems have already reached; 5G will bring the evolved versions of existing
radio-access, cloud and core technologies together with some new
complementary technologies, to cater for more traffic, more devices and more
types of devices, with different operating requirements and thousands of different
use cases. Figure 1.31 shows the estimated performance levels that 5G
technologies will need to meet in comparison with todays levels.
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In that way, regarding the 3GPP developments towards 5G, the Figure
1.32 outlines the potential standards path towards the 5G era. However, we can
clearly said that, for the first time in history LTE has brought the entire mobile
industry to a single technology footprint resulting in unprecedented economies of
scale. After the initial LTE Release, work in 3GPP has been centered on the
following strategic areas:
Enhancing LTE radio standards to further improve capacity and
performance;
Enhancing system standards to make LTE and EPC available to new
business segments;
Introducing improvements for system robustness, especially for
handing exponential smart phone traffic growth.
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The LTE already has a Small Cell concept defined in Release-12, that is
optimized as much as technologically possible for the current bands. A potential
enhancement being discussed for Release 13 is to make LTE suitable for
unlicensed spectrum bands. Whilst the exact nature and focus of this work is still
under discussion, it is clear that such an enhancement would provide further
means to deal with the traffic load.
To further boost the capacity of dense areas it is expected that new
licensed spectrum bands (in particular in higher frequency bands up to ~1 GHz
carrier bandwidth) will also be needed. Initial research shows that such high
frequency bands might require a new radio waveform, a new radio technology. It
is yet unclear when/whether/where the standardization of such a new radio will
be undertaken. Nonetheless, the earliest such work is expected to be potentially
initiated in 3GPP is around the 2016 timeframe.
For the currently available bands LTE is very close to reaching the
technologically possible efficiency limits. Hence, it is expected that LTE will
remain as the baseline technology for wide area broadband coverage also in the
5G era. 3GPP will continue working on enhancing LTE not only from the radio
perspective, but also from service delivery perspective (e.g. making it more
suitable for M2M, that is Machine-to-Machine communication). Consequently,
interworking with LTE will remain to be a critical factor.
History has shown that the mobile industry undergoes a major technology
shift roughly once every 10 years. There are vast arrays of technology
developments on the horizon and that demand for these is greater than ever. The
global footprint, and the success, of 3GPP standards will continue to put
pressure on the Project to get new specifications out in a timely manner. To
achieve this, intensified industry collaboration becomes more important than ever
before. As we add 5G discussions to the mix, we will have plenty to keep us busy
in 3GPP for the foreseeable future.
Moving forward, 3GPP focuses on many rich new Rel-13 features. For
LTE-Advanced, Rel-13 supports Active Antenna Systems (AAS), including
beamforming/MIMO and Self-Organizing Network (SON) aspects, enhanced
signaling to support inter-site Coordinated Multi-Point Transmission and
Reception (CoMP), CA enhancements to support up to 32 component carriers
and Dual Connectivity enhancements to better
support multi-vendor
deployments and improved traffic steering. Improvements in RAN sharing are
also being worked as part of Rel-13. Rel-13 continues work from Rel-12 on
enhancements to MTC. Also currently being considered in Rel-13 are: Licensed
Assisted Access for LTE (LAA-LTE) in which LTE can be deployed in unlicensed
spectrum; LTE Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) Aggregation (LWA) where
Wi-Fi can now be supported by a radio bearer and aggregated with an
LTE radio bearer; and Downlink (DL) Multi-User Superposition Transmission
(MUST) which is a new concept for transmitting more than one data layer to
multiple users without time, frequency or spatial separation. For HSPA+, the
main Rel-13 items being considered are enhancements for reducing control
channel overhead and support for dual band UL Carrier Aggregation. With
respect to network-related services, Rel-13 introduces Wi-Fi integration
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Figure 1.33. Global LTE Network Growth & Forecast, Year End 2009-2019
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56
From the Internet technologies viewpoint, one may expect that 5G will be
primarily IPv6 networks.
M2M (Machine-to-Machine) and D2D (Device-to-Device) services are
foreseen types in future 5G. Coupling M2M and 5G will provide practical
implementation of Internet of Things (IoT) concept (or Internet of Everything).
ITU-R has started a programme titled IMT for 2020 and beyond in 2012,
which marked the start of 5G research activities on a global scale.
Finally, the whole process regarding the 5G should be completed in 2020
with a new ITU-R Recommendation, called IMT-2020, that shall contain detailed
specification for the requirements for 5G.
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The spectrum continues to be one of the most important issues facing the
industry. There are two issues to consider. One is the limited amount of spectrum
available to support this dynamic industry and the other is how the industry is
responding to take advantage of available technology.
Given that spectrum is a limited resource, the industry is undertaking the
following initiatives to leverage all available spectrum:
Increasing the spectral efficiency of technologies to continually increase
the bits per second of data bandwidth for every available Hertz.
Adapting specifications to enable operation of UMTS-HSPA and LTE/LTEAdvanced in all available bands.
Designing both FDD and TDD versions of technology to allow operation in
both paired and unpaired bands.
Designing carrier aggregation techniques in HSPA+ and LTE-Advanced
that bonds together multiple radio channels (both intra- and interfrequency bands) to improve both peak data rates and efficiency.
Deploying as many new cells (large and small) as is feasible.
It might be thought that new technologies such as small cells and smart
antennas would obviate the need for spectrum. These technologies, however,
are already on the roadmap for 3GPP evolution and, by themselves, do not
sufficiently increase capacity to meet growing demand.
ITU World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC), held every three
or four years, are mandated to review and revise the Radio Regulations, the
international treaty governing the use of radio-frequency spectrum (spectrum
management) and satellite orbit resources. The agenda of a world radiocommunication conference may include any other question of a worldwide
character within the competence of the conference.
The WRC for 2012 took place in Geneva, Switzerland, from 23 January up
to 17 February 2012, and was triggering event for the radio communication world
and the frequency management sphere. The unprecedented number of
proposals (more than 1700) addressing the various items on the WRC-12
agenda cover almost all radio services and applications, and illustrated the
importance of this conference to governments and businesses.
At WRC-07, the band 790862 MHz was allocated to the mobile service in
Region 1 (Africa and Europe), complementing previous allocations to that service
in Regions 2 (Americas) and 3 (Asia and Australasia), and was identified for
international mobile telecommunications (IMT) worldwide. At that time, concerns
were raised about the protection of services (mainly broadcasting and
aeronautical radionavigation services) that were already allocated in this
frequency band in the event that neighbouring administrations would implement
mobile service.
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amount of spectrum allocated for IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced, for the years
2010, 2015 and 2020 depending on the market development status: lower
market setting vs. higher market setting. The ITU recommendation classifies the
spectrum requirements by Radio Access Technology Group (RATG). RATG 1
covers pre-IMT and IMT, as well as enhancements to IMT, and RATG 2 is
comprised of IMT-Advanced. In Table 1.8 the ITU Recommended spectrum
allocation for deployment of IMT & IMT-Advanced technologies is given.
Table 1.8. ITU Recommended Spectrum Allocation for Deployment of IMT & IMTAdvanced Technologies (source: ITU-R M. 2078)
For the preparation of WRC-15 agenda item 1.1, Resolution 233 (WRC12) invited ITU-R to study additional spectrum requirements for International
Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) and other terrestrial mobile broadband
applications. Previously, ITU-R estimated the spectrum requirements for IMT in
the preparatory studies for WRC-07, the results of which are documented in
Report ITU-R M.2078. Since the approval of Report ITU-R M.2078 in 2006, there
have been significant advances in IMT technologies and the deployment of IMT
networks. Further, traffic growth in different mobile telecommunication markets,
including those of IMT networks, has been shown in Report ITU-R M.2243.
Taking into account these recent trends, Report M.2290 provides the
results of new studies on estimated spectrum requirements for terrestrial IMT in
the year 2020. In order to reflect the advances in technologies and the
deployments of IMT networks, the spectrum requirements are calculated using
the updated methodology in Recommendation ITU-R M.1768-1. Furthermore,
input parameter values to be used in this methodology have been updated from
those employed in Report ITU-R M.2078 in order to reflect the recent
developments in mobile telecommunication markets. It should be noted that the
updated radio aspect parameters used in the methodology are contained in
Report ITU-R M.2289.
Recommendation ITU-R M.1768-1 uses the radio access technology
(previously technique) group (RATG) definitions from Report ITU-R M.2074,
which are summarized in Figure 1.35.
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61
The total spectrum requirements for both RATG 1 (i.e. pre-IMT, IMT-2000,
and its enhancements) and RATG 2 (i.e. IMT-Advanced) in the year 2020 are
estimated using the two different settings in order to reflect differences in the
markets and deployments and timings of the mobile data growth in different
countries. The estimated total spectrum requirements for both the RATGs 1 and
2 are 1 340 MHz and 1 960 MHz for lower user density settings and higher user
density settings, respectively.
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Abbreviations
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
3G Third Generation
4G Fourth Generation
5G Fifth Generation
AAA Authentication, Authorization, Accounting
AP Access Point
API Application Programming Interface
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
BTS Base Transceiver Station
CC Cloud Computing
DFS Distributed File System
DNS Domain Name System
ET Emergency Telecommunications
FI Functional Interface
HA Home Agent
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
I/O Input/Output
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ID Identifier
IP Internet Protocol
IPv4 (IP version 4)
IPv6 (IP version 6)
ISP Internet service provider
IT Information Technology
LAN Local Area Network
LTE Long Term Evolution
MCC Mobile Cloud Computing
P2P Peer-to-Peer
QoS Quality of Service
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SLA Service Level Agreement
URI Uniform Resource Identifier
VoIP Voice over IP
VPN Virtual Private Network
WAN Wide Area Network
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WiFi Wireless Fidelity
WRC World Radiocommunication Conferences
64
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