IOP PUBLISHING

JOURNAL OF PHYSICS G: NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYSICS

doi:10.1088/0954-3899/40/5/055201

J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 40 (2013) 055201 (10pp)

A heuristic approach to the detection of solar

neutrinos
G Nicolescu
Horia Hulubei National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, POB MG-6,
077125 Magurele, Romania
E-mail: gnico@nipne.ro

Received 19 April 2012

Published 28 March 2013
Online at stacks.iop.org/JPhysG/40/055201
Abstract
In this paper we consider the coherent scattering of the solar neutrino flux
off target matter in a terrestrial detector. We propose a heuristic approach
that targets the apparent abnormal neutrinos scattering on high Debye
temperature monocrystals. The possibility of observing the diurnal effect
of solar neutrinos using the presumed coherent scattering on high Debye
temperature monocrystals, such as sapphire, is presented and discussed. A
Cavendish-type torsion balance is used for the measurement of the presumed
neutrino-induced torques. An effect correlated with the direction of the sun was
observed.

1. Introduction
The neutrino flux interacts with a crystal through the weak force. This situation is different if
compared with the strong force (neutrons) or electromagnetic force (electrons, x-rays, etc). If
the scatterer sites can be identified by measurement following the scattering of one particle,
coherence is lost. If the momentum exchange modifies the quantum state of the scatterer, or
excites phonons, a study of these would reveal the scattering site.
Concerning the weak force, we must note the three basic assumptions of Webers
theory [1]:
1. The sign of the interaction is the same in all volume elements. For the neutrino field, the
universal Fermi interaction has the same sign for all particles of the solid.
2. The ensemble of the crystal consists of highly localized particles which do not, therefore,
have well-defined momenta.
3. The crystal is assumed to be infinitely stiff and recoils as a single entity.
We may infer that this approach could be used for analyzing the weak interaction of a
neutrino flux with a stiff crystal.
Webers theory of weak force coherent scattering [1, 2] suggest that a nearly perfect,
infinite stiff crystal may produce coherent scattering of neutrinos for macroscopic dimensions
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J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 40 (2013) 055201

G Nicolescu

sufficiently larger than the neutrino wavelength. The cross section for neutrino-scattering
could be enhanced by a large factor and the coherent momentum transfer to the crystal as a
whole gives measurable macroscopic forces. Based on different arguments, several authors
such as Ho [3], Bertsch and Austin [4], Buttler [5], Casella [6], Aharonov et al [7], or
Lipkin [8] criticized Webers theory. We have carefully examined their arguments [9, 10]
and we conclude that Webers model of neutrino weak force coherent scattering cannot be
completely excluded. We are not stating that the theory as presented by Weber is complete,
and strict agreement of observation with the theory is not claimed. Considerable refinement
and development of the theory is necessary regarding the arguments of the powerful criticism.
The present experimental results could be a stimulus for more theoretical efforts.
2. Basic theoretical considerations
Suppose that the nuclei of a solid are the scatterers. These may be very tightly coupled to
each other. If the incident particles are neutrinos, the following sorts of process may occur.
All the momentum may be exchanged at a single nucleus. The tight binding of that nucleus
to other nuclei would result in the momentum being quickly transferred to the entire lattice.
(Tight binding implies scatterer quantum states with well-defined positions.) For the single
scatterer momentum exchange, it is only necessary that after scattering the single scatterer
wave function should not be changed so much that its identity may be established by subsequent
measurements. Also, we assume for the weak interaction that the interaction time between the
projectile and a scatterer of the crystal lattice is bigger than the interaction time of scatterers
between each other.
For neutrinos scattering a crystal, interaction can be coherent, meaning that all processes
that are possible within the range of neutrino wavelengths are indistinguishable and their
amplitudes must therefore be summed coherently. The transferred energy and momentum are
distributed in a symmetric way among the scatterers over which coherence goes. Neutrino
scattering with a crystal does not have the ability to resolve down to the scale of the individual
scatterers.
Webers basic argument about an additional phase shift at each scattering site, allowed
by the momentum uncertainty, permitting a systematic and precisely tuned combination of
phase shifts over a large volume, appears to have a low probability. However we may accept
Webers argument as a reasonable working hypothesis for weak interaction of neutrinos with
very stiff crystals. Following our working hypothesis the coherence is extended and permits
that all the target crystal lattice scatterers (very tightly coupled to each other) react as a group
to the collision. The neutrino will see the crystal as a bulk object and not as a lattice of
point-like particles (nuclei). It is essential that internal modes of the crystal are not excited
and the analogy with the Mossbauer effect could be emphasized if we assume strong coupling
of nuclei to each other with no possible way of identifying the scattering site. The narrow
line widths for gamma rays are associated by the Mossbauer effect with the recoil of the
entire crystal implying no phonon excitation. By analogy the recoil of the crystal as a whole
corresponds to the infinite stiffness of the phenomenological theory proposed by Weber.
According to the principles of quantum mechanics, it is impossible to identify which
scatterer the neutrino interacts with and thus it is necessary to sum over all possible
contributions. Considering a neutrino scattering off a bulk crystal (composed of protons,
neutrons and electrons) the scattering amplitude is:
 GF
(1)
M=
[u  (1 5 )u ][ut  (cV t cA t 5 )ut ]
2
t
2

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Where t is all the target constituents and the summation is over all interactions leading to
indistinguishable final neutrino states. The sum is only over half the number of neutrons and,
in the case of e scattering, half the number of electrons. The u,  are the initial and final
neutrino states and ut,t are the initial and final states of the target constituents. GF is the Fermi
weak-interaction coupling constant.
For a charged current cV = cA = 12 (VA structure); for neutral currents cV = (I3 2Qsin2 W)
and cA = I3, where I3 is the particle weak isospin, W the weak mixing angle and Q the particle
electric charge. Coherence implies that all crystal scatterers included in the sum react as a
whole to the collision.
It is possible to explicitly include in (1) the coupling to the different spin statesup or
down, relative to the axis defined by p of the targets scatterers, by adequately replacing
the coupling coefficients cV and cA by:
CL cV +cA and CR = cV cA
so that
1 + 5
1 5
+ CL
cV cA 5 = CR
2
2
and
 GF
(2)
M=
[u  (1 5 )u ][ut  CL (1 5 )ut + ut  CR (1 + 5 )ut ]
2
t
If the summation in (2) contains the same amount of both helicity states of each scatterer, the
axial vector component 5 cancels. For an unpolarized target, the amplitude depends only
on CL + CR = 2cV the vector coupling. This is a unique phenomenon of coherent scattering,
arising from the fact that amplitude is first summed and then squared. We assume the crystal
t )(t ) only differ by factors which can be
to be unpolarized. Then, the terms of |M|2 = (
extracted and squared separately.
For the scattering of low energy neutrinos off bulk crystals, the proton and the electron
neutral current contributions can be neglected. For the neutrons a factor 12 needs to be included
to account for the fact that neutrinos only interact with left handed chirality states. For electron
neutrinos it is necessary to consider the charge current contribution from the interaction with
the electrons, coupling each with a factor 1.
Following a Weber-like calculation, the total cross section for neutrinos flux scattering
off a bulk crystal is:
GF E
(3)
total ( bulk crystal) = 4 4 4 N 2
 c
for N identical scatterers. Equation (3) is the same for both neutrinos and antineutrinos. No
quark model is considered in this calculation.
An ideal crystal must have infinite stiffness for the incident particles flux to be scattered
with the coherent cross section equation (3). By analogy with the theory of the Mossbauer
effect [11, 12] the cross section for a physical crystal approach equation (3) if sufficient
conditions are fulfilled:
The binding energy between the nuclei of the crystalline lattice is high if compared with the
energy of interaction of the incident flux of particles with the scatterers;
The energy of the Debye temperature, kTDebye, is high if compared with the recoil energy
of each scatterer.
We are not stating that the theory as presented is complete, and strict agreement of
observation with the theory is not claimed. Considerable refinement and development of the
theory are necessary, at least to properly consider anisotropy, multiple scattering, and the
effects of crystal imperfections.
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3. Experimental details
Although this theory has been criticized by several authors, the basic arguments of Weber
cannot be completely rejected. Therefore, it is significant and necessary to design and repeat
new experiments for testing Webers potentially important theory and experimental results.
This is particularly true in view of the results of measurements of the flux of solar neutrinos
as well as the uncertain nature of the mass and magnetic moment of neutrinos. Observation
of solar neutrinos directly addresses the theory of stellar structure and evolution, which is the
basis of the standard solar model.
3.1. Earlier experiments
Earlier experiments gave no relevant results for the diurnal force in Webers theory of the
enhanced coherent scattering of solar neutrinos. In [13] the differential rotation of two
torsion balances was observed and measured using a MachZehnder interferometer mounted
inside a vacuum chamber. The torsion was given by a dynamic and original sapphire crystal
arrangement. The differential rotations for two identical torsion balances consisting of two
sapphire crystals suspended side-by-side inside a vacuum chamber was observed. Two shield
crystals were located outside the vacuum chamber and were positioned in such a way that they
would eliminate the neutrino flux on one side of each crystal comprising the torsion balances
at sunrise. The basic hypothesis for this experiment is that nearly all of the incident neutrinos
are scattered through large angles, which allows the use of a shield crystal. The shield crystals
were located 23 cm from the center of the apparatus, assuming that maximum shielding will be
provided only at sunrise when they were along the line of sight to the sun. Some care must be
exercised in the interpretation of such experiments, however, because the starting dimension
for a sapphire crystal to be considered a neutrino shield is not given by Webers theory with
sufficient precision and the observation time interval for the line of sight to the sun is very
short if compared with the observation time interval for the solar neutrinos. (The earth is not an
obstacle for neutrinos as it is for light.) Also, the cross-talking between the two pairs of sapphire
crystals (detectorshield) could be important and this makes the results of this experiment less
clear. In [14] an Eot-Wash continuously rotating torsion balance uses a combination of W
gold coated wires (20 m/80 cm). The torque of the pendulum was monitored by an optical
autocollimator system. The test of the coherent scattering of solar neutrinos with enhanced
cross section was only a by-product of their basic and complex experiments dedicated to new
tests for the universality of free fall. Instead of a sapphire crystal they used a Si crystal. We
could not directly compare this test with Webers result because the test bodies were far from
optimized for testing Webers theory and experiments. The setup used in [15] looks less secure
due to the possible instabilities of the laser. The experiment lasted only one day due to the
lasers bad performance. In [16] a considerably improved torsion pendulum system using an
electronic autocollimator was constructed to measure and monitor the torsion force. Four test
masses were used: two cylindrical sapphire crystals and two hollow cylindrical lead rings.
Two (sapphire crystal-lead ring) dipoles are formed and located orthogonally on a thin circular
aluminum tray. This orthogonal geometry with two dipoles doesnt seem appropriate for
observation of the diurnal effect, because simultaneous and opposite forces may be induced
by neutrinos during the rotation of the earth around its own axis. The torsional effects of
the two dipoles are opposite and may annihilate each other giving a null overall effect, as
observed.
All these experiments gave no relevant results for the diurnal force in Webers theory of
the coherent scattering of enhanced solar neutrinos. But our analysis indicated that the results
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of these experiments could not be considered decisive and do not rule out Webers theory and
experiments.
3.2. Present experiment
By contrast with earlier experimental approaches [1316] we choose to stay very close to the
initial ideas of Weber. For the torsion balance two equal masses with different composition
placed at the ends of a diameter give no observable torques due to gravitational and inertial
forces. This was demonstrated by the Eotvos experiment [17]. However, as suggested by
Weber, the flux of the solar neutrinos could produce torques if the masses have very
different Debye temperatures. Experimentally, we used sapphire (TDebye 1000 K) and
lead (TDebye 100 K). It is not the aim of our experiment to verify Webers experiment using
an original or considerably improved experimental setup. We prepared a robust, simple and
dedicated torsion balance, designed to provide evidence of interacting neutrinos with a force
sensitivity ranging between 105 and 108 dyn, i.e. comparable with those reported by Weber.
The dedicated torsion balance is simple and robust in order to maximize the sensitivity to
neutrino weak interaction over gravitational, temperature and electromagnetic background.
To observe, monitor and measure the torsion we have chosen an electronic high precision
autocollimator system with 0.1 arcsec accuracy and 0.005 arcsec resolution. In this way, the
noise of the swing and wobble modes of the pendulum are minimized while the sensitivity to
balance excursions are maximized, allowing sensitivity better than 107 dyn, if necessary. The
torsion coefficient is determined using Steiners theorem of classical mechanics. The parallel
axis theorem (also known as HuygensSteiner theorem) calculates a new inertia tensor Jij from
an inertia tensor about a center of mass Iij when the pivot point is a displacement a from the
center of mass: Jij = Iij + M(a2 ij aiaj) where a = a1x + a2y + a3z is the displacement vector
from the center of mass to the new axis, and ij is the Kronecker delta. For diagonal elements
(when i = j), displacements perpendicular to the axis of rotation result in the simplified
version of the parallel axis theorem. This version can be used to determine the moment of
inertia of a rigid object about any axis, given the moment of inertia of the object about the
parallel axis through the objects center of mass and the perpendicular distance between the
axes. The experiments based on this theorem gave for the torsion constant an experimental
value of 0.054 dyn cm rad1. The difference between this value and the theoretical one is
less than 1%. Presumably magnetic contamination could induce a repulsive force between
a ferromagnet and a diamagnetic crystal, and an attractive force between a ferromagnet and
paramagnetic impurities. To minimize magnetic effects, no magnetic damping was employed,
and no ferromagnetic materials were used for the construction of the balance.
Our torsion balance, as shown in figure 1, is similar to Webers shown in figure 14
of [18]. The torsion balance is located inside an aluminum and special transparent plastic
vacuum chamber and the suspension fiber is made of gold plated tungsten wire, 100 cm in
length and 25 m in diameter. The chamber is mounted on a special goniometric table. A
line joining the masses has an azimuth of about 90 . The masses of the target (single crystal
of sapphire) and of the dummy (lead) are identical, 25 g. The period of the torsion balance
is about 1140 s. The wire was suspended two months before it was used in the experiment.
So, the drift due to slow release of stress was minimized, but some remnant torsion was still
observed during the experiment. We observed the external torques acting on the pendulum by
measuring the torsion angle with the electronic-optical autocollimator. The raw experimental
data { (t)}, where is the torsion angle and t is the observation time, were continuously
accumulated during several measurement cycles. The actual data of the present experiment
were accumulated in more cycles (between 7 and 20 days for each cycle) during the first four
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G Nicolescu

Figure 1. Schematic of torsion balance, dedicated for observing coherent elastic scattering of solar
neutrinos.

months of the year 2009. The criteria for the selection of the cycles presented in this paper
were: minimum systematic errors and free of accidental noises. For each cycle the sampling
interval was 900 s to suppress the observation of the free oscillation of the pendulum. The
value was established experimentally using 100 s steps in the 1001000 s range. The criteria
for selection of this value were: (1) minimize the noise and (2) the experimental curve must
be as clean as possible.
3.3. Diurnal effect
The possible effect suggested by Webers theory will have a diurnal oscillation due to the
change in sign for the torsion angle as determined by the rotation of the solid Earth around its
own axis. The kinematic scheme of the diurnal effect is presented in figure 2. We shall give
our analysis after presenting the experimental results.
6

J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 40 (2013) 055201

G Nicolescu

Figure 2. Diurnal effect kinematic scheme; The change in sign for the torsion angle as determined
by the rotation of the solid Earth around its own axis.

3.4. Results
The experimental data for the dipole (sapphire crystalPb dummy) are presented in figure 3.
In the same figure the data after extraction of the linear background generated by the remnant
torsion are presented. The laboratory is located in an underground, heavily shielded, former
anti-atomic shelter. The site was sealed during the experiment and the process computer located
in the shelter was remotely controlled by the main computer located in another building. But
the noise due to sources (temperature, magnetic, gravitational, etc) other than the weak force
could not be considered as entirely eliminated. In order to evaluate the magnitude of this
noise we used an alternative (Pb dummyPb dummy) dipole. The evaluation of the noise
due to sources (temperature, magnetic, gravitational, etc) other than the weak force was the
target of the alternative dipole experiment and a sapphire-sapphire dipole was expected to also
react to the weak force. That is why the PbPb dipole (the lowest Debye temperature) was
chosen. The experimental data for the dipole (Pb dummyPb dummy) are presented in figure 4.
In the same figure the data after extraction of the linear background generated by the remnant
torsion are presented. The influence of the diurnal moment associated with the earths rotation
is included in the noise observed by the PbPb dipole. In figure 5 we present the overlapping of
the curves corresponding to the two dipoles. From the results in figure 5 we may consider that
solar neutrinosapphire crystal interaction was apparently observed. For all figures the points
are individual readings. Experimental observation: the sapphire crystal is always pushed away
from the sun. The zero of time in the plots of figures 35 corresponds to 18:16 EET (UTC+2).
Both dipoles were aligned with the local meridian and the sapphire crystal is located at the south
end of the (sapphire crystal Pb dummy) dipole. The geographic coordinates of the laboratory
are: latitude 44 21 0 N, longitude 26 1 0 E WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 84)
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500
[Pb-saphirre] dipole 25g
includes solar neutrinos component

400

torsion angle (arcsec)

300

200

100

0
remnant
torsion

-100
[Pb-saphirre] dipole 25g
linear background of the
remnant torsion extracted

-200

-300
0

1440

2880

4320

5760

7200

8640

10080

Time (min.); 1440 min.=24h

Figure 3. Experimental data for the dipole (sapphire crystalPb dummy); presumable solar
neutrinos signals modulated by the rotation of the solid Earth around its own axis (the change
in sign for the torsion angle).

500
[Pb-Pb] dipole 25g
background includes
all non-neutrinos components

400

torsion angle (arcsec)

300

200
small seismic noise

100

-100
[Pb-Pb] dipole 25g
linear background of the
remnant torsion extracted

-200

remnant
torsion

-300
0

1440

2880

4320

5760

7200

8640

10080

Time (min.); 1440 min.=24h

Figure 4. Experimental data for the dipole (Pb dummyPb dummy); the noise due to sources
(temperature, magnetic, gravitational, etc) other than weak force.

J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 40 (2013) 055201

G Nicolescu

200
small seismic noise

150

[Pb-saphire] dipole 25g

includes solar neutrinos component

torsion angle (arcsec)

100

50

-50

-100

[Pb-Pb] dipole 25g

background includes
all non-neutrino components

-150

-200
0

1440

2880

4320

5760

7200

8640

10080

Time (min.); 1440 min.=24h

Figure 5. Overlapping of the curves corresponding to the two dipoles; the presumable neutrinos
originated signals give the dominant component for the torsion angle in this experiment.

and the altitude above sea level is 78 m. The presumed solar neutrinos originated signals give
the dominant component for the torsion angle in this experiment.
Following [2], the expected force of the neutrinos is a repulsive one of about l06 dyn.
Using our experimental value for the torsion constant, the data imply that a force of
2.4 106 dyn is being observed, apparently due to elastic scattering of solar neutrinos. The
maximum value occurs approximately in a direction normal to the torsion dipole. This value is
fully compatible with the corresponding value from [18]. Also, employing the approximation:


 
2
1
Mc2 kTD
x
FMeV
ZT (1 4 sin W )]
( h4 c5 )1
(4)
E
3 + 2 2 T 2 /TD2
Weber [18] predicted a value of approximately 3 105 dyn/100 g sapphire which appears
to be in fair agreement with our experimental estimation. However, we do not consider this
agreement as a validation of the theory. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to infer that extensions,
revisions and reorganizations of Webers approach may give an acceptable theory for the weak
force interaction in very stiff crystals.

G2w [NT

3.5. Solar neutrinos flux

We assume that the flux calibration of solar neutrinos proposed in [18] is valid, at least
for scaling. Our target sapphire crystal has a mass of 25 g and may be considered to be
practically identical with the 26 g one from [18]. Using this calibration, we obtained a value of
3.8 1010 cm2 s1 for the flux of solar neutrinos at the site of our experiment. This
estimation is consistent with the theoretical evaluations in [19], based on the fundamental
assumption that energy generated in the solar interior by nuclear fusion among light elements
has a rate equal to the measured solar photon luminosity.
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4. Conclusions
For very stiff, nearly perfect sapphire crystals the torques are evident and dominant signals are
correlated with the direction of the sun. The signals are apparently due to coherent scattering
of the incident flux of solar neutrinos. The results are reasonably consistent with Webers
hypothesis of very large cross sections for neutrinos incident on stiff perfect crystals. It
seems to be an acceptable inference that extensions, revisions and reorganizations of Webers
approach may give a reasonable theory for the weak force interaction in very stiff crystals.
Acknowledgments
This project was realized within the grant PN 09 37 02 04. We want also to express our deep
gratitude to Dr M Apostol for his help and continuous interest in realizing this project. The
author is indebted to Dr I Cruceru for bringing this issue to his attention.
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