Fial Thesis Project Document

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
B.Sc. Thesis Project Documentation
Title: Self Controlled Tanker Filling and Water

Feeding Irrigation System with a
Microcontroller- Based Photovoltaic
Maximum Power Point Tracking Control
By:
Members Name:
ID.No.
Assefa Mulatu
....................TCR/1770/02
Ngsty Tadesse
Advisor Name: Ato Kiros Tesfay, Signature _____________

Submission Date: June 22, 2015
B.Sc. Thesis Project
2015
Acknowledgement
We are greatly indebted to our Almighty GOD on His mercy and blessing for making this project
successful.
Secondly, we would like to express our sincere appreciation to our adviser Ato Kiros Tesfaye for
his encouragement, guidance and valuable advices. Without his continued support and valuable
ideas the project has not been accomplished successfully and could not able to report.
Our thank goes further to Ato Alemayehu Tareke who helped us when we found the different
components of our project in implementing of the hardware part.
Finally, we would like to express our thankful to our family and all friends for the opportunity,
support and encouragement to pursue our project.
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Table of Content
Content
Page
Acknowledgement .........................................................................................................................1
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................4
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................5
Abstract............................................................................................................................................6
Chapter One...6
1.
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................7
1.1 Project Background ................................................................................................................7
1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................7
1. 2.1 Unable to Meet the Growing Demand of Food by Our
Population and Also to the World Population.........7
1.2.2 High Labor Cost, Low Water Application Efficiency and High Fuel Cost.........8
1.2.3 Low efficiency of fixed Photovoltaic panel.8
1.3 Objectives of the project ........................................................................................................8
1.4 Motivation...8
1.5 Scope of the project ...............................................................................................................8
1.6 Project Methodology...........................................................................................................9
Chapter Two10
2.
Literature
Review............................................................................................................10
2.1 Solar System and Maximum Power Point Tracking System (MPPT)..10
2.2 PV-Water Pumping System Configuration ......................................................................10
2.3 PV-Irrigation System ...10
2.4 Ethiopias Irrigation Sector and Future Development Potential ..11
2.4.1 Existing irrigation System.13
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2.4.2 Opportunities for Increased Irrigation .........................13

2.4.3 Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia......................14
2.4.4 Challenges to developing Irrigation in Ethiopia....18
2.5 Comparison to Other Pumping Systems...21
Chapter
Three..23
3.
Overall
System
Operation.23
and
Its
3.1 Main System Components and Their Operational Characteristics...24

3.2 Microcontroller Based Solar System and Tracking Mechanism ...44
3.3 Automated Tanker Filling System50
3.4 Automated Irrigation System51
Chapter
Four..55
4. System Simulation, Design and Implementation of Hardware,
Result,
Discussion
and
Cost
Breakdown55
4.1 System Simulation55
4.2 Design and Implementation of Hardware.57
4.3 Result58
4.4 Discussion.........59
4.5 Cost Breakdown60
Chapter
61
Five
5.
Conclusion
Recommendation61
and
5.1 Conclusion61
5.2 Recommendation..62
Coding
..63
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References......................................................................................................
...............68
Appendix.........................................................................................................
...............69
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List of Figures
Fig 1: Overall system block diagram.23
Fig 2: Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)....25
Fig 3: Resistance versus Illumination curve for LDR...25
Fig 4: Temperature sensor (LM35)26
Fig 5: Schematic Diagram of Soil moisture Sensor Unit...........27
Fig 6: Buzzer..28
Fig 7: Microcontroller (PIC16F877A) ..29
Fig 8: Liquid Crystal Oscillator (LCD).32
Fig 9: Basic Working Principle of Solenoid..33
Fig 10: Working Procedure of a typical Solenoid Valve ..34
Fig 11: Typical Relay.........................35
Fig 12: Water Pumping System.....37
Fig 13: Stepper Motor....38
Fig 14: Gear Ratio of Two Gears...41
Fig 15: I/O Connection of Operational Amplifier Chip.42
Fig 16: Electrical circuit representation of a crystal oscillator..........43
Fig 17: Microprocessor Oscillator.43
Fig 18: Connection and Arrangement of Solar cells .....44
Fig 19: Solar Cell, Module and Array...45
Fig 20: Structure of Automatic Solar Tracker...48
Fig 21: Tracking System Flow Chart........50
Fig 22: Automatic Tanker Filling System.51
Fig 23: Automatic Drip Irrigation System.........53
Fig 24: System Simulation.........55
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List of Tables
Table 1: Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia (ha)...15
Table 2: Comparison of Solar-based Pump with Other Types of Pump..21
Table 3: Rating of Used Components and Devices...57
Table 4: Cost Breakdown of the Project....60
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Abstract
Self-controlled tanker filling and water feeding irrigation system with a microcontroller-based
photovoltaic maximum power point tracking control system is a system used in modern
agriculture for further improvement in meeting a growing demand of food by our population as
well as the world population.
For Solar tracking and irrigation controller, we need to measure different parameters i.e.
surrounding temperature, Water Level and Soil moisture. The key objective of this project is to
develop an indigenous, low cost, time based microcontroller based irrigation scheduler. The
current research focuses on precision agriculture, soil conservation and crop irrigation
scheduling, shedding and water quantity control for increasing water use efficiency. The system
is powered by solar system as a renewable energy which uses solar panel module to convert
Sunlight into electricity. The solar panel targets the radiation from the Sun. Other than that, the
solar system has reduced energy cost as well as pollution. There is a need to develop new
indigenous irrigation controller to improve farm productivity and input use efficiency of water
and other nutrients. This system presents the design and development of Irrigation controller
System built around PIC16f877A type microcontroller. The system consists of microcontroller,
LDR, Temperature sensor, Water level sensor, LCD and circuit relay to switch on/off a motor and
different control valves.
In general, the system has three independent sub-systems: Solar energy to electrical converting
system, water pumping system and tanker filling and water feeding system. So, the working
principle of the complete system is an appropriate combination of these subsystems. Here, we
use maximum power point tracking control system in order to improve the efficiency of the
photovoltaic panel and then with the help of solar energy we support the function of the water
pumping system. Then, with the help of the pump, water is conveyed under pressure through a
pipe system to the tanker or to the field where it drips slowly onto the soil through emitters or
drippers which are located close to the plants. Tanker filling system is controlled automatically
from the feedback of the sensors installed in the tanker and water feeding to the field will be
controlled with a similar way using humidity level sensor located in the soil of the field.
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Chapter One
1. Introduction
1.1 project background
Energy is a critical foundation for economic growth and social progress. As economy advances
and human society requires more energy, the lack of fossil energy and its effluence effect on the
environment has given rise to the ever-serious contradiction among energy providing,
environmental protection and economic development. Renewable energy, with the availability of
its renewability and minimum pollution will grow to be an effective and practical choice to
guarantee the future development of the world. The renewable energy sources (solar, wind,
geothermal, hydropower etc.) attract more attention as an alternative energy.
Among the renewable energy sources, the photovoltaic energy has been widely utilized in low
power applications in the world. It is also the most promising candidate for research and
development for large scale users as the fabrication of low cost PV devices becomes a reality.
There are many studies that have been carried out for using photovoltaic as source of energy for
water pumping worldwide, but this technology is still in its infant stage in Ethiopia. On the other
hand most of the studies carried out are not optimal designs. They are mostly concentrated on
efficiency improvement techniques and design based on peak hydraulic energy demand without
considering the variation of solar energy and water requirement with time dynamically.
1.2 Problem Statement

As its knew, in our country there is a low product production capacity of farmers due to the
reason that almost they are not familiar with different modern technologies that can double, triple
or more their product. So, this project goes to solve the problems mentioned below in detail that
cause this low product production capacity of the farmers.
1. 2.1 Unable to Meet the Growing Demand of Food by

Our Population and Also to the World Population
Specially, in our country almost there is no modern agriculture system which can be able to meet
the food demand of our people. This is the main reason that causes difficult living standard. In
Ethiopia, we knew that above 85% of about 80 million people are farmers. So, in order to
improve the life style of the people we should focus on modern farming technology. This could
be achieved if and only if we are not waiting for only annual rain and we use modern irrigation
system.
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1. 2.2 High Labour Cost, Low
Efficiency and High Fuel Cost
Water
2015
Application
Since, there is no modern agriculture system because we are using a man power for almost every
activity in a farm. This leads the farmer to pay high labor cost and there is wastage of man power
that we could use for other activities. As we knew, we Ethiopian have enough water resource and
fertile soil which are comfortable for farming. But, we are not efficiently using these resource
especially water resource. In this day, few modern irrigation systems are using a generator which
consumes fuel energy in order to pump water from water resource. This will have a high fuel
cost.
1.2.3 Low Efficiency of Fixed Photovoltaic Panel

Once the direction of the photovoltaic panel is fixed to some angle, the amount of solar radiation
that comes to the panel is lower when the direction of the sun light is changed. This leads the
system to have limited power output that is less efficiency.
1.3 Objectives of the project

To have modern agriculture and to improve annual production capacity of each farmer
To minimize the man power used, labour and fuel cost of the farmers
To motivate the farmers to be familiar themselves with the different modern agriculture
technologies
To improve the efficiency of photovoltaic pane
1.4 Motivation
Things that motivate us in order to do our project on irrigation that is based on modern
agricultural technologies are the following problems:
Farmers are dependent on the seasonal rain only.

Man power based farming
The use of pumps that use fuel energy which is non-renewable energy and also costly
Farmers are not using the water resource found in Ethiopia
Low annual production capacity which will lead us to scarcity of food
1.5. Scope of the project

In order to achieve this project objective, the following scopes has been covered:
This project will show how we can track the PV-panel, fill the tanker, and feed the field
using two different DC-motors, one for the tracker and one for the pumping water by
having feedback from each sub-systems and microcontroller to control over all
operation of the whole system.
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This project also will apply microcontroller Peripheral Interface Controller

PIC16F877A by using programming language C in mikroC.
The simulation also will be done using PROTEUS by loading the necessary code from
the mikroC to the microcontroller to direct the DC-motors (tracker and pump motors).
This project uses three different sensors (light sensor-LDR, water level sensor, and
humidity sensor) as an input to the microcontroller.
1.6 Project methodologies

This project is done using the following basic procedures and practices in every activity of the
work.
o Literature Reviewing: This includes reading books, journals and documents on related
areas.
o System modelling: it involves formulating the mathematical relationship governing the
system.
o System analysis and simulation
o Simulation: The overall system simulation using PROTEUS, MATLAB software or
POWER SIMULATOR software
o Hardware implementation: Implement the system simulation using hardware components
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Chapter Two
2. Literature Review
2.1 Solar System and Maximum Power Point Tracking
System (MPPT)
Technologies enter a new solar age. For the last few hundred years humans have been using up
fossil fuels that took around 400 million years to form and store underground. We must now put
huge effort, technological and political, into energy systems that use the suns energy more
directly. It is one of the most inspiring challenges facing todays engineers and scientists.
Photovoltaic (PV), is one of the exciting new technologies that is already helping us towards a
solar future. The PV panels are usually mounted on the roof of the house or at a near open area to
face the sun. The custom is to fix these solar modules position angle to the country latitude angle.
If possible, seasonally some people try to adjust the modules direction manually towards the
sun. However, to make solar energy more viable, efficiency of solar panel systems must be
maximized. A feasible approach to maximize the efficiency of solar panel systems is sun
tracking. A solar panel receives the most sunlight when it is perpendicular to the suns rays. This
paper is about moving a solar panel along with the direction of sunlight; it uses a geared motor to
change the position of the solar panel, the motor is controlled by the PIC16F877A
microcontroller, which detects the sunlight using sensors. The objective is to design and
implement an automated, one-axis solar-tracking mechanism using embedded system design
with minimum cost and reliable structure.
2.2 PV Water Pumping System Configuration

In the proposed photovoltaic water pumping system, the solar panels are directly connected to a
DC motor that drives the water pump. For such simplified systems, DC motors and centrifugal
pumps are required, because of their ability to be matched to the output of the solar panels. The
PV pumping system would be applied conveniently to the surface irrigation/open channels/
method and drip irrigation methods, due to power requirement and way of irrigating the crop. On
the other hand surface irrigation method has been commonly functional in Ethiopia.
2.3 PV-irrigation systems

Two different system configurations have been employed within the scope of the project. In the
first case, a solar generator produces electricity to drive a submersible motor pump, which pumps
water into an elevated tank. The tank serves as an energy store and supplies the pressure needed
for the irrigation system. The stored water can bridge periods of low insolation and supplies the
pressure needed for the irrigation system. Pilot plants equipped with a water tank operate at
considerably low system pressures, compared to conventional diesel or petrol pumps. This
presumes, of course, that all components of the irrigation system have been designed for such
low pressures. PVP tank irrigation systems operate at constant pressure of approximately 0.2
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0.5 bar depending on the height of the water tank and with a rather constant water flow.
Irrigation is regulated by hand valves.
One major advantage of solar pumps is that they do not require batteries, which are expensive
and need a lot of maintenance. The maintenance of a PVP irrigation system is restricted to
regular cleaning of the solar modules. Depending on the water quality, the only moving part of
the system, the submersible motor pump, has to be checked every 3 to 5 years. Drip irrigation
saves a considerable amount of water compared to other irrigation techniques.
Furthermore, it has a rather low operating pressure. Both features reduce the energy demand and
make drip irrigation particularly suitable for photovoltaic pumping systems. Unlike other
irrigating processes, drip irrigation is amenable to a continuous supply of water, so the pump can
run incessantly through the entire growing season. Since both the crops water requirement and
the output of the pump are functions of the global radiation, the two systems go hand-in -hand up
to a certain point. However, the output capacity of the PVP must be designed for the maximum
water requirement. On a yearly average, though, each and every difference between the actual
demand and the supply of water detracts from the system's overall degree of utilization. In that
sense, conventional motor-driven pumps are more flexible. The daily output of a motor-driven
pump depends not only on its rated power, but also on the easily adaptable time of operation.
Therefore diesel pumps can cope with most fluctuations of demand.
2.4 Ethiopias irrigation sector and future development

potential
The development of irrigation and agricultural water management holds significant potential to
improve productivity and reduce vulnerability to climactic volatility in any country. Although
Ethiopia has abundant rainfall and water resources, its agricultural system does not yet fully
benefit from the technologies of water management and irrigation. The majority of rural dwellers
in Ethiopia are among the poorest in the country, with limited access to agricultural technology,
limited possibilities to diversify agricultural production given underdeveloped rural
infrastructure, and little to no access to agricultural markets and to technological innovations.
These issues, combined with increasing degradation of the natural resource base, especially in
the highlands, aggravate the incidence of poverty and food insecurity in rural areas. Improved
water management for agriculture has many potential benefits in efforts to reduce vulnerability
and improve productivity. Specifically, primary rationales for developing the irrigation sector in
Ethiopia include:
Increased productivity of land and labour, which is especially pertinent given future
constraints from population growth
Reduced reliance on rainfall, thereby mitigating vulnerability to variability in rainfall
Reduced degradation of natural resources
Increased exports
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Increased job opportunities, and promotion of a dynamic economy with rural

entrepreneurship.
Despite significant efforts by the Government of Ethiopia (GOE) and other stakeholders,
improving agricultural water management is hampered by constraints in policy, institutions,
technologies, capacity, infrastructure, and markets. Addressing these constraints is vital to
achieve sustainable growth and accelerated development of the sector in Ethiopia.
Overview of Ethiopian Irrigation

Ethiopia comprises 112 million hectares (Mha) of land. Cultivable land area estimates vary
between 30 to 70 Mha. Currently, high estimates show that only 15 Mha of land is under
cultivation. For the existing cultivated area, our estimate is that only about 4 to 5 percent is
irrigated, with existing equipped irrigation schemes covering about 640,000 hectares (see details
below). This means that a significant portion of cultivated land in Ethiopia is currently not
irrigated. This section examines Ethiopias water sources for irrigation, current irrigation
schemes, and potential to increase irrigated lands. Our premise is that well-managed irrigation
development is the key in helping Ethiopia overcome major challenges including population
pressure; soil and land degradation; high climate variability, and low agricultural productivity. In
addition, agricultural water development is crucial to improve smallholder livelihood and income
in Ethiopia, since irrigation can help farmers increase their crop production, increase crop
variety, and lengthen their agricultural seasons. As explained in subsequent sections, the study
estimates that over the next two decades, Ethiopia could irrigate over 5 Mha with existing water
sources, contributing around ETB 140 billion per annum to the economy and ensuring food
security for up to six million households (~30 million direct beneficiaries).
Rainfall in Ethiopia
Rainfall is the ultimate source of water in Ethiopia, with surface water, ground water, and other
water sources fed by rain. To understand the countrys irrigation potential, it is important to
understand these water sources. Ethiopia has significant rainfall. Based on grid based average
annual rainfall and the land area, the study estimates that Ethiopia receives about 980 billion (~1
trillion) cubic meters (m3) of rain a year. Ethiopia is divided into 32 major agro-ecological zones
(AEZ) based on temperature and moisture regimes classification data. These 32 AEZs can be
classified further into three primary zones within Ethiopia. This classification mirrors that found
in the Rural Development Policy and Strategy (2001) and the Plan for Accelerated and Sustained
Development to Eradicate Poverty (PASDEP). The three zones are: high rainfall areas, moisture
deficit zones, and pastoralist zones
These three zones have the following characteristics
High rainfall zone. Covers 24 percent of land, 43 percent of population, and 51 percent
of permanent crop output. In these areas, rainfall tends to exceed 800 mm/year. Typical
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development is mixed crop-livestock systems, though crops dominate. The land is not
particularly vulnerable, nor is it very productive. Here, irrigation would be supplementary
to produce a second crop and increase productivity. Note that despite significant rainfall
in this zone, the rainfall is highly variable, and occurs in a limited period of the year.
Moisture deficit zone. Covers 32 percent of land, 47 percent of population, and 39
percent of permanent crop output. Rainfall is generally lower than 600 mm/year. Rainfall
is highly variable, and the land is moderately to highly degrade. Production is typically
mixed crop and livestock, with crops dominating. These areas are often vulnerable and
degraded, and constrained by low productivity and overpopulation. Here, irrigation could
secure food production, improve livelihoods, and increase food resilience.
Pastoralist zone. Covers 44 percent of land, 10 percent of population, and 10 percent of
permanent crop output. Except in the west part of the country, rainfall is lower than 600
mm/year. Pastoralist, livestock-based and non-sedentary lifestyles prevail, and these areas
are constrained by vulnerability and low livestock productivity. Irrigation would create
livelihood options and increase food resilience. In the past, development aid was largely
directed to moisture deficit and pastoralist zones, owing to the vulnerability of their
populations and the large-scale irrigation potential in lowland areas mostly pastoralist
zones. Now, agricultural development efforts are also taking place in high rainfall zones.
For instance, the Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) focuses on 83 districts (woredas)
to boost agricultural productivity and growth.
2.4.1 Existing Irrigation Development

As detailed below, the study estimates that current irrigation schemes cover about 640,000 ha
across the country.
Small scale-irrigation (SSI), which are often community-based and traditional methods,
covering less than 200 hectares. Examples of SSIs include household based RWH, handdug wells, shallow wells, flooding (spate), individual household-based river diversions
and other traditional methods; these irrigation schemes vary widely in size and structure,
from micro irrigation (RWH), to river diversion, pumping, and small or large dams, etc.
These schemes can be subdivided into:
Medium-scale irrigation (MSI), which is community based or publicly sponsored,
covering 200 to 3,000 hectares. Examples of MSIs include the Sille, Hare and Ziway
irrigation schemes;
Large-scale irrigation (LSI) covering more than 3,000 hectares, which is typically
commercially or publicly sponsored. Examples of LSIs include the Wonji-shoa, Methara,
NuraEra and Fincha irrigation schemes.
2.4.2 Opportunities for Increased Irrigation

This section details how agricultural water management in can help tackle some of the nations
significant development challenges, including:
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Overpopulation. Irrigation can support crop intensification through which small plots of
land can produce more per capita. The available household labour can also be engaged
throughout the year, thereby improving labour productivity. Provision of irrigation can
also create employment opportunities through the forward and backward linkages
between irrigation and commodity value chains.
Climate variability. Climate variability, including droughts and flooding, is a major
agricultural constraint of Ethiopia. Climate variability is expected to increase the
occurrence and the severity of extreme events (flood and drought) and related shocks.
Improved water management and irrigation promote stability during prolonged droughts
and can reduce vulnerability during environmental shocks.
Land degradation. Ethiopias soil is estimated to be moderately to severely degraded,
which decreases the productivity of land. Irrigation and watershed management can
reverse this degradation by conserving soil and water, reducing flooding, and increasing
recharge and base flow.
Farmer productivity. Ethiopias crop productivity is frequently below potential. For
instance, in 2008/09, the average maize yield was 2.2 metric tons per hectare. , compared
to the potential yield demonstrated in on-farm field trials of 4.7 tons per hectare.
Increasing farmer productivity is a crucial lever to improving smallholder income and
livelihood. Irrigation helps improve crop productivity, especially when used in
conjunction with improved inputs (e.g., seed, fertilizer).
Gender equality. Irrigation can also provide significant benefits (and some costs) to
rural women by enabling women farmers to increase their cash incomes and diversify
family nutrition and food sources. To ensure equal access to land and water by women,
irrigation access must be carefully monitored. Participation of women in Water Users
Associations should also be promoted. At the same time, irrigation can have potentially
negative consequences for women, such as increasing the burden of labour on women, as
irrigation is a labour-intensive form of agriculture, and allowing men to capture an unfair
share of farm profits. Figure 2 maps the preliminary ground water potential of Ethiopia
based off of elevation, aquifer productivity, and moisture availability.
2.4.3 Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has vast cultivable land (30 to 70 Mha), but only about a third of that is currently
cultivated (approximately 15 Mha), with current irrigation schemes covering about 640,000 ha
across the country. However, the study estimates that total irrigable land potential in Ethiopia is
5.3 Mha assuming use of existing technologies, including 1.6 Mha through RWH and ground
water.
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Table1: Irrigation potentials in Ethiopia (ha)
Groundwater potential
As noted above, groundwater in Ethiopia can be used for irrigation in multiple ways, such as
deep and shallow wells from underground aquifers. Compared with other sources of irrigation,
groundwater as a resource for agricultural development offers a number of advantages,
including:
Reliability of the water source, since it has a naturally renewable capacity if water is not
extracted above certain thresholds
On-demand water supply through natural water storage
Domestic water source, with no trans-boundary considerations
Availability in many places, e.g., in highlands, steep terrains, inland valleys, and plain
areas
Relative constancy of supply, which can help to buffer the high variability of surface
water resources.
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Rainwater harvesting (RWH) potential

Currently rainwater use in Ethiopian agriculture involves both unmanaged and managed
rainwater use in rain-fed agriculture. The former is the major source of agricultural water in crop,
livestock, agro-forestry and related sectors, e.g., rainwater directly irrigating fields and pastures.
In the latter, farmers are use rainwater to maximize availability of soil moisture at a household
level; with rainwater harvesting and shallow wells and through spate (flood) irrigation.
Rainwater management can also be applied to water-logged areas of farm land.
In terms of increasing irrigation potential incrementally to the formal irrigation component
through RWH and better water management, the study estimates that RWH can provide an
additional 0.5 Mha in irrigation. The study assumes that such measures are most important in
zone 2 due to its low and highly variable rainfall, leading to a need for supplementary irrigation.
In zone 1, capturing RWH potential could be through spate and shallow hand-dug wells, while
for zone 3, the irrigation potential from RWH is minimal due to low rainfall.
Advantages and disadvantages of modern agriculture
Agricultural systems depended on internal resources, recycling of organic matter, built-in
biological control mechanisms and rainfall patterns. Agricultural yields were modest, but stable.
Production was safeguarded by growing more than one crop or variety in space and time in a
field as insurance against pest outbreaks or severe weather. Inputs of nitrogen were gained by
rotating major field crops with legumes. In turn rotations suppressed insects, weeds and diseases
by effectively breaking the life cycles of these pests.
Advantages of modern agriculture: During the latter half of the twentieth century, what
is known today as modern agriculture was very successful in meeting a growing demand
for food by the world's population. Yields of primary crops such as rice and wheat
increased dramatically, the price of food declined, the rate of increase in crop yields
generally kept pace with population growth, and the number of people who
consistently go hungry was slightly reduced. This boost in food production has been
due mainly to scientific advances and new technologies, including the development of
new crop varieties, the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and the construction of large
irrigation systems.
Disadvantages of modern agriculture: Evidence indicates, however, that excessive
reliance on monoculture farming and agro industrial inputs, such as capitalintensive technology, pesticides, and chemical fertilizers, has negatively impacted the
environment and rural society. Most agriculturalists had assumed that the agro
ecosystem/natural ecosystem dichotomy need not lead to undesirable consequences,
yet, unfortunately, a number of "ecological diseases" have been associated with the
intensification of food production. They may be grouped into two categories:
diseases of the ecotype, which include erosion, loss of soil fertility, depletion of
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nutrient reserves, salinization and alkalinisation, pollution of water systems, loss of

fertile croplands to urban development, and diseases of the biocoenosis, which include
loss of crop, wild plant, and animal genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies,
pest resurgence and genetic resistance to pesticides, chemical contamination, and
destruction of natural control mechanisms.
Chemical fertilizers can also become air pollutants, and have recently been implicated in the
destruction of the ozone layer and in global warming. Their excessive use has also been
linked to the acidification/salinization of soils and to a higher incidence of insect pests and
diseases through mediation of negative nutritional changes in crop plants Use of fertilizers
can alter the biology of rivers and lakes. Applied in either liquid or granular form, fertilizer
can supply crops with readily available and uniform amounts of several essential
plant nutrients. Fertilizers, on the other hand, have been praised as being highly associated
with the temporary increase in food production observed in many countries. National average
rates of nitrate applied to most arable lands fluctuate between 120-550 kg N/ha. But
the bountiful harvests created at least in part through the use of chemical fertilizers, have
associated, and often hidden, costs. A primary reason why chemical fertilizers pollute the
environment is due to wasteful application and the fact that crops use them inefficiently. The
fertilizer that is not recovered by the crop ends up in the environment, mostly in surface
water or in ground water. Nitrate contamination of aquifers is widespread and in dangerously
high levels in many rural regions of the world. Such nitrate levels are hazardous to
human health and studies have linked nitrate uptake to methaemoglobinemia in
children and to gastric, bladder and oesophageal cancers in adults.
Pesticides can kill useful insects as well as those that destroy crops. The loss of yields due to
pests in many crops. It is well known that cultivated plants grown in genetically homogenous
monocultures do not possess the necessary ecological defines mechanisms to tolerate
the impact of out breaking pest populations. Modern agriculturists have selected crops for
high yields and high palatability, making them more susceptible to pests by sacrificing
natural resistance for productivity. On the other hand, modern agricultural practices
negatively affect pest natural enemies, which in turn do not find the necessary environmental
resources and opportunities in monocultures to effectively and biologically suppress pests.
Use of chemicals on fields creates run-off, excess runs off into rivers and lakes
causing pollution. Fertilizer nutrients that enter surface waters (rivers, lakes, bays, etc.) can
promote eutrophication, characterized initially by a population explosion of photosynthetic
algae. Algal blooms turn the water bright green, prevent light from penetrating
beneath surface layers, and therefore killing plants living on the bottom. Such dead
vegetation serve as food for other aquatic microorganisms which soon deplete water of
its oxygen, inhibiting the decomposition of organic residues, which accumulate on the
bottom. Eventually, such nutrient enrichment of freshwater ecosystems leads to the
destruction of all animal life in the water systems.
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Solution for the disadvantages modern agricultural

Under conditions of intensive management, treatment of such "diseases" requires an increase in
the external costs to the extent that, in some agricultural systems, the amount of energy invested
to produce a desired yield surpasses the energy harvested. The spread of transgenic crops
threatens crop genetic diversity by simplifying cropping systems and promoting genetic erosion.
In orchards and vineyards, the use of cover crops improve soil fertility, soil structure and water
penetration, prevent soil erosion, modify the microclimate and reduce weed competition.
Entomological studies conducted in orchards with ground cover vegetation indicate that
these systems exhibit lower incidence of insect pests than clean cultivated orchards. This
is due to a higher abundance and efficiency of predators and parasitoids enhanced by the
rich floral undergrowth.
At the regional level, increases in monoculture farming meant that the whole agricultural
support infrastructure (i.e. research, extension, suppliers, storage, transport, markets, etc.) has
become more specialized. As specific crops are expanded beyond their "natural" ranges or
favorable regions to areas of high pest potential, or with limited water, or low-fertility soils,
intensified chemical controls are required to overcome such limiting factors. The assumption is
that the human intervention and level of energy inputs that allow these expansions can be
sustained indefinitely. Reduction and, especially, elimination of agrochemical require major
changes in management to assure adequate plant nutrients and to control crop pests. As it was
done a few decades ago, alternative sources of nutrients to maintain soil fertility include
manures, sewage sludge and other organic wastes, and legumes in cropping sequences.
Rotation benefits are due to biologically fixed nitrogen and from the interruption of weed,
disease and insect cycles. A livestock enterprise may be integrated with grain cropping to
provide animal manures and to utilize better the forages produced. Maximum benefits of
pasture integration can be realized when livestock, crops, animals and other farm resources are
assembled in mixed and rotational designs to optimize production efficiency, nutrient
cycling and crop protection. What happens is that some well-intentioned groups suffer from
"technological determinism", and emphasize as a key strategy only the development and
dissemination of low-input or appropriate technologies as if these technologies in themselves
have the capability of initiating beneficial social changes.
2.4.4 Challenges to developing irrigation in Ethiopia

In the next five years Ethiopia plans to significantly increase its irrigated land from the current
640,000 ha to about 1.8 million ha, through small-scale irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and
other medium- and large-scale irrigation projects.
Behind-schedule scheme delivery. There is often a significant gap between plans for
irrigation projects (number of projects, number of hectares to be irrigation) and the
actual construction or delivery of these projects. For example, the 2010 irrigation
target from the PASDEP I plan was 820,000 hectares of irrigated land (75 percent by
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SSI or RWH and the remaining with M&LSI). But by mid-2010, only 640,000
hectares were currently equipped, which was 180,000 ha short of the target. This 280
percent increase from current irrigation levels will require tremendous resources,
including funding, human capacity, infrastructure, and other human and capital
investments. However, Ethiopia faces four key technical, socio-economic,
institutional, and environmental challenges that must be overcome in order to meet
this ambitious target:
Low-performance of schemes. Many schemes currently operate significantly under
their design capacity. The research team estimates that scheme performance is on
average 30 present below design, implying a loss of about 230 thousand hectares of
irrigated land, leading to only 410,000ha performing to the expectations
Constraints on scale-up of irrigation projects. The GOEs aspiration to nearly
triple the number of irrigated hectares over the next five years will only be met by
overcoming a series of scale-up constraints such as inadequate funding, human
capacity and labour constraints, and limited private sector involvement.
Protecting irrigation development sustainability. Sustainability is threatened by
unregulated surface and groundwater development, lack of watershed and
environmental management, and the need for smallholder farmer buy-in and
investment. For example, land degradation caused by soil erosion (about 1.9 billion
tons of topsoil are lost annually in Ethiopia, The following sections provide an indepth exploration of these four challenges in terms of institutional, human and
technical capacity, capability, policy context, and funding. The constraints are
explored at each decision-maker level (federal, regional and woreda farmers).
Negatively affects agricultural productivity, and salinity is already an issue in some
large-scale irrigation settings.
The following sections provide an in-depth exploration of these four challenges in terms of
institutional, human and technical capacity, capability, policy context, and funding. The
constraints are explored at each decision-making level (federal, regional, woreda, farmers).
Gap in Plans versus Delivery of Irrigation Projects

The discrepancy between irrigation plans and delivery is driven by three primary constraints:
Institutional capacity and capability. Across many levels of the government
(from kebele/woreda, to regional/zone and federal level), there are significant
institutional challenges that prevent irrigation plans from being fully
implemented. These include no standardized approach across agencies for
mapping/monitoring existing projects; lack of project ownership; lack of
institutional memory; and insufficient technical staff. Decision makers also do
not have guidelines or systems for prioritizing investment decisions and project
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pipelines, which prevents efficient ranking and budgeting based on needs and
resources.
Technical capacity and tools. Many government agencies and private sector/
NGO stakeholders lack the technical capacity and tools necessary for efficient
irrigation planning and implementation. No national database is available on
existing irrigation projects or irrigation needs, which could make data accessible
from the federal to the local level. There is also no reliable baseline data at any
level, making it difficult to plan, coordinate, budget, or manage irrigation
schemes, e.g., rainwater harvesting baseline estimates vary significantly, from
40,000 to 800,000 hectares.
Low Performance of Existing Schemes

The second hurdle to irrigation development is the underperformance of existing irrigation
schemes. Many irrigation projects are operating significantly under their design capacity, with
the schemes analyzed below operating at just 64 percent of their design capacity (640,000 ha
equipped capacity versus 410,000 ha actually operational), and small-scale schemes accounting
for 90% of the gap. Under-performance is an issue for all scheme types (small, medium, large) in
all three zones.
There are multiple reasons for this low performance:
Operations/maintenance
Extensive research shows that non or underperformance is caused primarily by inadequate
operations and maintenance (O&M) of projects, e.g., sedimentation impact, inadequate structural
design; smallholders limited skills in the operation and maintenance of small-scale projects; and
poor contract and performance management for medium- and large scale intervention schemes,
among other issues. The authors for this report observed many of these constraints during a field
visit to the Oromia region. In addition, scheme performance often deteriorates over time due to
wear and tear of irrigation structures and depletion of soil quality, making operations and
maintenance especially important.
Human capacity. Human capacity is limited across multiple government and private
sector actors. This includes a shortage of skilled workers (e.g., engineers, designers) to
build and maintain projects and a lack of basic irrigation skills among farmers and
development agents to operate and maintain small-scale projects.
Research/management capabilities. There is no coordinated research program on
agricultural water management, no applied research on national irrigation systems, no
link between researchers and farmers, and no manuals on irrigation for local crops. There
is also poor management of project contracts and performance including nontransparent bidding and selection processes, lack of contract management skills, lack of
checks and balances all of which can increase project costs, delivery time, and risk.
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2.5 Comparison to Other Pumping Systems

There are other options for pumping water in remote areas and for other applications. Their
advantages and disadvantages are listed in Table 2
Table2: Comparison of solar-based pump with other types of pumps
Pump type
Solar
Diesel or Gas
Windmill
Advantage
Low maintenance
No fuel costs or spills
Easy to install
Simple and reliable
Unattended operation
System can be made to be
mobile
Moderate capital costs
Can be portable
Extensive experience available
Easy to install
Potentially long-lasting
Works well in windy site
Disadvantage
Potentially high initial cost
Lower output in cloudy weather
Must have good sun exposure

between 9AM to 3PM
Needs maintenance and replacement

Maintenance often inadequate
reducing life
Fuel often expensive and supply
Intermittent
Noise, dirt and fume problem
Site visits necessary
High maintenance and costly repair
Difficult to find parts
Seasonal disadvantageous
Need special tool for installation
No wind No power
There are more than 10,000 solar powered water pumps in use in the world today. They
are widely used on farms and outback stations in Australia to supply water to livestock. In
developing countries they are used extensively to pump water from wells and rivers to
villages for domestic consumption and irrigation of crops. A typical PV-powered pumping
system consists of a PV array that powers an electric motor, which drives a pump. The water is
often pumped from the ground or stream into a storage tank that provides a gravity feed. No
energy storage is needed for these systems. PV powered pumping systems are widely
available from agricultural equipment suppliers and they are a cost-effective alternative to
agricultural wind turbines for remote area water supply. Photovoltaic pumping systems are
used to pump water for livestock, plants or humans. Since the need for water is more on
hot sunny days the technology is an obvious choice for this application. Pumping water using
PV technology is simple, reliable, and requires almost no maintenance. Agricultural watering
needs are usually more during sunnier periods when more water can be pumped with a solar
system. PV powered pumping systems are excellent for small to medium scale pumping and
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there are thousands of agricultural PV water pumping systems in the field today throughout the
world. PV powered water pumping systems are similar to any other pumping system, only the
power source is solar energy. PV pumping systems have, as a minimum, a PV array, a motor, and
a pump. PV water pumping arrays are fixed, mounted or sometimes placed on passive trackers
(which use no motors) to increase pumping time and volume.
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Chapter Three
3. Overall System and Its Operation
The system components, configuration and their connection are put in the overall system block
diagram shown below.
Fig1: Overall System Block Diagram
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The main target of the system is to have automated irrigation system. It is supported by solar
energy from the Photovoltaic panel, which is automated to track the PV panel towards the
direction of the sun light that maximizes the level energy generated from the solar system. The
operation of the system depends on the individual operation of the components mainly the
sensors (LDR, water level sensor, soil moisture sensor and temperature sensor). Depending on
the sensors, the microcontroller (PIC16F877A) generates control signal. These control signals
can control the operation and working principle of the different motors and valves involved in
the system. Accurate generating of control signals from the microcontroller can take accurate
action on the motors, LCD, Buzzer and solenoid valves.
Finally, the operating condition of the system is displayed on the LCD such as the individual
motors operating condition (ON/OFF), temperature level in degree centigrade and level of soil
moisture in percentage (%).
3.1Main System
Characteristics
Components
and
Their
Operational
1) The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a function
of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices. They are also
called as photo conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They are made up of
semiconductor materials having high resistance. They are often used as light sensors. They are
used when there is a need to detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light meter.
Used in street lamps, alarm clock, burglar alarm circuits, light intensity meters, for counting the
packages moving on a conveyor belt, etc.
Working Principle of LDR: A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo
conductivity. Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the materials
conductivity (Hence resistivity) reduces when light is absorbed by the material. When
light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the electrons in the valence band of the
semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band. These photons in the incident
light should have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material to make
the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence when light
having enough energy is incident on the device more & more electrons are excited to the
conduction band which results in large number of charge carriers. The result of this
process is more and more current starts flowing and hence it is said that the resistance of
the device has decreased.
Characteristics of LDR: LDRs are light dependent devices whose resistance decreases
when light falls on them and increases in the dark. When a light dependent resistance is
kept in dark, its resistance is very high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. It can
be as high as 1012.And if the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will
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decrease drastically. If constant voltage is applied to it and intensity of light is increased

the current starts increasing. Figure below shows resistance vs. illumination curve for a
particular LDR.
Fig2: LDR
The characteristic of LDR is shown in the following graph. This shows that, resistance of
LDR is inversely proportional to the light intensity.
Fig3: Resistance vs. Illumination curve for LDR
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2) Temperature Sensor (LM35):

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage
over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large
constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The output from the
LM35 is 0.1V/'C. So, when temperature sensed is 61'C, the output voltage is 0.61V. This analog
voltage is read by the PIC and processed to display the corresponding temperature value on the
LCD.
Application: The LM35 can be applied easily in the same way as other integrated
circuit temperature sensors. It can be glued or cemented to a surface and its
temperature will be within about 0.01C of the surface temperature. This presumes
that the ambient air temperature is almost the same as the surface temperature; if the
air temperature were much higher or lower than the surface temperature, the actual
temperature of the LM35 die would be at an intermediate temperature between the
surface temperature and their temperature.
Fig4: Temperature sensor (LM35)
3) Soil Moisture Sensor

The soil moisture sensors consist of gypsum blocks buried in the soil. Transistors switches are
attached to the blocks. The arrangement is shown in figure 2 in which one sensor has been
depicted. The number of sensors employed depends on the size of farm to be irrigated. The
logical OR operation of the sensors ensure that all parts of the farm receive adequate
moisture. When the soil is dry the gypsum block has a high resistance thus turning off transistor
Q1. This transistor is turned on only when the soil has received the desired amount of moisture.
If we assume that the resistance of the gypsum block under wet condition is Rg, then the
requirement for the saturation of the BJT is expressed as inequality (1).
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The resistance of the gypsum block, Rg, is determined by the depth at which it is
buried, amongst other factors, and the sensitivity of the sensor should be set on site.
If moisture from natural processes is inadequate, irrigation is demanded. As it is known Soil

moisture is a result of natural processes (precipitation, infiltration, and evapotranspiration)
and characteristics of the soil. The capacity of such water reservoir is determined by
maximum water quantity that the soil can hold, i.e.by field capacity (FC).
4) Buzzer
A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically
used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or
game shows. It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors
connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed
or a pre-set time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate
button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or
intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an
electromechanical system which was identical to an electric bell without the
metal gong (which makes the ringing noise). Often these units were anchored
to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board.
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Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement

a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this
Circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based
piezoelectric sounder like a Son alert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were
hooked up to driver circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.
In this project the buzzer indicates whether some functions are operating properly or not. For
example fail to reset the PV-panel position at the end of the day (night).
5) Microcontroller (PIC16F877A)
Microcontroller is a single chip microcomputer made through VLSI fabrication. A
microcontroller also called an embedded controller because the microcontroller and its
support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. A
microcontroller is available in different word lengths like microprocessors
(4bit,8bit,16bit,32bit,64bit and 128 bit microcontrollers are available today).
A
microcontroller basically contains one or more following components:
Central processing unit(CPU)

Random Access Memory)(RAM)
Read Only Memory(ROM)
Input/output ports
Timers and Counters

Interrupt Controls
Analogue to digital converters
Digital analogue converters
Serial interfacing ports
Oscillatory circuits
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Fig7: Microcontroller, PIC16877A
CPU: is the brain of a microcontroller which is responsible for fetching the instruction, decodes
it, and then finally executed. And it connects every part of a microcontroller into a single system.
The primary function of CPU is fetching and decoding instructions. Instruction fetched from
program memory must be decoded by the CPU.
Memory: The function of memory in a microcontroller is the same as microprocessor. It is used
to store data and program. A microcontroller usually has a certain amount of RAM and ROM
(EEPROM, EPROM, etc) or flash memories for storing program source codes.
Parallel input/output ports: parallel input/output ports are mainly used to drive/interface
various devices such as LCDS, LEDS, printers, memories, etc to a microcontroller.
Serial ports: Serial ports provide various serial interfaces between microcontroller and other
peripherals like parallel ports.
Timers/counters: This is the one of the useful function of a microcontroller. A
microcontroller may have more than one timer and counters. The timers and counters provide all
timing and counting functions inside the microcontroller. The major operations of this section
are performing clock functions, modulations, pulse generations, frequency measuring, making
oscillations, etc. This also can be used for counting external pulses.
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Analog to Digital Converter (ADC): ADC converters are used for converting the analog
signal to digital form. The input signal in this converter should be in analog form (e.g. sensor
output) and the output from this unit is in digital form. The digital output can be used for various
digital applications (e.g. measurement devices).
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC): DAC perform reversal operation of ADC conversion DAC
convert the digital signal into analog format. It usually used for controlling analog devices like
DC motors, various drives, etc.
Interrupt control: the interrupt control is used for providing interrupt (delay) of working
program .The interrupt may be external (activated by using interrupt pin) or internal (by using
interrupt instruction during programming).
Special functioning block: Some microcontrollers used only for some special applications (e.g.
space systems and robotics) these controllers containing additional ports to perform such special
operations. This considered as special functioning block. There are many types of
microcontroller used for different applications like ATMEGA and PIC types. In our case we have
selected the PIC type which is PIC16F877A.
Advantages of Microcontrollers
The main advantages of microcontrollers are given.
Microcontrollers act as a microcomputer without any digital parts.

As the higher integration inside microcontroller reduce cost and size of the system.
Usage of microcontroller is simple, easy for troubleshoot and system maintaining.
Most of the pins are programmable by the user for performing different functions.
Easily interface additional RAM, ROM,I/O ports.
Low time required for performing operations.
Disadvantages of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers have got more complex architecture than that of microprocessors.

Only perform limited number of executions simultaneously.
Mostly used in micro-equipment.
Cannot interface high power devices directly
6) LCD Display
LDC is a combination of two states of matter the solid and the liquid. They have both the
properties of solids and liquids and maintain their respective states with respect to another. Solids
usually maintain their state unlike liquids who change their orientation and move everywhere in
the particular liquid. Further studies have showed that liquid crystal materials show more of a
liquid state than that of a solid. It must also be noted that liquid crystals are more heat sensitive
than usual liquids. A little amount of heat can easily turn the liquid crystal into a liquid. This is
the reason why they are also used to make thermometers.
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We always use devices made up of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) like computers, digital
watches and also DVD and CD players. They have become very common and have taken a giant
leap in the screen industry by clearly replacing the use of Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT). CRT draws
more power than LCD and is also bigger and heavier. All of us have seen an LCD, but no one
knows the exact working of it. Let us take a look at the working of an LCD. The liquid-crystal
display has the distinct advantage of having a low power consumption than the LED. It is
typically of the order of microwatts for the display in comparison to the some order of mill watts
for LEDs. Low power consumption requirement has made it compatible with MOS integrated
logic circuit. Its other advantages are its low cost, and good contrast. The main drawbacks of
LCDs are additional requirement of light source, a limited temperature range of operation
(between 0 and 60 C), low reliability, short operating life, poor visibility in low ambient
lighting, slow speed and the need for an ac drive.
The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an electric current is applied to
them, they tend to untwist. This causes a change in the light angle passing through them. This
causes a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter with respect to it. So, little light is
allowed to pass through that particular area of LCD. Thus that area becomes darker comparing to
others. The LCDs have a parallel interface, meaning that the microcontroller has to manipulate
several interface pins at once to control the display. The interface consists of the following pins:
A register select (RS) pin that controls where in the LCD's memory you're writing data to. You
can select either the data register, which holds what goes on the screen, or an instruction register,
which is where the LCD's controller looks for instructions on what to do next.
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A Read/ Write (R/W) pin that selects reading mode or writing mode. An enable pin that enables
writing to the registers. 8 data pins (D0 -D7). The states of these pins (high or low) are the bits
that you're writing to a register when you write, or the values you're reading when you read.
There's also a display constrast pin (Vo), power supply pins (+5V and Gnd) and LED
Backlight (Bklt+ and BKlt-) pins that you can use to power the LCD, control the display
contrast, and turn on and off the LED backlight, respectively. The process of controlling the
display involves putting the data that form the image of what you want to display into the data
registers, then putting instructions in the instruction register.
Fig8: LDC
7) Solenoid Valve
A solenoid is a simple electromagnetic device that converts electrical energy directly into linear
mechanical motion, but it has a very short stroke (length of movement), which limits its
applications. The solenoid consists of a coil of wire with an iron plunger that is allowed to move
through the center of the coil.
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Fig9: Basic working principle of solenoid

Notice that the plunger is being held about halfway out of the coil by a spring. When the coil is
energized, the resulting magnetic field pulls the plunger to the middle of the coil. The magnetic
force is unidirectional; a spring is required to return the plunger to its un-energized position.
Working principle of a practical Solenoid valve
A solenoid valve is the combination of a basic solenoid and mechanical valve. So a solenoid
valve has two parts namely- Electrical solenoid, mechanical valve. Solenoid converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy and this energy is used to operate a mechanical valve that is to
open, close or to adjust in a position.
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Fig10: Working procedure of a typical Solenoid valve

Limitation of Solenoid valve
The main limitation of the solenoid is its short stroke, which is usually under an inch. Still, there
are many applications for short-stroke linear motion; examples are activating electric car-door
locks, opening and closing valves, and triggering mechanical latches. Most applications use the
solenoid as a on or off device that is, the coil is either completely energized or switched off.
However, variable-position control is possible by varying the input voltage.
8) Relay
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The
current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are like
remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative simplicity,
long life, and proven high reliability. Relays are used in a wide variety of applications throughout
industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and automation systems. Highly
sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems against trouble and power
blackouts as well as to regulate and control the generation and distribution of power. In the
home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and dishwashers, and heating and airconditioning controls. Although relays are generally associated with electrical circuitry, there are
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many other types, such as pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly
mechanical, or vice versa.
How do relays work?
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When
the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which
operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is
supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The
magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is
called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.
There are three basic functions of a relay: On/Off Control, Limit Control and Logic Operation.
On/Off Control: Example: Air conditioning control, used to limit and control a high power
load, such as a compressor
Limit Control: Example: Motor Speed Control, used to disconnect a motor if it runs slower or
faster than the desired speed
Logic Operation: Example: Test Equipment, used to connect the instrument to a number of
testing points on the device under test.
Types of Relays: There are two basic classifications of relays: Electromechanical and Solid
State. Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no moving
parts. Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat sink is required,
multiple poles are available, and they can switch AC or DC with equal ease.
Fig 11: Typical Relay
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9) Battery
Deep cycle batteries are usually used in solar power systems and are designed to be discharged
over a long period of time (e.g. 100 hours) and recharged hundreds or thousands of times, unlike
conventional car batteries which are designed to provide a large amount of current for a short
amount of time. To maximize battery life, deep cycle batteries should not be discharged beyond
50% of their capacity. I.e. 50 % capacity remaining. Discharging beyond this level will
significantly reduce the life of the batteries. Deep cycle batteries are rated in Ampere Hours
(Ah). This rating also includes a discharge rate, usually at 20 hours. This rating specifies the
amount of current in Amps that the battery can supply over the specified number of hours.
As an example, a battery rated at 120A.H at the 100 hour rate can supply a total of 120A.H over
a period of 100 hours. This would equate to 1.2A per hour for 100 hours. Due to internal heating
at higher discharge rates, the same battery could supply 110Ah at the 20 hour rate, or 5.5A per
hour for 20 hours. In practice, this battery could run a 60W 12VDC TV for over 20 hours before
being completely drained. There are many factors that can affect the performance and life of a
battery or bank of batteries. It is highly recommended that you speak with an experienced solar
power system installer or solar battery provider prior to making any significant battery purchase.
10) Tanker and water level sensors
The Tanker is a device used to store water to help the irrigation system as a backup. This
improves the system efficiency as the irrigation system is working without the help of pump
motor from the tanker.
The Tanker level sensors also the function of sensing the water level of the tanker in order to fill
the tanker and close the valves of the pipe automatically.
Water Level Sensor: water level sensor can be made using a proper connection and
coordination of electrical components: resistors, copper wire, transistors and LEDs.
Tanker and Tanker Level Sensors: The Tanker is a device used to store water to help the
irrigation system as a backup. This improves the system efficiency as the irrigation system is
working without the help of pump motor from the tanker. The Tanker level sensors also the
function of sensing the water level of the tanker in order to fill the tanker and close the valves of
the pipe automatically.
11)
Water Pump
Using photovoltaic as the power source for water pumping is considered as one of the most
promising areas of PV application. PV water pumping systems generally consist of PV array,
controller, and inverter, motor, pump and water storage tank. Photovoltaic water pumping
systems are particularly suitable for water supply in remote areas where the electricity is not
available. Water can be pumped during the day and stored in tanks, making water available also
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at night or when it is cloudy. The pumped water can be used in many applications such
as domestic use, water for irrigation and village water supplies. The advantages of using
water pumps powered by photovoltaic systems include low maintenance, ease of installation,
reliability and the matching between the powers generated and the water usage needs. In
addition, water tanks can be used instead of batteries in photovoltaic pumping systems
Pumping Motor: This is a water pump motor help to pump water from water source to tanker
and field area of the irrigation system. The motor may be Ac-motor or DC-motor and its size is
depending on the wideness of the irrigation system (tanker size and field area of the irrigation).
In this case we have selected a DC-motor having 2kw rated power. The pumps role is to provide
sufficient pressure to move the fluid through the system at the desired flow rate.
Fig 12: Water pumping system

Pressure, friction and flow are three important characteristics of a pump system. Pressure is the
driving force responsible for the movement of the fluid. Friction is the force that slows down
fluid particles. Flow rate is the amount of volume that is displaced per unit time.
Pressure is often expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial system and kilo
Pascals (kPa) in the metric system. In the Imperial system of measurement, the unit psig or
pounds per square inch gauge is used, it means that the pressure measurement is relative to the
local atmospheric pressure, so that 5 psig is 5 psi above the local atmospheric pressure. In the
metric system, the kPa unit scale is a scale of absolute pressure measurement and there is no
kPag, but many people use the kPa as a relative measurement to the local atmosphere and don't
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bother to specify this. This is not a fault of the metric system but the way people use it. The term
pressure loss or pressure drop is often used, this refers to the decrease in pressure in the system
due to friction. In a pipe or tube that is at the same level, your garden hose for example, the
pressure is high at the tap and zero at the hose outlet, this decrease in pressure is due to friction
and is the pressure loss.
This Pressure provides the driving force to overcome friction and elevation difference. It's
responsible for driving the fluid through the system, the pump provides the pressure. Pressure is
increased when fluid particles are forced closer together. For example, in a fire extinguisher work
or energy has been spent to pressurize the liquid chemical within, that energy can be stored and
used later. Is it possible to pressurize a liquid within a container that is open? Yes. A good
example is a syringe, as you push down on the plunger the pressure increases, and the harder you
have to push. There is enough friction as the fluid moves through the needle to produce a great
deal of pressure in the body of the syringe Friction is always present, even in fluids; it is the
force that resists the movement of objects. In fluids, friction occurs between fluid layers that are
traveling at different velocities within the pipe. There is a natural tendency for the fluid velocity
to be higher in the canter of the pipe than near the wall of the pipe. Friction will also be high for
viscous fluids and fluids with suspended particles.
12)
Stepper Motor
Stepper motors are commonly used in precision position control applications. This is because of
the different advantages they have such as they are brushless, load independent, and has open
loop position control capability, good holding torque and excellent response characteristics. For
these reasons two identical bipolar, permanent magnet 2 phase, 12V, 1.5 0 step stepper motors
shown in figure 13 are used in this application in order to control the azimuth and tilt angle.
Motor 1 is used to control the azimuth angle and motor 2 is used to control the tilt angle.
Fig13: Stepper motor
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13)
2015
Gear
Gear Ratio Calculations: If two gears are in mesh, then the product of speed and teeth is
conserved. Let's put this in terms of usable math. Let's say that we have two gears in mesh.
Gear 1 (we'll call it the driver) is turning at speed S1 rpm and has T1 teeth. Gear 2 (the driven
gear) is turning at speed S2 and has T2 teeth. Then our relationship above says that:
S1 * T1 = S2 * T2
We can use this simple equation to solve for whatever (single) value is unknown. Consider a
simple example where:
S1=100rpm,T1=30teeth,S2=?
T2 = 40 teeth. Solving the equation above for S2, we have:
S2= (T1/T2)*S1= (30/40)*10= 75 rpm
Let's add a third gear to the train. Assume gear 2 drives gear 3 and gear 3 has T3 = 50 teeth.
What's the speed of gear 3? Well, since gears 2 and 3 are in mesh, our conservation law says
that:
S2 * T2 = S3 * T3
We could do the arithmetic (S3 = (T2/T3) * S2 = (40/50) * 75 = 60 rpm) to find S3. Or, we
could note that, since both S1*T1 and S3*T3 are equal to S2*T2, they must be equal to each
other.
S1 * T1 = S3 * T3
Therefore, S3 = (T1/T3) * S1 = (30/50) * 100 = 60 rpm.
Suppose now that we add a fourth gear with T4 = 60 teeth to our developing gear train. Its speed
must be S4 = (T3/T4) * S3 = (50/60) * 60 = 50 rpm. But again, by use of the conservation
principle, we have:
S4 = (T1/T4) * S1 = (30/60) * 100 = 50 rpm.
No matter how many gears are between the drivers and (final) drive gear, the overall ratio
depends only on the tooth count of the driver and final driven gear.
Compound (i.e., ganged) gears are used often in setting up change gear lathes because they offer
the opportunity to achieve a much larger selection of ratios than would be possible with only
simple gearing. In simple gearing, as we saw, the ratio depends only on the driver and driven
gear - any gears between these can't affect the overall ratio. To obtain a given ratio, you would
need to have two gears, each with precisely the right number of teeth to establish the ratio. By
compounding, a much smaller set of gears can be used to achieve a large number of ratios.
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In mechanical engineering, a gear ratio is a direct measure of the ratio of the rotational speeds of
two or more interlocking gears. As a general rule, when dealing with two gears, if the driving
gear (the one directly receiving rotational force from the engine, motor, etc.) is bigger than the
driven gear, the latter will turn more quickly, and vice versa. We can express this basic concept
with the formula Gear ratio = T2/T1, where T1 is the number of teeth on the first gear and T2 is
the number of teeth on the second.
Finding the Gear Ratio of a Two Gears
1) Start with a two-gear train. To be able to determine a gear ratio, you must have at least
two gears attached to each other this is called a "gear train." Usually, the first gear is a
"drive gear" attached to the motor shaft and the second is a "driven gear" attached to the
load shaft. There may also be any number of gears between these two to transmit power
from the drive gear to the driven gear: these are called "idler gears." For now, let's look
at a gear train with only two gears in it. To be able to find a gear ratio, these gears have to
be interacting with each other in other words, their teeth need to be interconnected and
one needs to be turning the other. For example purposes, let's say that we have one small
drive gear (gear 1) turning a larger driven gear (gear 2). We're ready to proceed.
2) Count the number of teeth on the drive gear. One simple way to find the gear ratio
between two interlocking gears is to compare the number of teeth (the little peg-like
protrusions at the edge of the wheel) that they both have. Start by determining how many
teeth are on the drive gear. You can do this by counting manually or, sometimes, by
checking for this information labelled on the gear itself. For example purposes, let's say
that the smaller drive gear in our system has 20 teeth.
3) Count the number of teeth on the driven gear. Next, determine how many teeth are on
the driven gear exactly as you did before for the drive gear. Let's say that, in our example,
the driven gear has 30 teeth.
4) Divide one teeth count by the other. Now that you know how many teeth are on each
gear, you can find the gear ratio relatively simply. Divide the driven gear teeth by the
drive gear teeth. Depending on your assignment, you may write your answer as a
decimal, a fraction, or in ratio form (i.e., x : y).
In our example, dividing the 30 teeth of the driven gear by the 20 teeth of the drive gear
gets us 30/20 = 1.5. We can also write this as 3/2 or 1.5: 1, etc. What this gear ratio
means is that the smaller driver gear must turn one and half times to get the larger driven
gear to make one complete turn. This makes sense since the driven gear is bigger, it
will turn more slowly.
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Fig14: Gear ratio of two gears

14)
Operational Amplifier (UA741CN)
The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated Circuit available. It is very
cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains several hundred components. The most
common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is used in many circuits.
The OP AMP is a Linear Amplifier with an amazing variety of uses. Its main purpose is to
amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a Darlington Pair. The OP-AMP has two inputs,
INVERTING (-) and NON-INVERTING (+), and one output at pin 6.
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Fig15: Input output connection of operational amplifier chip

The chip can be used in a circuit in two ways. If the voltage goes into pin two then it is known as
an inverting amplifier. If the voltage goes into pin three then the circuit becomes a noninverting amplifier. The 741 integrated circuit looks like any other chip. However, it is a
general purpose OP-AMP. You need only to know basic information about its operation and use.
The diagram opposite shows the pins of the 741 OP-AMP. The important pins are 2, 3 and 6
because these represent inverting, non-inverting and voltage out. Notice the triangular diagram
that represents an Op-Amp integrated circuit. The 741 is used in two ways:
1. An inverting amplifier. Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed. In an inverting
amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg two and comes out of the 741 chip at leg six. If
the polarity is positive going into the chip, it negative by the time it comes out through leg six. The
polarity has been inverted.
2. A non-inverting amplifier. Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed. In a non-inverting
amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg three and leaves the 741 chip through leg six.
This time if it is positive going into the 741 then it is still positive coming out. Polarity remains the
same. We have used this operational amplifier as analogue to digital converter which helps us to give
digital input to the microcontroller. Because the microcontroller used in our project is digital input
microcontroller.
Crystal Oscillator
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A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit which uses inverse piezoelectric effect, .i.e. When
electric field is applied across certain materials it produces mechanical deformation. Thus it uses mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric materiel to create an electric signal with very precise
frequency. They have high stability, quality factor, small size and low cost and this makes them superior over
other resonators like LC circuit, ceramic resonator, turning forks etc.
Virtually all microprocessors, micro-controllers, PICs and CPUs generally operate using
a Quartz Crystal Oscillator as its frequency determining device to generate their clock waveform
because as we already know, crystal oscillators provide the highest accuracy and frequency
stability compared to resistor-capacitor, (RC) or inductor-capacitor, (LC) oscillators.
The CPU clock dictates how fast the processor can run and process the data with a
microprocessor, PIC or micro-controller having a clock speed of 1MHz means that it can process
data internally one million times per second at every clock cycle. Generally all thats needed to
produce a microprocessor clock waveform is a crystal and two ceramic capacitors of values
ranging between 15 to 33pF as shown below.
Microprocessor Oscillator
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Fig17: Microprocessor Oscillator

Most microprocessors, micro-controllers and PICs have two oscillator pins
labeled OSC1 and OSC2to connect to an external quartz crystal circuit, standard RC oscillator
network or even a ceramic resonator. In this type of microprocessor application the Quartz
Crystal Oscillator produces a train of continuous square wave pulses whose fundamental
frequency is controlled by the crystal itself. This fundamental frequency regulates the flow of
instructions that controls the processor device.
3.2 Microcontroller Based Solar System and Tracking

Mechanism
Solar System
This Sub-system is the core part of the whole project which consists of the following
components.
Solar Cell: The solar cell is the basic building block of solar photovoltaic. When charged by the
sun, this basic unit generates a dc photo voltage of 0.5 to 1.0V and, in short circuit, a
photocurrent of some tens of mA/cm2.
Since the voltage is too small for most applications, to produce a useful voltage, the cells are
connected in series into modules, typically containing about 28 to 36 cells in series to generate a
dc output of 18 V. To avoid the complete loss of power when one of the cells in the series fails, a
bypass diode is integrated into the module.
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Fig 18: Connection and arrangement of solar cell

Photovoltaic (PV) Modules: PV Module or Panel: is a group of PV cells connected in series
and/or parallel and encapsulated in an environmentally protective laminate. It converts sunlight
in to direct current (DC) electricity. Modules can be wired together to form a PV array that is
wiring modules in parallel, the available current is increased. In this project we select typical PV
module measures about 1.59 square meters about 250W DC electricity in full.
The purpose of solar regulators, or charge controllers as they are also called, is to regulate the
current from the solar panels to prevent the batteries from overcharging. Over charging causes
heating and loss of electrolyte and it results damage to the battery. A solar regulator is used to
sense when the batteries are fully charged and to stop, or decrease, the amount of current flowing
to the battery. Most solar regulators also include a Low Voltage Disconnect feature, which will
switch off the supply to the load if the battery voltage falls below the cut-off voltage. This
prevents the battery from permanent damage and reduced life expectancy. A solar regulator also
prevents the battery from back feeding or discharging into the solar panel at night and, hence,
flattening the battery. Solar regulators are rated by the amount of current they are able to receive
from the solar panel or panels.
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Fig 19: Solar Cell, Module and Array
DC motor speed control

There are various ways to vary speed of DC motor but the best amongst them is PWM pulse
width modulation technique. In this technique we shall vary the width of applied pulse that will
vary average voltage applied to motor and its speed will change. PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) is a powerful technique used to control analogue circuits with the digital output
from the microcontroller. There are two major components of a PWM signal that defines its
behaviour; PWM duty cycle and frequency.
Duty cycle describes the on-time of a signal. An on-time is the duration of a signal for which
the signal stays HIGH. Duty cycle is measured in percentage. For example, if a digital signal is
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on for half of the time duration and off for the other half, the digital signal is said to have a duty
cycle of 50%. Similarly, if a signal stays high for a longer period of time than it stays low, the
signal will have a duty cycle greater than 50%. The frequency determines the amount of time
taken by PWM to complete one cycle. For example a frequency of 1000Hz would mean 1000
cycles completed per second.
Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) Control System
As people are much concerned with the fossil fuel exhaustion and the environmental problems
caused by the conventional power generation, renewable energy sources and among them
photovoltaic panels and wind-generators are now widely used. Photovoltaic sources are used
today in many applications such as battery charging, water pumping, home power supply,
swimming-pool heating systems, satellite power systems etc. They have the advantage of being
maintenance and pollution-free but their installation cost is high and, in most applications; they
require a power conditioner (dc/dc or dc/ac converter) for load interface. Since PV modules still
have relatively low conversion efficiency, the overall system cost can be reduced using high
efficiency power conditioners which, in addition, are designed to extract the maximum possible
power from the PV module with position adjustment.
Solar trackers are devices used to orient photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical
devices toward the sun. Since the suns position in the sky changes with the seasons and the time
of day, trackers are used to align the collection system to maximize energy production.
Concentrated applications like concentrated photovoltaic panels (CPV) or concentrated solar
power (CSP) require a high degree of accuracy to ensure the sunlight is directed precisely at the
focal point of the reflector or lens. Non-concentrating applications dont require tracking but
using a tracker can improve the total power produced by the system. Photovoltaic systems using
high efficiency panels with trackers can be very effective.
There are many types of solar trackers, of varying costs, sophistication, and performance. The
two basic categories of trackers are single axis and dual axis.
Automatic Dual Axis Sun Tracking System
With the rapid increase in population and economic development, the problems of the energy
crisis and global warming effects are today a cause for increasing concern. The utilization of
renewable energy resources is the key solution to these problems. Solar energy is one of the
primary sources of clean, abundant and inexhaustible energy that not only provides alternative
energy resources, but also improves environmental pollution.
Solar tracking is the most appropriate technology to enhance the electricity production of a
PV system. To achieve a high degree of tracking accuracy, several approaches have been widely
investigated. Generally, they can be classified as either open-loop tracking types based on solar
movement mathematical models or closed-loop tracking types using sensor-based feedback
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controllers. In the open-loop tracking approach, a tracking formula or control algorithm is used.
Referring to the literature, the azimuth and the elevation angles of the Sun were determined by
solar movement models or algorithms at the given date, time and geographical information.
As we know, solar panel should be directly perpendicular to the sunlight so that radiation of
sunlight is highest. But, position of the sun is not same place during the whole day. Therefore,
direction of the sun radiation is not same and its changes during the course of the day. So, if we
can use solar tracking system it would give maximum solar efficiency. Solar trackers have both a
horizontal and a vertical axis and thus they can track the sun's apparent motion virtually
anywhere in the world. CSP applications using dual axis tracking include solar power towers and
dish (Stirling engine) systems. Dual axis tracking is extremely important in solar tower
applications due to the angle errors resulting from longer distances between the mirror and the
central receiver located in the tower structure.
In general, the single-axis tracker with one degree of freedom follows the Suns movement from
the east to west during a day while a dual-axis tracker also follows the elevation angle
of the Sun. In recent years, there has been a growing Volume of research concerned with dualaxis solar tracking systems. However, in the existing research, most of them used two
stepper motors to perform dual-axis solar tracking. With two tracking motors designs, two
motors were mounted on perpendicular axes, and even aligned them in certain directions.
In some cases, both motors could not move at the same time.
The structural view of two ways of rotating freedom solar tracker is shown in figure below.
Fig20: Structure of automatic solar tracker

In the system shown, a solar panel is mounted over the supporting arm with consisting two
current motor with gear mechanism, five LDR (light depended resistor sensor) sensors and a
control box. The light detecting system consists of five light depended resistors(LDR)which are
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LDR1, LDR2, LDR3, LDR4 and LDR5 represent in figure shown above as S1, S2,S3, S4 and S5
respectively mounted on the solar panel and placed in an enclosure. The sensors are setup in a
way that LDR1 and LDR2 are used to track the sun horizontally for drive the horizontal
positioning motor whileLDR3 and LDR4 are used to track the sun vertically for drive the vertical
positioning motor .The LDR5 is use to detect it is day or not because only day session system
will be the working mode. This sensors information is processes by using fuzzy logic because it
emulates human acceptable reasoning and could make decisions on inaccurate information. The
all operations are operated by control box where microcontroller and motor control ICs processes
whole detection and control system. So that, both motors vertical and horizontal movement to
ensure proper tracking of the solar panel in any position of the sun with respect to the East-West
or North-South.
This system is a geared PV system operating by direct current (DC) motor controlled by
PIC16f877A microcontroller to rotate the panel vertically or horizontally (dual axis rotation)
depending on the direction of sun light energy. Having installed light sensors in the PV-panel, the
microcontroller controls the speed and direction of the dc-motor by using the output of the light
sensors as an input to the microcontroller. As a result gear coupled with the shaft of the dc-motor
can rotate the PV-panel to the
Fig20: Structure of automatic solar tracker

In the system shown, a solar panel is mounted over the supporting arm with consisting two
current motor with gear mechanism, five LDR (light depended resistor sensor) sensors and a
control box. The light detecting system consists of five light depended resistors(LDR)which are
LDR1, LDR2, LDR3, LDR4 and LDR5 represent in figure shown above as S1, S2,S3, S4 and S5
respectively mounted on the solar panel and placed in an enclosure. The sensors are setup in a
way that LDR1 and LDR2 are used to track the sun horizontally for drive the horizontal
positioning motor whileLDR3 and LDR4 are used to track the sun vertically for drive the vertical
positioning motor .The LDR5 is use to detect it is day or not because only day session system
will be the working mode. This sensors information is processes by using fuzzy logic because it
emulates human acceptable reasoning and could make decisions on inaccurate information. The
all operations are operated by control box where microcontroller and motor control ICs processes
whole detection and control system. So that, both motors vertical and horizontal movement to
ensure proper tracking of the solar panel in any position of the sun with respect to the East-West
or North-South.
This system is a geared PV system operating by direct current (DC) motor controlled by
PIC16f877A microcontroller to rotate the panel vertically or horizontally (dual axis rotation)
depending on the direction of sun light energy. Having installed light sensors in the PV-panel, the
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microcontroller controls the speed and direction of the dc-motor by using the output of the light
sensors as an input to the microcontroller. As a result gear coupled with the shaft of the dc-motor
can rotate the PV-panel to the appropriate sun light direction. The flow chart indicates the
working principle of the tacking system. This is shown below:
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Fig21: Tracking system flow chart

The above flow chart shows how the sensors operate to rotate the PV-panel towards the sunlight
direction (vertical or horizontal depending upon the resistance values of different LDR)
3.3 Automated Tanker Filling System

The Tanker is a device used to store water to help the irrigation system as a backup. This
improves the system efficiency as the irrigation system is working without the help of pump
motor from the tanker. The Tanker level sensors has the function of sensing the water level of the
tanker in order to fill the tanker automatically, when the lower water level sensor is activated in
case of the water level in the tanker is decreased below the predefined level and close the valves
when the higher water level sensor is activated in case of the water level in the tanker is increases
and reaches above the predefined level. This is illustrated in the figure below.
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Fig22: Automatic tanker filling system
3.4 Automated Irrigation System

Automated irrigation system is self _controlled irrigation system which works based on the
output of the level of soil moisture from soil moisture sensor and the level of temperature from
the temperature sensor. This is working when the level of the soil moisture and the level of
temperature sensor are below their respective predefined values. In addition to this, there are so
many types of irrigation system. Among these drip irrigation preferable and also is suitable for
automatic feeding mechanism.
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation is a technique, in which water flows through a filter into special drip pipes, with
emitters located at different spacing. Water is distributed through the emitters directly into the
soil near the roots through a special slow-release device. If the drip irrigation system is properly
designed, installed, and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water conservation by
reducing evaporation and deep drainage. Compared to other types of irrigation systems such as
flood or overhead sprinklers, water can be more precisely applied to the plant roots. In addition,
drip can eliminate many diseases that are spread through irrigation water. Drip irrigation is
adaptable to any farmable slope and is suitable for most soils. In contrary to commercial drip
irrigation, simple self-made systems are cheap and effective.
With drip irrigation, water is conveyed under pressure through a pipe system to the fields, where
it drips slowly onto the soil through emitters or drippers which are located close to the plants.
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Compared to other types of irrigation (sprinkler irrigation or surface irrigation), only the
immediate root zone of each plant is wetted. Therefore this can be a very efficient method of
irrigation. Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation (FAO 1988).
Drip irrigation can be a very technical irrigation system for food or plant production fields. But
compared to other technical systems (e.g. sprinkler irrigation) it is a low-technique solution.
Furthermore it is possible to combine this system with a water treatment plant (e.g. non-planted
filter or constructed wetlands (horizontal flow or vertical flow) and use the treated water as
irrigation water. Drip irrigation requires little water compared to other irrigation methods. About
40-80 litter per day is needed per 100-200 plants. The small amount of water reduces weed
growth and limits the leaching of plant nutrients down in the soil. In organic fertilizer or urine tea
can be applied efficiently to the plants through the drip system (INFONET-BIOVISION 2010).
Design of a Simple Drip Irrigation System
A simple drip can consist of a 20 liter bucket with 30 meters (100 feet) of hose or drip tape
connected to the bottom of the tank. The bucket is placed at least 1 meter (3 feet) above the
ground so that gravity provides sufficient water pressure to ensure even watering for the entire
crop. Clean water is poured into the bucket daily through a filter/ strainer. The water in the
bucket fills the drip tape and is evenly distributed to 100 watering points. A multi-chambered
plastic drip tape is engineered to dispense water through openings spaced at 30cm (12 inches).
The bucket kit is the smallest type of drip irrigation technique (Adapted from RCSD 2008). A
filter after the control valve can be installed, to prevent blockages (e.g. a screen) or an even more
developed filter to improve the water quality.
Applicability
Generally, drip irrigation is the most appropriate irrigation method; it is especially good for arid
and drought prone areas. Drip and subsurface drip irrigation is used almost exclusively when
using recycled municipal wastewater. Regulations typically do not permit spraying water through
the air that has not been fully treated to potable water standards (WIKIPEDIA 2011).
Furthermore, this system can be very technical for industrial crop production but also a simple
small-scale irrigation method, which farmers can construct by themselves.
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Fig23: Automatic Drip irrigation system

Advantages
High water application efficiency and lower labour costs
Minimised fertiliser/nutrient loss due to localised application and reduced leaching
Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields. Levelling of the field not necessary
Allows safe use of recycled (waste-) water
Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field capacity and minimised soil
erosion
Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation
Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by output of each nozzle
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Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing
energy costs
Disadvantages
Expensive initial cost can be more than overhead systems (commercial system)
The sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life
If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properly maintained, it can
result in clogging
Drip irrigation might be unsatisfactory if herbicides or top dressed fertilisers need
sprinkler irrigation for activation
Waste of water, time & harvest, if not installed properly
Systems require careful study of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water,
crop and agro-climatic conditions, and suitability of drip irrigation system and its
components
Without sufficient leaching (most drip systems are designed for high efficiency, meaning
little or no leaching fraction), salts applied with the irrigation water may build up in the
root zone
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Chapter Four
4. System Simulation, Design and Implementation of

Hardware, Result, Discussion and Cost breakdown
Analysis
4.1 System Simulation
The simulation of this project or the system is done on the Proteus software. This also operates
by writing an appropriate code on mikroC to direct the different components of the system
simulation of the system.
LCD1
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
RS
RW
E
VSS
VDD
VEE
LM016L
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
4
5
6
1
2
3
RL5(NO)
R18
330
RL5
5V
D13
D14
DIODE
RL6
12V
LED2
Q5
R19
NPN
Q6
1k
NPN
U3
6
2
22uF
X1
RL3(NO)
BUZZER
RL2(NO)
C1
RL4(NO)
BUZ1
CRYSTAL
RL1(NO)
LMC7211A
R14
C2
22uF
330R
U1
13
14
2
3
4
5
6
7
LM35
8
9
10
50%
SOIL_MOISTURE_SENSOR
1
1k
RB0/INT
RB1
RB2
RB3/PGM
RB4
RB5
RB6/PGC
RB7/PGD
RA0/AN0
RA1/AN1
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF
RA3/AN3/VREF+
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT
RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI
RE0/AN5/RD
RC1/T1OSI/CCP2
RE1/AN6/WR
RC2/CCP1
RE2/AN7/CS
RC3/SCK/SCL
RC4/SDI/SDA
MCLR/Vpp/THV
RC5/SDO
RC6/TX/CK
RC7/RX/DT
RD0/PSP0
RD1/PSP1
RD2/PSP2
RD3/PSP3
RD4/PSP4
RD5/PSP5
RD6/PSP6
RD7/PSP7
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
D4
DIODE
R16
NPN
1k
R4
NPN
1k
NPN
1k
15
16
17
18
23
24
25
26
LED1
Q4
1k
Q1
R3
5V
R13
LED1
Q2
D9
DIODE
Q3
5V
LED-GREEN
330
D12
DIODE
LED2
D2
DIODE
LED2
330R
D1
330
5V
D3
D10
LED-RED
D16
R20
RL1
5V
D11
NPN
19
20
21
22
27
28
29
30
PIC16F877A
LDR1(1)
LDR4(1)
R7
TORCH_LDR
R12
D5
LED-YELLOW
330
U1:A
3
LDR1
TORCH_LDR
LDR2
330
1
+2.26
TORCH_LDR
D8
LED-YELLOW
U2:A
330
LP2901
D6
U1:B
+2.26
1
6
LED-YELLOW
12
R8
LDR4
TORCH_LDR
LDR3
Volts
2
R11
12
5
2
4
+0.05
LP2901
D7
U2:B
LED-YELLOW
R6
10k
+0.05
LP2901
Volts
+0.05
10k
+2.26
Volts
Volts
R9
12
R5
R10
10k
+0.05
Volts
LP2901
10k
+2.26
Volts
Fig24: System simulation

Page 57 of 72
Volts
330
Volts
12
OSC1/CLKIN
OSC2/CLKOUT
VOUT
D15
R17
TEMP_SENSOR
19.0
330
RL3
R2
RL2
R15
RL4
330
R1
2015
Thus, the Simulation shows:

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Automated solar tracker system/ tracking the PV panel towards the direction where
maximum power can get.
Automated tanker filling system simulation/ filling water to the tanker if the water level
is below the predefined (LL) value and stop the motor if the tanker filled or reach the
(HL) value.
Automated irrigation system which simulates feeding the field automatically by opening
the solenoid valves if the moisture of the soil is above some predetermined value (50%
in our case) and the temperature of environment below some predetermined value (20
degree centigrade in our case) and closing the valve if one of the above conditions are
not satisfied.
Alarming system is indication of the system improper operation or failure of the system
end output.
The complete simulation and hardware implementation of the system is working based
on the control output signal of the microcontroller. The microcontroller is working using
an appropriate code in programing language. Because, PIC type of microcontroller, code
is written on C language which is mikroC software. Choosing the programing language
based on the simulation software, PROTEUS which is compatible with C language is a
key concept or concern. So, the final code of our project is found at the end of this
document.
Page 58 of 72
2015
4.2 Design and Implementation of Hardware

Design and implementation of hardware part is done based on the simulation what we have done
on PROTEUS software by involving the mandatory components included in the software except
the hardware implementation is real or practical circuit combination of different real chips, real
components, real motors (DC), solenoid valves, homemade water level sensor circuits,
homemade soil moisture level sensor circuits and other supplementary circuit components. The
rating of components and devices used in the hardware implementation of our project are
mentioned below:
Table3: Rating of Used components and Devices
No_.
Component/Device
Unit
Rating (Volt/A/k/PF) per unit
DC motor
6-12V
Relay
12V
3
4
PIC16F877A
Buzzer
1
1
5V
6-12V
OpAmp
5V
Transistor
5-12V Vcc
Resistor
10k
Resistor
13
330
Resistor
1k
Capacitor
4.7PF
9
10
Solenoid valve
LDR
2
4
12V
10M dark resistance
11
LCD
5V
12
Crystal oscillator
2MHz
13
Temperature sensor
(-55oC to 150 oC)
14
Diode
6V
15
LED
12
6V
16
DC power supply
5V,6V and 12V
17
Board
18
Electrical cables
Page 59 of 72
2015
4.3 Result
The result what we have got from the simulation and, design and implementation of the hardware
of this project can be summarize with the following main points.
One, able to rotate and control the direction of the rotation (clockwise and/or counter
clockwise) of the DC-motor which can further rotate or track the PV-panel towards the
direction of the sunlight where maximum sunlight energy can get. As a result the system
can generate enough electric energy from the solar energy to supply the load.
Second, can stop and/or start the DC-motor; which can fill the tanker when the water
level of the tanker reaches its lowest level and stop when the water level of tanker reaches
its maximum level using the PIC16F877A microcontroller as a controller by taking the
output of the water level sensors of the tanker as an input.
Third, able to control the operation of the control valves that control the water flow to the
field or farming area by taking the output of the soil moisture sensor of the field as an
input to the microcontroller. This means it can automatically feed the field if its soil
moisture level is below the predefined value and the temperature of the environment is
below 20 oc, and stops feeding or close the valves if the soil moisture is wet enough.
It also indicates the total operating condition of the system by using an alarm system
which indicates any failure in the system such as failure to open or close control valves
and failure to ON/OFF of the different motors involved in the systems.
Finally, displaying the operating conditions of the system such as state of the motors
(ON/OFF) and the values of the parameters: existing temperature (in oc), soil moisture
level (%), etc. using the device LCD.
Page 60 of 72
2015
4.4 Discussion
When we come to discuss about the result , how it comes, what does it mean and what are the
parameters affect it can be answer by discussing each result in detail as follow.
The DC-motor can rotate or operate when one of its terminals can get source and the rest
terminal is grounded. If we want to reverse the direction of the rotation of the motor, we
can simply reverse the terminals. This can be done automatically using the PIC16F877A
microcontroller by taking the magnitude of the two of the LDR sensors as an input to the
microcontroller using Operational amplifier (OpAmps) as ADC before it enters to the
PIC. Lets assume, initially the rotation is counter clockwise of horizontal axis rotation.
When the rotation is clock wise direction, LDR1 is greater than LDR2 which mean the
light energy around the place of LDR1 is higher than the other LDR. Similarly, to the
vertical axis rotation using LDR3 and LDR4 the tilt angle can be increase or decrease
depending upon the light intensities of the sensors which decreases its resistance value as
light intensity increase So, the PIC16F877A generated control signal to reverse the
rotation of the tracker motor which results high solar energy generation. The reverse of
this is simply similar except the direction of the rotation of the dc-motor.
In order to fill a given tanker automatically, there should be two homemade water level
sensors which are high level sensor and low level sensor. So, using the output of these
sensing circuits to the microcontroller inputs, it can automatically fill the tanker when the
water level is below or equals to the low level and stop filling or making off the pumping
motor when the water amount of the tanker is equal to the high level of the tanker.
With the same principle to the level sensor circuit, the automatic irrigation of field is
done based on the circuit that senses the level of moisture of the soil. Taking the output of
this sensor or sensing circuit, the microcontroller generate control signal to close or open
the control valve to the field. Depending on the level of the soil moisture, the
microcontroller decides the operation of the solenoid valve.
Displaying the operating result make the system simple and easy understand to the
external user. So this is done by giving the appropriate input to the LDC from the
microcontroller. Alarm system also helps to indicate any failure and miss operation on the
whole system. This is done using buzzer by taking input from the microcontroller.
The hardware design and implementation is done based on the complete simulation and
connections involved in the simulation.
CODING IS MUST: an appropriate coding is done for both the simulation and hardware
implementation. Because the microcontroller is working based on the code what we have
done for system operation. So, this is done mikroC programing language.
Page 61 of 72
2015
4.5 Cost Breakdown

The total cost breakdown analysis of the thesis can see by adding each component bought for the
purpose of hardware implementation of the project. So, the component and their respective price
are mentioned below:
Table4: Cost breakdown of the project
No_.
Component
Unit
Cost/Unit
(ETB)
Total cost (ETB)
DC- motor
150
300
LCD
300
300
Temperature sensor
75
75
Buzzer/Alar,
30
30
LDR
15
60
LED
10
40
Relay
13
52
OpAmps
15
90
DVD DC power supply
60
60
10
PIC Pin Leg
20
20
11
Others (transport phone call,

etc.)
225.75
225.75
Sum
1252.75
Page 62 of 72
2015
Chapter Five
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
Automatic solar tracker based water pumps and tanker filling can provide simple and low labor
watering options for farms that require water in remote areas. Several general points to keep in
mind about solar water pumping include:
Solar PV-based irrigation system is a system that can perform three main functions:
automatic tracking PV-panel position in order to get maximum electric energy from solar
using maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) motor, automatic tanker water filling and
automatic water feeding motor controlled by PIC16F877A microcontroller.
Solar trackers are used to improve electric power radically of photovoltaic panel by using
different sensor. The sensors retrieve the solar radiation. This paper presents a simple
method, low cost microcontroller based solar tracker of two ways of rotating freedom in
order to achieve the right positioning of photovoltaic solar cell to get the much sunlight
during the day light session and as a result produce more electricity. This tracking system
is developed with two direct current motor operated by a microcontroller which processes
the sensors (LDR) information by its internal ADC analogue to digital converter with
Fuzzy logic and send correct information to motor controller by which motor is operated.
The motor is so operated that the panel can rotates two ways such as horizontally and
vertically of its direction. A comparison has been made on a conventional solar follower
plant and trucking system.
Water storage in metal or plastic tanks is used instead of power storage in a battery. This
reduces costs and makes the system simpler. A float switch turns the pump off when the
tank is full.
An electronic pump controller is used to smooth out the current to the pump. It acts like
an automatic transmission in the sense that it helps the pump to start and to operate in
low light conditions.
As with the turtle and the hare, slow and steady wins the race. Many solar pumps are
made to pump slowly over the course of the day, which allows water to be pushed over
considerable distances and vertical rises. Slow pumps can use small diameter piping,
reducing the installed cost. Slow pumps require less power and allow the use of limited
water resources, such as a slowly recharged well.
To reduce the cost of a system, water conservation must be practiced. PV modules are
expensive, and reducing water use in any manner will save on the installed cost.
Solar pumps are generally most competitive in smaller systems where combustion
engines are least economical.
Solar pump systems are low maintenance. With automatic shutoff from a float valve,
they require only occasional inspection.
Page 63 of 72
2015
5.2 Recommendation
In our country there is more than enough solar source of energy. But nothing is done on
generation of energy from the solar source. And most of our populations (about 80%) are living
their life using the agricultural product. This shows that most of our populations are farmers
which produce products using regular farming and irrigation system. So, we can recommend the
government, public and private companies participating on agricultural activities and individual
farmers to do and to concern on the following main points.
Government should work on the irrigation system of our country by introducing new
agricultural technologies that can double and triple the product of the individuals and the
country. Automatic solar tracker microcontroller based irrigation system is among
the best technologies done for agriculture. So, government should introduce such system
in every level of its agricultural sectors.
Public and private companies that participating in the agricultural activities should be
familiar with the modern agricultural technologies which able them to maximize their
productivity and at the same time the national productivity.
Sometimes even though government and/or public or private companies introduced the
modern agriculture system that able to minimize cost, maximize efficiency and
productivity of the government, the companies and individuals, the individual farmers
and workers cannot be familiar to the new technology easily. This affects the
developmental plan and strategies of the country and individuals. So, considering these
negative effect individuals should ready to be familiar with the different technologies
introduced by the government, governmental and non-governmental companies.
Page 64 of 72

CODE on mikroC
sbit LCD_RS at RB4_bit;

sbit LCD_EN at RB5_bit;
sbit LCD_D4 at RB0_bit;
sbit LCD_RS_Direction at TRISB4_bit;

sbit LCD_EN_Direction at TRISB5_bit;
sbit LCD_D4_Direction at TRISB0_bit;
// End LCD module connections
char i;
float temp;
float humid;
char temper[7];
char humidity[7];
void READ_temp(void)
{
Page 65 of 72
2015
void data_converstion1(void)
{
inttostr(temp,temper);
}
void display1(void)
{
Lcd_Out(1, 1, "Temp=");
Lcd_Out(1, 6, Ltrim(temper));
Lcd_Chr_Cp(0xdf);
Lcd_Chr_Cp('C');
Lcd_Chr_Cp(' ');
}
void READ_humid(void)
{
humid=ADC_Read(1);
//humid=humid*5/1023;
humid=(humid/10)-1;
}
void data_converstion2(void)
{
inttostr(humid,humidity);
}
Page 66 of 72
2015

void main()
{
TRISD = 0xFF; //PORTD as input
TRISC = 0x00; //PORTC as output
TRISB = 0x00; //PORTB as output
//PORTC = 0;
//PORTD = 1;
ADC_Init();
Lcd_Init();
Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd_cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);
lcd_out(1,4,"SYSTEM");
lcd_out(2,3," OVERVIEW ");
delay_ms(1000);
Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);
while (1) // endless loop
{
// Lcd_Out(1, 12, "M3=");
Lcd_Out(2, 1, "M1=");
Lcd_Out(2, 9, "M2=");
Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);
READ_temp();
Page 67 of 72
2015
2015
if ((PORTD.RD2==0&&PORTD.RD3==0)||
(PORTD.RD2==1&&PORTD.RD3==1)) //Checking the button pressed or not
{
PORTC.RC4=0;
PORTC.RC5=0;
Lcd_Out(2, 4, "OFF");
}
else if (PORTD.RD2==0&&PORTD.RD3==1) // Checking the button pressed or not
{
PORTC.RC4=0;
PORTC.RC5=1;
Lcd_Out(2, 4, "ON ");
}
else{
PORTC.RC4=1;
PORTC.RC5=0;
Lcd_Out(2, 4, "ON ");
}
if ((PORTD.F0==0&&PORTD.F1==0)||(PORTD.F0==1&&PORTD.F1==1)) //Checking the
button pressed or not
{
PORTC.RC6=0;
PORTC.RC7=0;
Lcd_Out(2, 12, "OFF");
}
else if (PORTD.F0==0&&PORTD.F1==1) // Checking the button pressed or not
Page 68 of 72

else
{
PORTC.RC6=1;
PORTC.RC7=0;
Lcd_Out(2, 12, "ON ");
}
if (temp<20&&humid<50)
{
PORTC.RC1=1;
// Lcd_Out(1, 15, "ON ");
}
else {
PORTC.RC1=0;
// Lcd_Out(1, 15, "OFF");

}
// pump motor operation
if( PORTD.RD4==1)
{PORTB.RB6=0;}
else {PORTB.RB6=1 }
if(PORTD.RD7==0)
{ PORTB.RB7=0;
PORTC.RC0=1; }
Else {
Page 69 of 72
2015
2015
References
[1]. M. A. Usta, . Akyaz and . H. Alta "Design and Performance of Solar Tracking System
with Fuzzy Logic Controller", 6th International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS11),
16-18 May 2011, Elaz, Turkey.
[2]. R. Mukaro, X.F. Carelse, A microcontroller-based data acquisition system for solar radiation
and environmental monitoring, IEEE Transaction on Instrumentation And Measurement, Vol.
48, No. 6, December 1999.
[3]. E. Koutroulis, K. Kalaitzakis, N. C. Voulgaris, Development of a microcontroller-based,
photovoltaic maximum power point tracking control system, IEEE Transactions On Power
Electronics, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 2001.
[4]. M.A. Abella, E. Lorenzo, F. Chenlo, Effective irradiance estimation for PV applications,
3rd World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, May 11-18, 2003 Osaka, Japan.
[5]. Z. Xinhong, W. Zongxian and Y. Zhengda, Intelligent Solar Tracking Control System
Implemented on a FPGA, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University.
[6]. A. Louchene, A. Benmakhlouf and A. Chaghi, Solar Tracking System with Fuzzy
Reasoning Applied to Crisp Sets, Revue des Energies Renouvelables, Vol. 10, No2, pp. 231
240, 2007.
[7]. Gustavo Ozuna, Carlos Anaya. Diana Figueroa. Nun Pitalua, Solar Tracker of Two Degrees
of Freedom or Photovoltaic Solar Cell Using Fuzzy Logic, Proceedings of the World Congress
on Engineering 2011 Vol II WCE 2011,July 6 - 8, 2011, London, U.K.
[8]. J. S. Choi, D. Y. Kim, K. T. Park, C. H. Choi and D. H. Chung, Design of Fuzzy Controller
Based on PC for Solar Tracking System, International Confrerence on Smart Manufacturing
Application, April, 9-11, 2008 in KINTEX, Gyeonggi-do, Korea.
[9]. Dr. J R Mahamood and H Muhammad "Design and implementation of Smart Relay Based
Two-axis Sun Tracking System" Iraq J.Electrical and Electronic Engineering Vol.7 No.1, 2011
pp. 64
[10]. Microchip,PIC16F877A Datasheet,http://www.microchip.com
[11]. International Water management Institute [2010].
Page 70 of 72
2015
Appendix
PV:
Photovoltaic
MPPT:
Maximum Power Point Tracker
DC:
Direct Current
LDR:
Light Dependent Resistor
PIC:
Programming Interface Control
MikroC:
c)
Microcontroller programing Software (programing language
ADC:
Analogue to Digital Converter
DAC:
Digital to Analogue Converter
CPU:
Central Processing Unit
RAM:
Random Access Memory
ROM:
Read Only Memory
LCD:
Liquid Crystal Display
LED:
Light Emitting Diode
I/O:
Input Out
IC:
Integrated Circuit
CSP:
Concentrated Solar Power
CPV:
Concentrated Photovoltaic
RWH:
Rainwater Harvesting
Kwh:
Kilo Watt Hour
Kpa:
Kilo Pascal
C:
Degree centigrade
%:
Percentage
OpAmps
Operational amplifiers
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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

B.Sc. Thesis Project Documentation

Title: Self Controlled Tanker Filling and Water

Advisor Name: Ato Kiros Tesfay, Signature _____________

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

2.4.2 Opportunities for Increased Irrigation .........................13

3.1 Main System Components and Their Operational Characteristics...24

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

1.2 Problem Statement

1. 2.1 Unable to Meet the Growing Demand of Food by

B.Sc. Thesis Project

1.2.3 Low Efficiency of Fixed Photovoltaic Panel

1.3 Objectives of the project

Farmers are dependent on the seasonal rain only.

1.5. Scope of the project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

This project also will apply microcontroller Peripheral Interface Controller

1.6 Project methodologies

B.Sc. Thesis Project

2.2 PV Water Pumping System Configuration

2.3 PV-irrigation systems

B.Sc. Thesis Project

2.4 Ethiopias irrigation sector and future development

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Increased job opportunities, and promotion of a dynamic economy with rural

Overview of Ethiopian Irrigation

B.Sc. Thesis Project

2.4.1 Existing Irrigation Development

2.4.2 Opportunities for Increased Irrigation

B.Sc. Thesis Project

2.4.3 Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Table1: Irrigation potentials in Ethiopia (ha)

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) potential

B.Sc. Thesis Project

nutrient reserves, salinization and alkalinisation, pollution of water systems, loss of

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Solution for the disadvantages modern agricultural

2.4.4 Challenges to developing irrigation in Ethiopia

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Gap in Plans versus Delivery of Irrigation Projects

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Low Performance of Existing Schemes

B.Sc. Thesis Project

2.5 Comparison to Other Pumping Systems

Must have good sun exposure

Needs maintenance and replacement

B.Sc. Thesis Project

B.Sc. Thesis Project

Fig1: Overall System Block Diagram

B.Sc. Thesis Project

1) The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

B.Sc. Thesis Project

decrease drastically. If constant voltage is applied to it and intensity of light is increased

Fig3: Resistance vs. Illumination curve for LDR

B.Sc. Thesis Project