Contents

1 Introduction
1.1 Basic operation of a Flyback converter explained [REFERENCE THIS]
1.2 A description of CCM and DCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 CCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 DCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 CCM vs. DCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Conditions for conduction mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 The state space model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Flyback transformer design

3 Flyback modelling and control

References

Abstract
In this paper, the design, analysis, and control of a 100 W Flyback converter is
presented. A description of the different conduction modes is presented as well.
An analysis of a Flyback converter using the state space average model is used
as a means of describing the physical operation of a Flyback converter. A state
spaced average model for control is presented along with a control scheme to be
implemented.

List of Figures
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7
8

A generalised circuit schematic of a Buck-Boost converter [1] . . . . . .

A generalised circuit schematic of a Flyback converter with an isolated
transformer [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Flyback converter with idealised switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flyback operation during the first interval - S1 closed . . . . . . . . . .
Flyback operation during the second interval - S2 closed . . . . . . . .
Flyback inductor current and voltage waveforms for CCM and DCM [2] .
General definition of two switched intervals for describing a basic switch
drive [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Flyback model including parasitics and magnetising inductance . . . .

List of Tables

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3
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Introduction

The Flyback converter is a Buck-Boost derived topology. It is typically used in power

electronics applications requiring a power rating of less than 150 W. For power ratings
larger than 150 W, the Flyback converter topology exhibits reduced efficiency due to
large ripple currents inherent to the topology [3]. A typical Buck-Boost converter is
illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: A generalised circuit schematic of a Buck-Boost converter [1]

The buck-boost converter features a single non-isolated inductor. The Flyback converter makes use of the buck-boost converter topology by using an isolated coupled
inductor instead, otherwise known as a Flyback transformer . On of the main features
of the Flyback converter is that current never flows in both windings of the Flyback
transformer . A typical Flyback converter is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: A generalised circuit schematic of a Flyback converter with an isolated transformer [1]
A Flyback converter is typically operated in three conduction modes, viz. Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM), Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM), and Boundary
1

Conduction Mode (BCM). Considerations and discussions, in this paper, include only
the first two conduction modes (CCM and DCM).

1.1

Basic operation of a Flyback converter explained [REFERENCE

THIS]

In order to understand the basic principles of operation of a Flyback converter, an

idealised situation is presented. Firstly, the transistor and diodes are assumed to be
ideal switches. Secondly, magnetising inductance is assumed to be negligible, and
conduction modes are ignored for the sake of simplicity. In Figure 3, the circuit to be
used as an explanatory aid is illustrated.

Figure 3: A Flyback converter with idealised switches

During the operation of the Flyback, two intervals exists, viz. the transistor conducts
or the diode conducts. To illustrate these two intervals, two switches have been used
denoted by S1 and S2 representing the transistor and diode conduction, respectively. In
the first interval S1 is closed, and in the second interval S2 is closed. Both switches,
S1 and S1 are assumed to never be closed at the same time.
S1 closed :
In this interval, the transistor conducts and the diode is reverse-biased. The input
voltage is the same voltage appearing across the primary inductor. The voltage across
the primary inductor rises at a rate described by,

vL = L

diL
.
dt

(1)

The capacitor voltage is assumed to be zero for now, since it has never been charged.
This forms part of an special third interval (a subinterval of the second interval) that
can only occur normally once the Flyback has been through the first two intervals, at
least once. During this interval, no current passes through to the secondary inductor.
This is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Flyback operation during the first interval - S1 closed

S2 closed :
The transistor enters the off-state (non-conducting) and the diode become forwardbiased. The polarity of the secondary inductor reverses, and current flows from the
secondary inductor through the capacitor and load resistor. Energy is transferred by
means of the core, from the primary to the secondary. The voltage through the resistor
and capacitor rise according to,

1
vC =
C

Z
iC dt,
(2)

vR = iR R.
where,

i = ic = iR .
Much like the primary inductor, the secondary inductor will also experience a rate of
change, only this time it shall decay according to equation (1).
There exists also a subinterval, within the second interval. In this subinterval, momentarily, the transistor and diode both do not conduct. At this point, the capacitor
discharges into the load. The voltage across the load is always continuous. An analysis of the equations governing the Flyback converter, will supply a more complete
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description of the operation. This is illustrated in Figure 5. In the figure, the aforementioned subinterval is included as well.

Figure 5: Flyback operation during the second interval - S2 closed

1.2
1.2.1

A description of CCM and DCM

CCM

CCM is commonly referred to as a mode where an incomplete energy transfer [sic]

takes place within a transformer. More specifically, energy stored during the on-state,
within the transformer, remains in the transformer over the next cycle of the on-state
[3].

1.2.2

DCM

DCM is commonly referred to as a mode where a complete energy transfer [sic]

takes places within a transformer. More specifically, energy stored during the onstate, within the transformer, is completely transferred to the coupled winding during
the off-state [3].

1.2.3

CCM vs. DCM

To illustrate the CCM and DCM of a Flyback, consider Figure 6a and 6b,respectively.
The waveforms for the inductor current and voltage of the converter are used to illustrated the difference.
From Figure 6a, the energy transfer statement above becomes more clear. By viewing
the current waveform (bottom waveform), it can be seen that the current never reaches
zero. In other words, the core is constantly retaining some energy over the following
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on-state. Generally speaking, CCM offers a higher efficiency than CCM due to lower
switching stresses. It can be said that the peak current in CCM, will be lower than that
of the DCM configuration [4].
From Figure 6b, similar observations with regards to current may be made for the DCM
configuration. By viewing the current waveform (bottom waveform) it can be seen that
current always reaches a peak current value and then returns to a zero current value.
This shall induce higher switching stresses than the CCM configuration. Generally
speaking, DCM offers lower efficiency than CCM. It may also be observed that there
shall exist higher peak currents in DCM when compared to CCM [4].

(a) CCM

(b) DCM

Figure 6: Flyback inductor current and voltage waveforms for CCM and DCM [2]

1.2.4

Conditions for conduction mode

FIND SOMETHING ON THIS ! IMPORTANT !!!

1.3

The state space model

In order to adequately develop control schemes for power switching converters, acceptable models are necessary. An important aspect of modelling such systems includes the effect of parasitics. By developing plant models of converters, the design
and analysis of current-mode and voltage-mode control schemes become viable as a
control method. A method of approach is abstracted from [5].
As a general case, the situation of two-switched intervals is introduced. Consider
Figure 7. The following definitions are made,

Td = T d
(3)
Td0

= T d = T (1 d)

where,
Td : interval when the switch is in the on-state
Td0 : interval when the switch is in the off-state
d : duty cycle (ton /T )

Figure 7: General definition of two switched intervals for describing a basic switch
drive [5]
This situation may be further modelled using state equations. A model that may be
described as,
(i) on state interval:
x = A1 x + b1 u
(4)
T

y1 = (c1 ) x
(ii)off-state interval:
x = A2 x + b2 u
(5)
y2 = (c2 )T x
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The complete description of the system becomes possible by the summation of the
two intervals. This results in the following linear continuous system,

!
x = d A1 x + b1 u

!
+ d 0 A 2 x + b2 u

dA1 + d0 A2 x +

!
db1 + d0 b2 u
(6)

 
  

y = d y1 + d0 y2 = dcT1 + d0 cT2 x
In order to better model the physical operation of a Flyback, some modifications are
necessary to the circuit illustrated in Figure 2. The new circuit to be used shall now
model the Flyback transformer as an ideal transformer with magnetising inductance,
and the addition of parasitics. This is illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8: A Flyback model including parasitics and magnetising inductance

Flyback transformer design

Flyback modelling and control

References
[1] M. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications. Pearson Education, 2009. (pp. 217-218 ).
[2] A. Emadi, A. Khaligh, Z. Nie, and Y. Lee, Integrated Power Electronic Converters
and Digital Control. Power Electronics and Applications Series, CRC Press, 2009.
[3] K. Billings and T. Morey, Switchmode Power Supply Handbook. McGraw-Hill Education, 3 ed., 2010. (pp. 2.123-2.133, pp. 4.123-4.131).
[4] R. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics. Power electronics, Springer US, 2001.
[5] R. Middlebrook and S. Cuk, A general unified approach to modelling switchingconverter power stages, in Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1976 IEEE,
pp. 1834, June 1976.