The

Gordon

Approach:

Music

Learning

Theory

Music Learning Theory, researched and developed by Edwin Gordon from the mid 1950s to present, is a set of
ideas about how humans learn music through audiation. By breathing, moving, rhythm chanting, singing, and
playing instruments we develop audiation skills that allow us to give meaning to the combinations of rhythm
patterns and tonal patterns that make music a unique form of human communication. Moreover, audiation may
be expressed in a variety of ways that may be developed sequentially from before birth through adulthood
(Gordon, 2007a; Gordon, 2007b; 2007d). Through audiation, we discover music learning as a never-ending, ever
deepening process for music expression and enjoyment. Following is an overview of key Music Learning Theory
components. This overview is not intended as an in-depth description. For in-depth study information please visit
http://www.GIML.org and http://www.sc.edu/library/music/spec_coll.html. (For further background, refer to
infomration
at
the
end
of
this
article.)"
Philosophy
Gordon bases Music Learning Theory on his extensive research in music aptitude, the potential each human has
for music achievement (Gordon, 1965/1995, 1979, 1982, 1989a, 1989b). Music aptitude and music achievement
are different, but are closely intertwined. Whereas music aptitude is the possibility for music achievement, music
achievement is the realization of that possibility. According to Gordon, we are each born with music aptitude. As
with other human learning potentials, there is a wide range of music aptitude levels distributed among the human
population. Moreover, both music aptitude and music achievement are dependent on audiation. That is, our
music learning potentials and our music learning achievements are based on our music thinking. Most
importantly, that music thinking goes beyond mere imitation and leads to music comprehension (Gordon 2007b;
2007d).
Through his research Gordon (2007b; 2007d) has determined that music aptitude is developmental, fluctuating
from birth through approximately age 9, and stabilized thereafter. The interplay between the music aptitude we
receive at birth and the music environments we experience during the first few years of life begins to account for
the variety of individual music differences teachers observe among students in their music classrooms. Teachers
may use Gordons music aptitude tests (Gordon, 1965/1995, 1979, 1982, 1989a, 1989b) to identify each
students music aptitude and to adapt music instruction to address each students individual music strengths and
weaknesses.
Ideally, during the first years of life, before music aptitude stabilizes we each receive rich, sequential informal
music guidance followed by formal music instruction that allows our music potentials to stabilize as high as
possible, and sets the stage for music achievement. Gordon (2003, 2007a, 2007b, 2007d) explains that through
informal music guidance and initial formal music instruction we develop music vocabularies. Gordon likens the
development
of
music
vocabularies
to
initial
language
vocabulary
development.
Music
and
Language:
Parallels
and
Differences
Think about how a child learns a native language by developing five vocabularies: listening, speaking, thinking,
reading, and writing. In utero, the typically developing fetus begins building a listening vocabulary by perceiving
and reacting to sounds. When out of the womb, the infant continues to deepen and expand the listening
vocabulary as adults and children speak to the infant and to each other in the infants presence. The breadth and
depth of the infants listening vocabulary depends on the breadth and depth of language in the environment. The
combination of heard language variety and repeated language exposure allows the infants listening vocabulary
to expand and become the foundation for all other language vocabularies (Gordon, 2007a, 2007b).
As the infant hears the sounds of language spoken in context and syntax, the infant begins to make
vocalizations. At first, adults and children in the infants environment may interpret those vocalizations as random
noises. But with continually increasing expectancy that the infant wants to and will communicate using language,
adults and children who try to communicate with the infant, interpret those vocalizations as intentional language
babble, language approximations, language imitation, and language improvisation through conversation
(Reynolds, Long, Valerio, in press). As the infant becomes a toddler, preschooler, and school-aged child, he uses

language interactions with others to develop a thinking vocabulary, while continuing to absorb listening
vocabulary, to expand the speaking vocabulary, and to develop language reading and writing language
vocabularies (Gordon 2007a. 2007b). By experiencing and making language meaning through listening and
speaking,
the
child
gives
meaning
to
notated
language
when
reading
and
writing.
Gordon (2007a, 2007b, 2007d) posits that the types of music vocabularies a child develops are similar to those
developed in language. In music, however, a child audiates music, rather than thinks language, to develop those
vocabularies. As a result the five music vocabularies are listening, performing, audiating/improvising, reading,
and writing. Before birth, a child begins to develop a listening vocabulary of music in the environment. When out
of the womb, the infant continues to deepen and expand the music listening vocabulary as adults and children
sing and chant to the infant and to each other in the presence of the infant. The more repeated and varied music
the infant hears, the deeper and richer the music listening vocabulary may become, and the greater is the
foundation
for
all
other
music
vocabularies
(Gordon
2007a.
2007b,
2007d).
As the infant hears the sounds of music performed in music context and syntax by adults and children, the infant
begins to make vocalizations. At first, adults and children in the infants environment may interpret those
vocalizations as random noises. But with continually increasing expectancy, adults and children who try to
communicate musically with the infant interpret those vocalizations as intentional music babble, music
approximations, music imitation, that leads to music improvisation and music conversation (Reynolds, Long,
Valerio, in press). As the infant becomes a toddler, preschooler, and school-aged child, he may use music
interactions with others to develop an audiation/improvisation vocabulary, while continuing to absorb a music
listening vocabulary, to expand the music performing vocabulary, and to develop music reading and music
writing vocabularies. By experiencing and making music meaning through listening and performing, the child
gives meaning to music notation when reading and writing (Gordon 2007a. 2007b, 2007d).
Preparatory
Audiation
and
Audiation
Though children not may be born audiating, they are born ready to audiate. Ideally, the adults and peers in
childrens environments nurture their audiation, music aptitudes, and music achievement, from at least birth
(Gordon, 2003, 2007a, 2007b, 2007d; Reynolds, Long, and Valerio, in press). Similar to language learning, as
adults and peers guide childrens language learning through interactions (Bruner, 1983; Vygotsky, 1978),
children are dependent on those adults and peers to guide their music learning through music interactions. Initial
music learning, like initial language learning, is informal, yet sequential. Gordon (2003; 2007b, 2007d) theorizes
that there are three types and seven stages of preparatory audiation hough which children progress as they are
guided on the path to audiation. The types and stages of preparatory audiation are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary Outline of the Types and Stages of Preparatory Audiation. Adapted from Learning Sequences
in
Music
(Gordon,
2007b,
p.
256).

ACCULTURATION
From birth to age 2-4, each child
engages with little consciousness of
the
environment.

IMITATION
From ages 2-4, each child engages
with conscious thought focused
primarily on the environment.

1. ABSORPTION - Each child hears and aurally

collects the sounds of music in the environment.
2. RANDOM RESPONSE - Each child moves
andbabbles in response to, but without relation to,
the sounds of music in the environment.
3. PURPOSEFUL RESPONSE - Each child tries
to relate movement and babble to the sounds of
music in the environment.

4. SHEDDING EGOCENTRICITY - Each

child recognizes that his or her movements
and babbling do not match the sounds of music
inthe
environment.

5. BREAKING THE CODE - Each child imitates

tonal patterns and rhythm patterns and other
sounds in the environment with some precision.

6. INTROSPECTION - Each child recognizes his

or her lack of coordination between singing and
breathing and between chanting and movement,
including
breathing.
7. COORDINATION - Each child coordinates his
singing and chanting with breathing and moving.

ASSIMILATION
From ages 3-5 to ages 4-6, each
child engages with conscious
thought focused primarily on himself
or herself.

Valerio, Reynolds, Taggart, Bolton, and Gordon (1998) describe informal music and movement activities that
adults may use to guide children in the types and stages of preparatory audiation. As with initial informal
language learning, initial informal music learning takes place most naturally in child-centered, playful
environments where music is a verb to be experienced through sound, body and multiple human interactions
(Reynolds, Long, Valerio, in press). When children are progressing through the types and stages of preparatory
audiation, they engage in tonal and rhythm music babble and music interactions. Through those interactions,
adults and peers help children shape their music babble into objective music syntax. As a result, what may seem
to be the meaningless or random vocalizations and movements from infants, become recognizable rhythm
chants and songs due to the music interactions children encounter with adults and peers as they progress
through the types and stages of preparatory audation. If guided, but not rushed children will typically exit the
types and stages of preparatory audiation as they begin coordinating their singing and chanting with their
breathing
and
moving
at
approximately
age
6
or
7.
Types
and
Stages
of
Audiation
As children develop their audiation skills, they may engage in music imitation as they learn rhythm chants,
songs, rhythm patterns, and tonal patterns, but they also engage in music comprehension as they compare the
music they are hearing or performing to music they have heard or music they are predicting they will hear.
Gordon (2007b) states, audiation is, hearing and comprehending in ones mind the sound of music that is not, or
may never have been, physically present. It is not imitation or memorization, (p. 399). That is, audiation is music
thinking, and music thinking may be expressed in several ways that may involve, but go beyond, mere imitation.
When audiating, children and adults may engage in eight audiation types and six audiation stages. Whereas the
stages of audiation are sequential, the types of audiation are not. The types and stages of audiation are
presented
in
Tables
2
and
3,
respectively.
Table

2.

Types

of

Audiation

(Gordon,

2007b,

p.

Type 1

listening to

familiar or unfamiliar music

Type 2

reading

familiar or unfamiliar music

Type 3

writing

familiar or
dictation

Type 4

recalling and performing

Type 5

recalling and writing

familiar music from memory

Type 6

creating and improvising

unfamiliar music while performing or in

silence

Type 7

creating and improvising

unfamiliar music while reading

unfamiliar

music

from

familiar music from memory

15).

Type 8
Table

creating and improvising

3.

Stages

of

unfamiliar music while writing

Audiation

(Gordon,

2007b,

Stage 1

momentary retention

Stage 2

imitating and audiating tonal patterns and rhythm patterns and recognizing
and identifying a tonal center and macrobeats

Stage 3

establishing objective or subjective tonality and meter

Stage 4

retaining in audiation tonal patterns and rhythm patterns that have been
organized

Stage 5

recalling tonal patterns and rhythm patterns organized and audiated in other
pieces of music

Stage 6

anticipating and predicting tonal patterns and rhythm patterns

p.

20).

Music educators who use Music Learning Theory to inform their understanding of how humans learn when they
learn music realize that the types of audiation are the bases for audiation expression and may be used the bases
for music assessment. When students express what they are audiating, that expression can be measured as a
type or types of audiation with varying degrees of music achievement. The challenge for the music teacher is to
combine her knowledge of audiation with appropriate, sequential activities that promote the development of the
types
of
audiation.
Music
Learning
Sequences
Gordon (2007b, 2007d) recommends using several learning sequences for optimal formal music instruction.
Those learning sequences are: music skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning
sequence, and pattern learning sequence. Through music skill learning sequence students learn to discriminate
among tonal patterns and rhythm patterns through imitation. As they do so, they gain the readiness for inferential
music thinking. Gordon outlines discrimination learning and inference learning in Table 4.
Table 4. Skill Learning Sequence. Adapted from Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Music Learning
Theory
(Gordon,
2007b,
p.
101).

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING
Aural/Oral

INFERENCE LEARNING
Generalization
Aural/Oral
Verbal
- Symbolic
Reading - Writing

Verbal Association
Partial Synthesis

Symbolic
Reading - Writing
Composite
Reading - Writing

Creativity/Improvisation
Aural/Oral
Reading - Writing

Symbolic

Association
Theoretical Understanding
Synthesis Aural/Oral
- Verbal Reading - Writing

Symbolic

For tonal audiation development, skill learning sequence must be combined sequentially tonal content and tonal
patterns. For rhythm audiation development, skill learning sequence must be combined sequentially with rhythm

content rhythm patterns. Gordon prescribes specific and separate sequences for tonal content and rhythm
content learning. Within each type of development, however, patterns of sound, not individual pitches or
durations, are the focus. By audiating patterns of sound, students comprehend music context and syntax.
Through the interaction of music skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning sequence,
and pattern learning sequence students give meaning to music as they engage in the types and stages of
audiation.
According to Gordon (2007b, 2007d) learning sequence activities are the essential tools for tonal audiation
development and rhythm audiation development. As outlined in the tonal and rhythm register books that
accompany, Jump Right In, The Music Curriculum, Reference Handbook for Using Learning Sequence Activities
(Gordon, 2001) and in Jump Right In, The Instrumental Curriculum, Band, Strings, and Recorder (Grunow,
Gordon, Azzara, Martin, 1999-2002), teachers who use Music Learning Theory should engage their students in
tonal pattern or rhythm pattern instruction during 5-10 minutes of each class period. As they do so, they will take
their students through an audiation skill learning sequence involving a continual, sequential interplay between
imitation learning and inference learning, and introducing sound-before-symbol as suggested by Pestalozzi,
Dalcroze, Kodly, Orff, and Suzuki. As they proceed through learning sequence activities, students gain skills in
major, harmonic minor, Dorian, and Mixolydian tonalities, and duple, triple, combined, and unusual meters.
Classroom
Activities
As might be expected, learning sequence activities need to be coordinated with classroom activities where
students are introduced to tonalities and meters, as well as other music elements. Classroom activities may be
of any type, including those from Dalcroze, Kodly, Orff Schulwerk, and Suzuki traditions, which allow teachers
to
introduce
students
to
a
variety
of
tonalities
and
meters.
With all classroom activities, some general considerations are necessary for students to reap the benefits of
audiation. First, for understanding and internalizing meter, tempo, and rhythm, continuous movement activities,
rather than beat-keeping activities, are most beneficial. Many continuous movement activities that emphasize the
use of flow, weight, space, and time may be found in Jump Right In, The Early Childhood Music Curriculum,
Music Play (Valerio, et al. 1998), Guiding Early Childhood Music Development: A Moving Experience (Reynolds,
2005), Jump Right In, The Music Curriculum, Teacher Editions, Book 1(2000), Book 2(2001), Book 3(2004),
Book 4 (2006), and Buffalo: Music Learning Theory/Resolutions and Beyond (Gordon, 2006a). By participating in
such activities over time, students become adept at fluently measuring the space and time in and between beats
in the music they are listening to or performing. Second, proper vocal technique is necessary for the expression
of tonal audiation. For all children, therefore, proper use of head voice must be emphasized, especially for tonal
audiation development. Third, teachers must not assume that students will automatically demonstrate proper
breathing and posture. Above all, the teacher must model proper breathing, posture, and singing. Proper
breathing
and
posture
will
enhance
students
singing
voice
use
and
audiation.
Teachers and students who engage in sequential audiation development through learning sequence activities
and classroom activities find themselves eager to participate in music improvisation as a natural outgrowth of
their music thinking interactions with each other. Through music improvisation, they own their music thoughts,
express their music individuality, and deepen their music understanding and enjoyment. For those purposes,
Gordons (2003) Improvisation in the Music Classroom and Developing Musicianship through Audation (Azzara
and
Grunow,
2006)
are
useful
resources.
Combining
Learning
Sequence
Activities
and
Classroom
Activities:
Whole-Part-Whole
To combine learning sequence activities and classroom activities, a three-stage,whole-part-whole process is
used so that students 1) experience music holistically, 2) examine the parts through tonal patterns and rhythm
patterns, and 3) experience music holistically again with increased understanding and comprehension (Bolton, et
al., 2000, 2001; Taggart, et al., 2004, 2006). When combining learning sequence activities and classroom
activities, tonalities and meters are introduced in classroom activities, tonal patterns and rhythm patterns are
examined and practiced with regard to skills learning sequence in learning sequence activities, and tonalities and

meters are experienced again in classroom activities. The three-stage, whole-part-whole process, adapted from
Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum (Bolton et al., 2000, 2001; Taggart, et al., 2004, 2006) is outlined in Table
5.
Table 5. Whole-Part-Whole Learning Process. Adapted from Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum (Bolton et al.,
2000,
2001;
Taggart,
et
al.,
2004,
2006).

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

WHOLE

PART

WHOLE

Experience the Whole

Study the Parts

Experience the Whole

with
Increased
Understanding
and
Comprehension

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

LEARNING SEQEUNCE ACTIVITIES CLASSROOM

(Skill Learning Sequence)
ACTIVITIES

Singing
Chanting
Moving

and

Discrim
ination
(Stude
nts
Dancing Imitate)

Inferen
ce
(Studen
ts Infer)

Genera
Games Aural/ lization
Oral
Aural/O
Play
Parties
ral
Verbal
Instrument
Performance Associ Genera
ation
lization
Creativity and Improvising
Verbal
Partial
Reading and Writing Music
Synthe Creativi
sis
ty/
Readin Improvi
g
& sation
Writing
Genera
Symbol lization
ic
Symbol
Associ ic
ation
Theoret
Compo ical
site
Underst
Synthe anding
sis
Readin
g
&
Writing
Playing

Singing
Chanting
Moving

and

Dancing

Playing

Games

Play

Parties

Instrument
Performance
Creativity
Improvising
Reading
Music

and

and

Writing

Solfege
When using Music Learning Theory tenets to help students learn music, Gordon (2007b, 2007d) recommends

using two types of solfege: tonal solfege and rhythm solfege. Each type is used to assist students as they
compare, categorize, and classify tonal patterns and rhythm patterns, respectively, while using their audiation
skills.
Because comparisons between tonalities are basic to tonal audiation development, Gordon recommends using
movable-do tonal syllables with a la-based minor, re-based Dorian, mi-based Phrygian, fa-based Lydian,
sol-based Mixolydian, and ti-based Locrian. This tonal system allows students to recognize and audiate the
characteristic patterns of each tonality without prematurely resorting to notation and theoretical understanding.
When students audiate rhythm, they compare rhythm patterns and meters, not individual durations. For that
reason, Gordon recommends using rhythm solfege based on beat functions, rather than note values. The
macrobeat and microbeat rhythm solfege used in learning sequence activities is outlined in Table 6.
Table 6. Macrobeat and Microbeat Rhythm Solfege Based on Beat Functions. Adapted from Jump Right In: The
Music
Curriculum
(Bolton
et
al.,
2000,
2001;
Taggart,
et
al.,
2004,
2006),

Meter

Macrobeat

Microbeats

Usual Duple

DU

DU DE

Usual Triple

DU

DU DA DI

Usual Combined

DU

DU DA DI, DU
DU DE, DU DA DI

Unusual Paired

DU

DU
BE
DU
DU BA BI DU BE

DU

DU BE DU BE DU BA BI or
DU BE DU BA BI DU BE
or
DU BA BI DU BE DU BE

Unusual Unpaired

BA

DE

or

BI

or

Theory,
Method,
Techniques
and
The
Gordon
Approach
According to Gordon (2007b), The Gordon Approach must not be confused with Music Learning Theory,
method, or technique. Music Learning Theory is not a method, nor is it a set of techniques, but teachers and
curriculum administrators may use Music Learning Theory to develop their own music education methods,
techniques,
and
curriculums
grounded
in
audiation
development.
Methods and techniques are unique to each teacher. Though teachers may align themselves with one or more
music education approaches, they must, in the end, define their music education practices individually. The
Gordon Approach, therefore, is unique to Gordon himself. Teachers who use Gordons Music Learning Theory
must examine and develop their music education practices and lead their students to independent musicianship
through audiation. As they do so they refine their music teaching and learning methods while using
developmentally
appropriate
techniques.
Summary
Each human has the potential to learn music through audiation. Ideally, informal music guidance and audiation
development begin as early in life as possible. Teachers who practice Music Learning Theory must be aware that
students, regardless of age, need guidance through the types and stages of preparatory audiation before they
are ready for formal music instruction based on skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning
sequence, and pattern learning sequences. As children exit the types and stages of preparatory audiation and
begin to function in tonalities and meters, school music instruction may be approached as a period of developing
music listening, performing, and audiation/improvisation vocabularies through movement, rhythm, speech,

singing, and percussion instrument activities as children progress that lead to meaningful music reading and
writing.
When using Music Learning Theory, teachers assist children in becoming independent musicians through
audiation. Audiation is music thinking. When children audiate, they do more than remember pitches, intervals,
durations, or rhythms. They think tonal patterns and rhythm patterns in the contexts of tonalities and meters,
respectively. Through a whole-part-whole learning process, children develop movement, rhythm, and tonal
vocabularies as they are guided through sequential audiation processes of music imitation, generalization,
creativity, improvisation, reading, writing, and composition through learning sequence activities and classroom
activities (Gordon, 2007b, 2007d). Throughout music skill development based on the tenets of Music Learning
Theory,
the
focus
is
music
learning
processes,
rather
than
music
products.
Background
After playing tuba and string bass in the Army, playing string bass with the Gene Krupa Band, earning a
bachelors and masters degrees in string bass performance from the Eastman School of Music, and earning a
second masters degree in from the Ohio University College of Education, Edwin E. Gordon accepted a
fellowship at the University of Iowa. When first arriving in Iowa, Gordon taught music, early childhood through
grade 12, in The University Laboratory Schools while completing graduate studies and teaching undergraduate
music methods courses at the University of Iowa during the 1950s. While doing so he became extremely
interested in how humans learn when they learn music. For 16 years at Iowa, first as a doctoral student, and
then as a professor, Gordon investigated music learning processes and developed the Musical Aptitude Profile
(Gordon, 1965/1995), the Iowa Tests of Music Literacy (1971/1991), and The Psychology of Music Teaching
(1971), where he first introduced Music Learning Theory (Gordon, 2006, 2007b, 2007c, 2007d).
From 1972-79 Gordon (2007b) taught and conducted research at the State University of New York in Buffalo.
During that time he continued his investigations of music learning processes and developed Learning Sequence
and Patterns in Music (1976), the Primary Measures of Music Audiation (1979) and the Intermediate Measures
of
Music
Aptitude
(1982).
After leaving SUNY-Buffalo, Gordon (2006b) became director of the doctoral program at Temple Unviersity in
Philadelphia, PA where he held the Carl E. Seashore Chair for Research in Music Education from 1979-1997.
While in that position Gordon continued his objective study of music aptitude, publishing the Advanced Measures
of Music Audiation (1989), and Designing Objective Research in Music Education (1986). He also extended his
interests in early childhood music development, publishing A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young
Children
(1990/2003)
and
Audie
(1989).
Gordon currently collaborates with several authors who develop the practical application of Music Learning
Theory for a variety of music education settings from early childhood, Jump right in: The early childhood music
curriculum: Music play (Valerio, et al., 1998), through elementary classroom, Jump Right In, The Music
Curriculum (Bolton, et al. 2000, 2001; Taggart et al, 2000, 2006) and instrumental, Jump Right In, The
Instrumental Curriculum, Band, Strings, and Recorder (Grunow, Gordon, Azzara, Martin, 1999-2002). Though
retired, Gordon maintains a rigorous international lecture schedule and continues to publish, most recently
releasing, Discovering Music from the Inside Out: An Autobiography (2006), Awakening Newborns, Children, and
Adults to the World of Audiation (2007a) and Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Music Learning
Theory
(2007b,
2007d).