A STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN

WALTERS ART GALLERY

BRONZE FALCON FIGURES

IN THE

Paul Jett, Shelley Sturman and Terry Drayman Weisser

Abstract-The ancient Egyptian bronze falcon figures in the

collection of the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, were studied using radiography, endoscopy and corrosion analysis. A
number of the bronzes were found to contain bird remains.
The study also provided a comparison of the efficacy of
different radiographic techniques.

1 Introduction
In the summer of 1981 a study was begun at the
Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, of the collection's
bronze falcon figures from ancient Egypt. The study
was initiated when routine examination of one of the
falcons (Figure I; accession no.54.547) led to an
unexpected discovery. A small hole (7' 3mm x
48mm) in the head of the falcon was noticed where,
presumably, a crown had once been attached.
Through the hole a hollow cavity could be discerned
indicating that the object was not a solid cast as had
been previously stated in a catalogue of the collection
[I]. With the hope of learning more about the manufacture of the falcon, an endoscope was employed to
examine the interior of the object through the hole.
(An endoscope is a slender, tubular instrument used
for the visual examination of a canal or hollow organ
of the human body and comprises a light source for
illuminating the cavity and, often, lenses for
magnifying the image.) Little was noted about the
fabrication of the falcon, however, as our attention
was immediately captured by the discovery of a
number of bones and small fragments of textile within
the cavity. The size and apparent hollowness of the
bones and the presence of textile fragments suggested
that these were the remains of a bird originally
wrapped in fabric.
The subject of the statuette and a knowledge of
ancient Egyptian customs lent some support to the
above theory. The mummification of animals was a
common practice in ancient Egypt and animal
remains have been found previously within Egyptian
bronze statuary. In 1939, the bones of a fetal cat were
found within a bronze cat figure now belonging to the
Walters Art Gallery [2]; other finds of animal remains
in the interior cavities of bronze sculpture have been
made by other workers [3]. However, the discovery of
what was once possibly a bird mummy in the body of
a bronze falcon figure had, to the best of our knowledge, not previously been reported.
Received 24 October 1984

112

Figure 1 Falcon nO.54.547.

The first question that came to mind was how the

bird remains had been placed within the falcon. When
the exterior surface was examined, the answer became
apparent. On the underside of the falcon, behind the
legs, there was what appeared to be a square opening,
4 x 4cm, sealed with a bronze plate. It was then
decided that the other falcon figures in the collection
should be examined for similar features. The Walters
Art Gallery has in its collection a total of nine bronze
falcons from ancient Egypt that appear large enough
to have interior cavities. Of these nine falcons four
were found to have unsealed rectangular op~nings
underneath the body behind the legs, and two were
found with the rectangular bronze plates in place. On
the other three falcons, there were no apparent openings.
The four falcons which are open at the bottom were
then examined. Within one (no.54.2115) a bone was
discovered which appeared to be a small vertebra.
Within another (no.54.2116), very prominent textile
remains were found adhering to the contours of the
walls of the body. Lying between the textile and the
walls was what appeared to be a black bituminous
substance. Of the other two falcons which were open
at the bottom, one (no.54.2119) was found to be filled
with what appears to be an earthy material and the
other (no.54.393) was empty.
On the inside of three of these falcons (nos.54.2115,
54.2116 and 54.393) was a blue corrosion product
whose hue and structure appeared rather different
Studies in Conservation

30 (1985) 112-118

A study of the Egyptian

bronze falcon figures in the Walters Art Gallery

from the typical blue carbonate corrosion product

often seen on ancient bronzes. The appearance of this
blue corrosion seemed to agree with descriptions of
libethenite, the copper phosphate corrosion product
that can occur when bone is in contact with bronze or
copper [4].
The observations cited above stimulated a more
intensive study of the falcon figures. At this point, our
interest centered on three questions. Firstly, what type
of bones were in the falcon initially examined?
Secondly, was there more evidence to be found of bird
remains in those falcons which were open at the
bottom? Finally, could we discover what was enclosed
within the two falcons which had sealed openings or
learn more about the three falcons which had no
apparent openings or interior cavities? To answer
these questions, the examination of the falcons was
pursued using three methods: endoscopy, radiography and corrosion analysis. Each of these approaches
to the study will now be discussed separately.
2
2.1

rather poor because, due to the fiber-optics, the

photographic image is superimposed by a grid
pattern. Specialists at Johns Hopkins Hospital,
Baltimore, suggested that the best photographs for
our purposes would be obtained using telescopic
bronchoscopes. Two such bronchoscopes were available for use, one with a 4mm diameter and one with
a 6mm diameter.
Because of t~e size of the opening, the larger bronchoscope could only be positioned above the opening
for examination and photography while the smaller
bronchoscope was used to enter the opening and take
photographs of the bones at a very short distance.
Excellent views of the interior were obtained using the
bronchoscopes. The bones and textile could be seen
much more clearly and a photographic record was
made (Figure 2).

Technical examination
Endoscopy

The use of the various endoscopic procedures was

employed only for the study of the falcon (no.54.547)
where the initial discovery of bones and textiles was
made. It was solely with this falcon, with the small
opening in the head as the only access to the interior
of the figure, that endoscopy was either applicable or
necessary.
While the initial examination of the interior of this
falcon using the endoscope revealed the presence of
bone and textile, little else was apparent. This particular endoscope had a relatively weak light source and
its lens gave a very distorted wide-angle view. Thus it
was difficult to tell whether all or part of the cavity
within the falcon was being viewed. (Radiographs
subsequently revealed that the cavity extended
throughout the length of the body.) It was then
decided to seek the use of equipment which could give
a better view of the interior and a photographic record
of what was seen.
Two types of endoscopic equipment were used to
examine the interior of the falcon: a fiber-optic nasopharyngoscope and telescopic bronchoscope. A nasopharyngoscope is a telescopic endoscope used for the
examination of the nasal passages and the nasal pharynx. Bronchoscopes are used for diagnostic purposes
and the removal of foreign objects from the tracheobronchial tree. The naso-pharyngoscope had a powerfullight-source which gave a much better view of the
inside of the falcon. The use of this instrument
revealed a great deal of blue corrosion which appeared
similar to that which had been seen in the other
falcons. Photographs can be taken using a nasopharyngoscope but the resulting definition can be
Studies in Conservation

30 (1985) 112-118

Figure 2

Bird remains within falcon nO.54.547.

The photographs of the bones were examined by Dr

George E. Watson of the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. His conclusions
were that the bones were definitely bird bones and,
judging from their apparent ossification, most likely
from a mature animal. Although the bone element.
could be distinguished in some cases, an unambiguous
identification of the bird species was not possible. The
evidence, based on the photographs, suggests that
these bones might be from a red-footed falcon, a small
bird whose migratory path includes the area of Egypt.
Removal of the bones for examination might yield
more information, but this possibility is not being
considered at present.
2.2

Radiography

The purposes of the radiographic study were to deter113

Paul Jett, Shelley Sturman

mine the structure of the bronzes, to establish whether

the sealed bronzes contained bones, fabric or other
material, and to obtain approximate measurements of
the bones in the first falcon examined to aid in
identification of the bones. For this examination four
radiographic techniques were employed. These were
X-radiography,
tri-spiral tomography,
radiography
employing a linear accelerator and neutron radiography. In the first three techniques, image production depends on the penetration
of X-radiation
through
the materials
being radiographed.
With
neutron radiography, it is the penetration of neutrons
through the material being radiographed
that determines the image produced.
F or this part of the study, another bronze object
was included along with the nine falcon figures
previously
discussed.
The
additional
object
(no.54.2114) consists of two small falcons which stand
side by side on a relatively large rectangular base. This
bronze was added to the study because, while it was
obvious that the two falcon figures were too small to
contain anything, it is known that animal remains
were &ometimes placed in the bases of Egyptian
animal sculptures. The nature of the base of this
object suggested such a possibility.
These ten objects were examined using standard
X-radiographic methods. The radiographs were taken
using 250kV at 5mA for five minutes with a tube-tofilm distance of 75cm and Kodak M Film. No screens
or filters were employed. It was discovered that, of the
three falcons with no apparent openings, one of the
falcons (no.54.2120) was hollow while the other two
were solid bronze (nos. 54.793 and 54.2117). The Xray image of the first falcon examined (no.54.547,
Figure 3) bore a faint indication of the bones within,
but this is apparent only with prior knowledge of the
figure's likely contents. The X-radiographs
of the
other hollow falcon figures were adequate only to
determine whether the falcons were hollow or solid.
Though various exposure conditions were tried, the
results were no better.
Some time after this study was completed, Xradiographs of a bronze falcon in the collection of the
Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, were
brought to our attention. Using 300kV at 240mAs
with lead screens on the film, these X-radiographs
reveal the presence of bones within the falcon as well
as what appear to be textile remains. A combination
of factors appears to account for the success of these
radiographs.
These factors include the use of lead
screens, the thin walls of the bronze figure and, possibly, the migration of copper salts into the bones and
textile or the pseudomorphic
replacement
of the
textile by copper corrosion products.
At this point, other radiographic
methods were
considered, because the equipment at hand did not
seem capable of penetrating the bronze and revealing
114

Figure 3

X-radiograph

and Terry Drayman

Weisser

of falcon nO.54.547.

the presence of less dense materials inside. Two radiographic procedures employed in the medical field were
investigated: tomography
and X-radiography
using
the linear accelerator of a radiation therapy unit.
Initially we used the falcon which was known to
contain bones and fabric as a control to see if the
radiographic techniques would serve to reveal what
was in the other sealed falcons and, further, to learn
more about what was in this particular falcon. The
first method employed was tri-spiral tomography.
With this technique the object rests on a stationary
platform while the X-ray source and the film holder
move spirally in unison during the exposure. The
resulting radiograph
gives a distinct image of a
selected plane through the object while the 'image of
anything above or below that plane is blurred. It was
hoped that we could obtain an image of what was in
the interior of the falcon without the interference of an
image
of the surrounding
walls
of bronze.
Unfortunately,
the tomography equipment could not
generate a kilovoltage that was high enough to penetrate the bronze,
and the resulting
radiograph
revealed nothing. Efforts by other researchers using
tomography
in a similar manner have met with as
little success [5].
The falcon was then radiographed using the linear
accelerator of a radiation therapy unit as a radiation
source. With this instrument, the power is very great,
of the order of four million electron volts, and the
focal spot is very small, yielding sharp definition.
Studies in Conservation

30 (1985) 112-118

A study of the Egyptian

bronze falcon figures

in the Walters Art Gallery

While the resulting radiographs were excellent in

terms of the penetration and detail obtained for the
bronze, they unfortunately failed to show that
anything lay within the falcon. Because radiographic
techniques using X-rays had not answered our questions concerning the contents of the bronzes, the
potential of neutron radiography was investigated. *
With this technique, the object is exposed to a
stream of neutrons. The attenuation of the neutrons,
unlike that of X-rays, is not solely dependent on the
atomic number (or mass) of the material being radiographed. Because of this, less dense materials such as
bones or fabric, whose elements have a high neutron
attenuation, can be revealed although surrounded by
a material of greater density such as bronze, whose
elements have a relatively low neutron attenuation [3,
6-12].

inside their bodies (Figures 6 and 7). This material had

left no image on the X-radiographs of these two
falcons. Also revealed by these radiographs was a
sealed rectilinear opening on that falcon (no.54.2120)
where one had not been previously discovered; unlike
the other falcons, this sealed opening was on the chest
of the bird. Finally, forms resembling two bundles
lying beside one another were seen in the radiograph
of the base of the double falcon sculpture (no.54.2114,
Figures 5 and 7). The radiograph of the figure
containing the earthy material (no.54.2119) gave no
new information.
One obvious concern in the use of radiography is
the effect it has on the object. While residual radioactivity can be induced in some objects by neutron
radiography, this did not occur with the bronzes
examined here nor had it been expected to occur. In
those instances where residual radioactivity results,
the radioactivity usually dissipates quickly, but this
should be checked for each object. Also, the exposures
used here for neutron radiography were much less
than those commonly used for the neutron autoradiography of paintings; previous experiments have
shown that the exposures used for the autoradiography of paintings are approximately 600 times
less than the dosage which can cause changes in
organic materials [13].
2.3

Figure 4

Neutron-induced

radiograph of falcon nO.54.547.

During two sessions using the nuclear reactor at the

National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC,
neutron radiographs were made of four of the falcons
and of the small double falcon sculpture with the large
base. The neutron radiographs of the falcon which
initiated the study (no.54.547) clearly show the bones
lying within the interior of the figure (Figure 4). The
radiographs of the other two sealed hollow-cast
falcons (nos. 54.2120 and 54.2118, Figure 5) show that
something resembling mummy bundles are present
*The authors
nique.

are grateful

Studies in Conservation

to W. T. Chase for suggesting

30 (1985) 112-118

this tech-

Corrosion analysis

As was previously mentioned, a particular blue corrosion product was noticed on the interior of a number
of the falcons. Analyses of the corrosion were undertaken in order to determine whether any copper phosphate corrosion compounds were present, indicating
possible contact between the bronze and bones.
Samples of the blue corrosion were removed from
three of the falcons. Two samples were taken from one
of the falcons (no.54.2116), one from underneath the
base and the other from ju'st inside the opening to the
interior of the body. From the other two falcons
(nos.54.2115 and 54.393), the samples were removed
from deep within the bodies. Also, for the sake of
comparison, a sample of green corrosion was removed
from inside the body of the first falcon examined
(no.54.547). As bones had been discovered in two of
these bronzes, a positive test for phosphates would
not have been surprising; the results would, however,
help to determine the feasibility of the tests for providing evidence of bones where no obvious evidence
exists.
Using X-ray diffraction analysis, the samples of
blue corrosion were found tb be azurite; the green
corrosion was identified as malachite. No phosphate
compounds were found, nor did X-ray fluorescence
analyses of the corrosion samples indicate the presence of phosphorus.
Thus, the results of the X-ray diffraction and X-ray
115

Paul lett,

Figure 5

and Terry Drayman

Weisser

Falcons 54.2118, 54.2114 and 54.2120.

Figure 6 Neutron-induced
54.2114 and 54.2120.

radiograph

of falcons

54.2118,

fluorescence analyses of the corrosion revealed that

what were initially thought to be copper phosphate
corrosion products were actually copper carbonates.
While it had been speculated that the presence of
116

Shelley Sturman

Figure 7 Neutron-induced
54.2114 and 54.2120.

radiograph

of falcons

54.2118,

phosphate compounds in empty falcon figures might

indicate the former presence of bones, the analyses
tend to suggest the opposite, that is, that the presence
of bones in close contact with bronze, as in two of the
Studies in Conservation

30 (1985) 112-118

A study of the Egyptian

bronze falcon figures in the Walters Art Gallery

falcons (nos.54.547 and 54.2115), does not necessarily

leave behind phosphates which might be discovered.
Thus the absence of phosphates within a bronze figure
of this type does not rule out the possibility that bones
were once present.
Microchemical tests for phosphates were also
conducted on the corrosion samples using ammonium
molybdate [14]. Although positive results were
obtained for a control sample, for the sample from the
falcon (no.54.2115) which contained a small bone and
for the sample from the base of the falcon
(no.54.2116) which was empty, the results for the
samples taken. from inside two of the falcons
(nos.54.393 and 54.2116), were negative. Interference
by either arsenic or silicon may produce spurious positive results with this microchemical test; X-ray
fluorescence and X-ray diffraction methods were
required for accurate analyses.
Conclusion
The use of endoscopic equipment made possible the
discovery of the remains within the falcons. For this
study, these tools were invaluable in the examination
and recording of those remains. Although endoscopic
devices have been used before in the examination of
artifacts, their use is not common. Endoscopic equipment should be employed in the course of examination whenever a hole in a hollow artifact allows
access to the interior.
The effectiveness of neutron radiography was
notable. This technique offers many possibilities
which other radiographic techniques do not. Of prime
importance in this case was the imaging of a less dense
material which was entirely surrounded by a more
dense material. Either in combination with the information yielded by other radiographic methods, or
where other techniques will not suffice, neutron radiography can provide a great deal of information.
Finally, there seems to be overwhelming evidence of
the use of falcon sculptures as containers for the
remains of animals. Six, and possibly eight, of the ten
falcon sculptures in the Walters Art Gallery collection
served this function. The probability is. that these
sculptures contained mummified birds or parts of
birds. The discovery of animal remains in these
ancient Egyptian bronzes is most interesting but not
surprising when one considers Egyptian burial and
mummification practices. What does seem surprising
is the apparent prevalence of the practice. It must be
the case that Egyptian bronze falcon figures in a
number of other collections contain similar materials.
Furthermore, it may also be that Egyptian bronze
statuettes of other animal figures contain remains as
do the falcon and cat figures of the Walters Art
Gallery. The conservator, when considering the care
or treatment of an Egyptian bronze of this type, must
Studies in Conservation

30 (1985) 112-118

be concerned with the possible or actual presence of

such valuable archaeological material. Unless one is
absolutely certain that no animal remains are present,
soaking in chemical solutions and solvents should be
avoided.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following people
for their help in this study: Dr Jeanny Vorys Canby,
former Curator of Egyptian and Ancient Near
Eastern Art, The Walters Art Gallery; Dr George E.
Watson, Department of Vertebrate Zoology; Susan
Bradon and Walter Brown, SEM Laboratory,
National Museum of Natural History; the Endoscopy
and Radiology Departments of the Johns Hopkins
Hospital; and the Neutron Radiography Group of the
National Bureau of Standards. The work ofP. R. Jett
was supported by a grant from the National Museums
Act and the work of Shelley Sturman was supported
by the Mellon Foundation.
References

6
7
8

9
10

11

12

STEINDORFF,G., Catalogue of the Egyptian Sculptures in

the Walters Art Gallery, Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore (1946) 149.
FINK, C. G., and Kopp, A. H., 'An observation regarding the ancient Egyptian cult of Bastet', Technical
Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts 7 (1939) 111-119.
ROBERTSON,T. J. M., 'Neutron radiography as a nondestructive
tool in archaeology',
Non-Destructive
Testing 8 (1975) 17-20.
GETTENS,R. J., 'The corrosion products of metal antiquities', Smithsonian Reportfor 1963, (Publication No.
4588), Government
Printing Office, Washington DC
(1963) 547-568.
TOUT, R. E., GILBOY, W. B., and CLARK, A. J., 'The use
of computerised
X-ray tomography
for the nondestructive examination of archaeological
objects' in
Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on
Archaeometry and Archaeological Prospection, Bonn,
14-17 March 1978,608-616.
GARNER, C. G., 'Radiology', Non-destructive Testing: a
Survey, NASA, Washington DC (1973) 89.
BARTON, J., 'Radiology using neutrons', Studies in Conservation 10 (1965) 135-140.
ROBERTSON,T. J. M., 'Image recording with neutrons',
British Journal of Non-Destructive
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114-117.
GARRETT, D. A., 'Thermal neutron xeroradiography',
Dimensions 61 (1977) 22.
BERGER, H., Neutron Radiography: Methods, Capabilities, and Application, Elsevier Publishing Company,
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and Materials (1976).
117

Paul Jett, Shelley Sturman

13

14

MEYERS, P., AINSWORTH, M. W., BREALEY,J., COTTER,

M. J., HAVERKAMP-BEGEMANN,E., SAYRE,E. V., and
VAN ZELST, L., 'The application
of neutron autoradiography in the study of p~intings by Rembrandt
and related artists' in Science and Technology in the
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Inc., New York (1931) 313.

PAUL JETT, BA, Art and Philosophy,

University of New
Mexico; Masters degree in Art Conservation,
Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. Previously an intern at The Walters Art Gallery,
Baltimore,
and currently
Associate
Conservator,
Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Author's address: Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institu'lion, Washington, DC 20560, USA.
SHELLEYSTURMAN,BA, MA, Mediterranean
Studies, Brandeis University; MS, Winterthur/University
of Delaware
Program in Conservation.
Previously a Mellon Fellow at
The Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, currently Acting Head
of Objects Conservation,
National Gallery of Art, Washington DC. Author's address: National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC 20565, USA.

118

and Terry Drayman

Weisser

TERRyDRAYMAN WEISSER, BA, Art History, Swarthmore

College; Diploma in Archaeological
Conservation,
Institute
of Archaeology, University of London. Currently Director
of Conservation
and Technical Research, The Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore. Author's address: The Walters Art Gallery, 600 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA ..

Resume-Les
statues de faucons en bronze datant
de
l'ancienne Egypte et provenant de la Walters Art Gallery a
Baltimore ont ete etudiees par radiographie,
endoscopie et
analyse de leurs produits de corrosion. Un certain de bronzes
contenaient des restes d'oiseaux. L'etude a permis egalement
de comparer
les differentes
techniques
radiographiques
utilisees.

Auszug-Die
ural ten agyptischen Bronzefalkenfiguren
in der
Sammlung der Walters Kunstgalarie
in Baltimore wurden
unter
Anwendung
der' Radiografie,
Endoskopie
und
Korrosionsanalyse
untersucht.
Bei einer Anzahl
der
Bronzefiguren wurden Oberreste von V ogeln gefunden. Die
Studie
ermoglichte
eben falls
einen
Vergleich
der
Wirksamkeit verschiedener radiografischer
Techniken.

Studies in Conservation

30 (1985) 112-1.18