Olfaction

Olfactory organs
Contain olfactory epithelium with olfactory receptors, supporting cells,
basal cells
Olfactory receptors are modified neurons
Surfaces are coated with secretions from olfactory glands
Olfactory reception involved detecting dissolved chemicals as they
interact with odorant binding proteins

Olfaction
Olfactory pathways
No synapse in the thalamus for arriving information
Olfactory discrimination
Can distinguish thousands of chemical stimuli
CNS interprets smells by pattern of receptor activity
Olfactory receptor population shows considerable turnover
Number of receptors declines with age

Gustation
Taste receptors
Clustered in taste buds
Associated with lingual papillae

Taste buds
Contain basal cells which appear to be stem cells
Gustatory cells extend taste hairs through a narrow taste pore

Gustatory pathways
Taste buds are monitored by cranial nerves
Synapse within the solitary nucleus of the medulla oblongata
Then on to the thalamus and the primary sensory cortex

Gustatory discrimination
Primary taste sensations
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter
Receptors also exist for umami and water

 Taste sensitivity shows significant individual differences, some of

which are inherited
The number of taste buds declines with age

Vision
Accessory structures of the eye

Eyelids (palpebrae) separated by the palpebral fissue

Eyelashes
Tarsal glands
Lacrimal apparatus

external structures of the eye

Conjunctiva covers most of eye
Cornea is transparent anterior portion

Lacrimal apparatus
Secretions from the lacrimal gland contain lysozyme
Tears form in the lacrimal glands, wash across the eye and collect in
the lacrimal lake
Pass through the lacrimal punctae, lacrimal canaliculi, lacrimal sac
and nasolacrimal duct

The eye
Three layers
Outer fibrous tunic
Sclera, cornea, limbus
Middle vascular tunic
Iris, ciliary body, choroid
Inner nervous tunic
Retina

internal structures of the eye

Ciliary body
Ciliary muscles and ciliary processes, which attach to suspensory
ligaments of lens
Retina
Outer pigmented portion
Inner neural part

 Rods and cones

The Special Senses

retina
Retina contains rods and cones
Cones densely packed at fovea (center of the macula lutea)
Retinal pathway
Photoreceptors to bipolar cells to ganglion cells, to the brain via the
optic nerve
Axons of ganglion cells converge at blind spot (optic disc)
Horizontal cells and amacrine cells modify the signal passed along
the retinal neurons

Eye anatomy
Ciliary body and lens divide the anterior cavity of the eye into
posterior (vitreous) cavity and anterior cavity
Anterior cavity further divided
anterior chamber in front of eye
posterior chamber between the iris and the lens

Fluids in the eye

Aqueous humor circulates within the eye
diffuses through the walls of anterior chamber
passes through canal of Schlemm
re-enters circulation
Vitreous humor fills the posterior cavity.
Not recycled permanent fluid

Lens
Posterior to the cornea and forms anterior boundary of posterior
cavity
Posterior cavity contains vitreous humor
Lens helps focus
Light is refracted as it passes through lens
Accommodation is the process by which the lens adjusts to focus
images
Normal visual acuity is 20/20

Visual physiology
Rods respond to almost any photon
Cones specific ranges of specificity

Photoreceptor structure
Outer segment with membranous discs
Narrow stalk connecting outer segment to inner segment
Light absorption occurs in the visual pigments
Derivatives of rhodopsin

Color sensitivity
Integration of information from red, blue and green cones
Colorblindness is the inability to detect certain colors

retinal adaptation
Dark adapted most visual pigments are fully receptive to stimulation
Light adapted pupil constricts and pigments bleached.

the visual pathway

Large M-cells monitor rods
Smaller more numerous P cells monitor cones

Seeing in stereo
Vision from the field of view transfers from one side to the other while
in transit
Depth perception is obtained by comparing relative positions of
objects from the two eyes

Visual circadian rhythm

Input to suprachiasmic nucleus affects the function of the brainstem
Circadian rhythm ties to day-night cycle, and affects metabolic rates

Equilibrium and Hearing

Both equilibrium and hearing are provided by receptors of the inner
ear
Anatomy of the ear External Ear

 Auricle or pinnae surrounds the ear

External acoustic meatus ends on tympanic membrane

Middle ear
Communicates with pharynx via pharyngotympanic membrane
Middle ear encloses and protects the auditory ossicles

Inner ear
Membranous labyrinth contains endolymph
Bony labyrinth surrounds and protects membranous labyrinth
Vestibule
Semicircular canals
Cochlea

Components of the inner ear

Vestibule contains the utricle and saccule
Semicircular canals contain the semicircular ducts
Cochlea contains the cochlear duct

Windows
Round window separates the perilymph from the air spaces of the
middle ear
Oval window connected to the base of the stapes
Basic receptors of inner ear are hair cells
Provide information about the direction and strength of stimuli

Equilibrium
Anterior, posterior and lateral semicircular ducts are continuous with
the utricle
Each duct contains an ampulla with a gelatinous cupula and
associated sensory receptor
Saccule and utricle connected by a passageway continuous with the
endolymphatic duct
Terminates in the endolymphatic sac
Saccule and utricle have hair cells clustered in maculae
Cilia contact the otolith (statoconia)

Vestibular neural pathway

 Vestibular receptors activate sensory neurons of the vestibular ganglia

Axons form the vestibular branch of cranial nerve VII
Synapses within the vestibular nuclei

Hearing
Cochlear duct lies between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct
Hair cells of the cochlear duct lie within the Organ of Corti
Intensity is the energy content of a sound
Measured in decibels

Pathway of sound
Sound waves travel toward tympanic membrane, which vibrates
Auditory ossicles conduct the vibration into the inner ear
Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles contract to reduce the amount
of movement when loud sounds arrive
Movement at the oval window applies pressure to the perilymph of the
cochlear duct
Pressure waves distort basilar membrane
Hair cells of the Organ of Corti are pushed against the tectoral
membrane

Neural pathway
Sensory neurons of hearing are located in the spiral ganglion of the
cochlea
Afferent fibers form the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII
Synapse at the cochlear nucleus