Defence Electronics Research Laboratory

Defence Electronics & Research Laboratory (DLRL) is a laboratory of the Defence

Research & Development Organization (DRDO). Located in Hyderabad, it is actively
involved in the design and development of integrated Electronic Warfare systems for the
Indian Armed Forces.

History
DLRL was established in 1961 under DRDO, in order to meet the needs and
requirements of electronic warfare systems for the Indian Armed Forces,
including communication and radar systems. These functions were later handed over to
specialized laboratories. Communication cipher equipment, developed by DLRL, was
successfully deployed in the 1965 war with Pakistan.
DLRL was included on the list of Indian entities that were subjected to US sanctions
announced after the May 1998 nuclear tests.
The testing and evaluation of EW systems demand huge infrastructure, test and evaluation
facilities. To cater to this requirement, ELSEC, an extension of DLRL, was established in 1998
on a 180 acre campus. EW system simulation and modeling facilities are located inside
ELSEC to carry out simulation of complex systems.

Areas of Work
DLRL has been entrusted with the primary responsibility of design & development of
state-of-the-art electronic warfare systems (COMINT/ELINT/ESM/ECM) covering radar and
communication frequency bands. It also conducts systems integration and evaluation of these
technologies on various platforms, like aircraft, ships, helicopters, vehicles, etc.
Additionally, DLRL also conducts specialized training courses in Electronic Warfare and
technology management for DRDO Scientists and officers of the Indian Armed Forces.

Currently DLRL is involved in the Integrated Guided Missile Development

Program (IGMDP), providing ground electronic support for IGMDP, and expertise in the
design and development of various components, antennas and sub-systems for HF to
microwave and millimetric wave frequencies.

Facilities:
DLRL has various design, manufacture and testing facilities:
Mechanical CAD/CAE/CAM facility - For design, packaging and manufacture of

electronic systems and LRUs. Mechanical Fabrication Facility, Thermal and Structural
analysis facilities are also available in this center.

Hybrid Micro-electronics Facility - For fabrication of microwave integrated circuits

for specific applications. Both thin film and thick film hybrids are also fabricated for inhouse use.
ASIC Design workstations

Anechoic chamber and Open Test Ranges - For testing different types of antennas

and Radomes covering Microwave & millimetric wave Frequencies.

Automation Test and Measurement Laboratory - This facility caters to the fine

grain analysis and parametric evaluation of various RF components, devices, Subsystems/

Systems of EW suites covering a frequency range of 10 MHz to 40 GHz.

EMI/EMC Test Laboratory - This lab tests Components and Sub Systems to testing
in the frequency range of 30 Hz to 40 GHz for emission testing and 30 Hz to 18 GHz for
susceptibility testing.

Environmental Test Laboratory - This facility consists of environmental chambers,

bump and vibrations test set ups and is used for performing environmental tests on
different electronic sub-systems and systems.

PCB Design and fabrication Facility - The facility caters to the in-house requirement
of double and multi-layer PCBs. The fabrication facility is capable of handling up to 12
layers with RF microwave CAE CAD.

Projects and Products

In close coordination with various production agencies, other DRDO/National
Laboratories and academic institutions, DLRL has designed, developed and produced a large
number of ruggedized Electronic Warfare (EW) Systems. These systems have been inducted
into the Services after rigorous field evaluation and user testing.
Providing "electronic support" for DRDO's Integrated Guided Missile Development Program.
Designing and developing "phased array monopulse identification friend or foe" system in
conjunction with the Rajendra phased array radar for the Akash surface-to-air missile.
Designing and developing "components, antennas, and sub-systems for HF [highfrequency], to microwave, and millimetric wave frequencies."

ANTENNA
INTRODUCTION:
Antenna is an important device which has become an integral part of our day to day life. We
find antenna everywhere; at homes, on cars, workplaces, vehicles, aircrafts, ships, satellites
and we carry antenna along with us in mobiles. There are number of types of antennas but all
operate with the basic principles of electromagnetics.
The first radio antennas were build by Heinrich Hertz, a professor at the Technical Institute in
Karlsruhe, Germany. In 1886, he assembled apparatus we would now describe as a complete
radio system operating at meter wavelengths with an end-loaded dipole as the transmitting
antenna and a resonant square-loop antenna as receiver.
Although Hertz was the pioneer and father of radio, his invention remained a laboratory
curiosity until 20-year-old Guglielmo Marconi of Bologna, Italy, in 1901 went on to add
tuning circuits, big antenna and ground systems for longer wavelengths and was able to signal
over large distances .Thus Hertz and Marconi are the pioneers of antenna. Now a days an
antennas are the most essential communication link for aircrafts and ships.

Definition of Antenna:
An Antenna is a device used to transform electrical device which converts electric
power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio
receiver. Antennas demonstrate a property know as Reciprocity, which means that an antenna
will maintain the same characteristics regardless if it is transmitting or receiving.
An antenna acts as a coupling device between a generator or transmitter and free
space. In other words, an antenna is an impedance matching device between free space and
transmission line.
A century ago, antennas were commonly called aerials and this term is still used
in some countries.

Functions of Antenna:
Some of the important functions of an antenna are as follows:
i.

Antenna acts as a transducer and it converts electromagnetic energy at the transmitting

end, while it converts an electromagnetic energy back in to the form of an electrical
energy at the receiving end of the communication link.

ii.

iii.
iv.
v.

Antenna acts as an impedance matching device at the transmitting end, it matches the
impedances between the free space and transmitter while at receiving end it matches
the impedance between the free space and receiver. Hence antenna functions as a
coupler between transmitter and free space and receiver.
Antenna functions as a device which can direct radiated energy is most desired
direction suppressing energy in undesired directions.
Antenna acts as transitional structure at the region where transition between guided
wave and free space wave and vice versa.
It functions as remote sensing temperature measuring device.

Important properties of Antenna:

Regardless of antennas of any kind, the properties listed below are same for all of them
whether they are used as either transmitting antenna or receiving antenna. The properties of
antenna are as follows:
i.

An antenna has identical impedance in spite of being used for transmitting or receiving
purposes. This property is called equality of impedances.

ii.

An antenna exhibits identical directional characteristics and patterns whether it is used

for transmitting or receiving purposes. This property is known as equality of directional
patterns.

iii.

An antenna has same effective length in spite of being used for transmitting or
receiving purposes. This property is called equality of effective lengths.
All the three properties mentioned above can be verified using reciprocity
theorem for antenna.

Types of Antenna:

Antenna can be used as transmitting antenna or receiving antenna. It has directional

properties. It is the important component of a wireless communication system.

Some of the important types of antennas are wire antennas, travelling wave antennas,
slots and aperture antennas, reflectors and lenses, integrated circuit type antennas. The
typical antennas are shown in the figure.

Basic Antenna Parameters:

Irrespective of antenna types and applications, all the antennas posses certain fundamental
properties as listed below.

1) Radiation pattern
i.
ii.

field radiation pattern

power radiation pattern

2) Radiation intensity
3) Directive gain and directivity
4) Power gain
5) Antenna beamwidth
6) Antenna bandwidth
7) Antenna input impedance
8) Effective length
9) Effective aperture
10) Antenna temperature
11) Antenna polarization

1) Radiation pattern:
In general, the radiation pattern is nothing but a graph which shows the variation of
actual field strength of electromagnetic field at all the points equidistant from the
antenna. Hence it is a three dimensional graph. There are two basic radiation
patterns. If the radiation of the antenna is represented graphically as a function of
direction it is called radiation pattern. But if the radiation of the antenna is
expressed in terms of the field strength E (in v/m), then the graphical representation
is called field strength pattern or field strength radiation pattern. Similarly if the
radiation of the antenna is expressed in terms of the power per unit solid angle, then
the graphical representation is called power radiation pattern or simply power
pattern.

2) Radiation Intensity:
The radiation intensity of an antenna does not depend on the distance from the
radiator or antenna. It is denoted by U. The radiation intensity is defined as power
per unit solid angle. It is expressed in w/sr. i.e, (watts/ steradian).

3) Directive gain[(, )] and directivity[D]:

The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density (, ) to the average
power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of the directive gain is unity.
The numerator in the above ratio is the radiation intensity while the denominator is
the average value of the radiation intensity.
Thus the direction gain can be defined as a measure of the concentration of the
radiated power in a particular direction (, ).
The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated
is called maximum direction gain or directivity of the antenna. It is denoted by D.

4) Power gain:
The ratio of the power radiated in a particular direction (, ) to the actual power
input to the antenna is called power gain of antenna.

5) Antenna Beamwidth:
Basically antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of the antenna. The
antenna beamwidth is an angular width in degrees. It is measured on a radiation
pattern on major lobe.
The antenna beamwidth is defined as the angular width in degrees between the two
points on a major lobe of a radiation pattern where the radiated power decreases to
half of its maximum value.

6) Antenna Bandwidth:
In general the performance of antenna depends on various characteristics such as
antenna gain, side lobe level, standing wave ratio (SWR), antenna impedance,
radiation patterns, antenna polarization, front -t0 back (FB) ratio etc. During the
operation of antenna these requirements may change. Thus there is no unique
definition for antenna bandwidth. The functional bandwidth of the antenna is
generally limited by one or more factors mentioned above. So the antenna
bandwidth can be specified in many ways such as bandwidth over which the gain of
the antenna is higher than the acceptable value, or bandwidth over which the
standing wave ratio of transmission line feeding antenna is below acceptable value
or bandwidth over which the FBR is minimum equal to the specified value.
Thus in general we can define the bandwidth of antenna as the band
of frequencies over which the antenna maintains required characteristics to the
specified value. But as the requirements of antenna change during the operation, the
specifications are set depending up on the application for which that antenna is
used.

7) Antenna Input Impedance:

Antenna Input Impedance is the ratio of voltage applied at antenna terminals to the
input current at terminals.
Consider that a practical antenna and transmitter are connected through a
transmission line.
With the R.F voltage supplied to antenna, the current distribution
establishes on antenna. Once the current distribution is established, the power is

radiated in the free space. At the same time a small part of power inputted is
dissipated because ohmic losses in antenna. It is also observed that near antenna
reactive field develops. So we can represent antenna with a complex antenna
impedance with real resistive component and reactive component.
Such impedance is called antenna input impedance and it draws the power
same as that antenna draws from the transmission line.

8) Effective Length (or) Effective Height:

The effective length of a receiving antenna is defined as the ratio of the open circuit
voltage induced at the open terminals of an antenna to the incident electric field
intensity producing.

9) Effective Aperture (or) Effective Area:

In general, this term is used in relation with receiving antenna. The effective
aperture is the ability of antenna to extract energy from the electromagnetic wave. It
is also called effective area. Effective aperture is defined as the ratio of power
received in the load to the average power density produced at the point.

10)Antenna Temperature:
Antenna temperature is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna
produces in a given environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of
the antenna. Moreover, an antenna does not have an intrinsic antenna temperature
associated with it, rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal
environment that it is place in antenna temperature is also sometimes referred to as
Antenna Noise Temperature.

11) Antenna Polarization:

Antenna polarization is a very important consideration when choosing and installing an
antenna. Most communications systems use either vertical, horizontal or circular
polarization. Knowing the difference between polarizations and how to maximize their
benefits is very important to the antenna user.

 An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency electric current to

electromagnetic waves that are then radiated into space. The electric field or
E plane determines the polarization or orientation of the radio wave. In
general, most antennas radiate either linear or circular polarization.

A linear polarized antenna radiates wholly in one plane containing the direction
of propagation. In a circular polarized antenna, the plane of polarization rotates
in a circular making one complete revolution during one period of the wave. If
the rotation is clockwise looking in the direction of propagation, the sense is
called right-hand-circular (RHC). If the rotation is counter clockwise, the sense
is called left-hand-circular (LHC).

An antenna is said to be vertically polarized (linear) when its electric field is

perpendicular to the earths surface. An example of a vertical antenna is a
broadcast tower for an radio or the whip antenna on an automobile.
Horizontally polarized (linear) antennas have their electric field parallel to the
earths surface. Television transmissions in the U.S.A use horizontal
polarization.
A circular polarized wave radiates energy in both horizontal and vertical planes
and all planes in between.

CNC ( Computer Numerical Control):

Conventionally, an operator decides and adjusts various machines parameters
like feed , depth of cut etc depending on type of job , and controls the slide
movements by hand. In a CNC Machine functions and slide movements are
controlled by motors using computer programs.
For a CNC machine control unit (MCU) decides cutting speed, feed,
depth of cut, tool selection, coolant on of and tool paths. The MCU issues commands in
form of numeric data to motors that position slides and tool accordingly.

Overview
A numerical control, or NC, system controls many machine functions and
movements which were traditionally performed by skilled machinists.
Numerical control developed out of the need to meet the requirements
of high production rates, uniformity and consistent part quality.
Programmed instructions are converted into output signals which in turn
control machine operations such as spindle speeds, tool selection, tool
movement, and cutting fluid flow.

Basic CNC Principles

All computer controlled machines are able to accurately and repeatedly
control motion in various directions. Each of these directions of motion is
called an axis. Depending on the machine type there are commonly two to
five axes.
Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear axis in which movement is
in a straight line, or a rotary axis with motion following a circular path.
The most basic function of any CNC machine is automatic, precise, and
consistent motion control.
Rather than applying completely mechanical devices to cause motion as is
required on most conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion
control in a revolutionary manner.

 All forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion,

called axes. These axes can be precisely and automatically positioned
along their lengths of travel.

The two most common axis types are linear (driven along a straight

path) and rotary (driven along a circular path).