1.

Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is an algebra that deals with binary variables and logic
operations. The variables are designated by letters such as A, B, x, and y.
The three basic logic operations are AND, OR, and complement.

1.1.

Fundamental concepts

When a variable is used in an algebraic formula, it is generally

assumed that the variable may take any numerical value. For example, in
the formula 2X-Y=Z, we assume that the X, Y, Z may range through the
entire field of real numbers.
Logical addition: The variables used in Boolean equations have
unique characteristic, however; they may assume only one of two possible
values. These two values may be represented by the symbol 0 and 1. When
the + symbol is placed between two variables, say X and Y, we can define the
+ symbol by listing all possible combinations of X and Y and the resulting
values of X + Y.
The possible input and output combinations may be arranged as
follows:
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
This is a logical addition table and could represent a standard binary
addition table except for the last entry. When both X and Y represent 1s, the
value of X + Y is 1. The equation X + Y = Z can be read as X or Y equals Z
or S plus Y equals Z. This concept may be extended to any number of
variables.
Logical multiplication: The rules for this operation can be given by simply
listing all values that might occur:
0.0=0
0.1=0
1.0=0
1.1=1
Only when both X and Y are one, Z=1.
Both, logical addition and logical multiplication obey a mathematical rule
called the associative law. This law states that, (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) and
(X . Y) . Z = X . (Y . Z).

AND gates and OR gates: The + and . Operations are physically realized by
two types of electronic circuits called OR gates and AND gates. A gate is
simply an electronic circuit which operates on one or more input signals to
produce an output signal. Just as the + and . operations could be extended
to several variables by using the associative law, OR gates and AND gates
can have more than two inputs.

1.2.

Axioms

An axiom is a statement that is considered to be true, based on logic;

however, it cannot be proven or demonstrated because it is simply
considered as self-evident. Basically, anything declared to be true and
accepted, but does not have any proof or has some practical way of proving
it, is an axiom. It is also sometimes referred to as a postulate, or an
assumption.

1.3.

Boolean Function

A Boolean function can be expressed algebraically with binary

variables, the logic operation symbols, parentheses, and an equal sign. The
Boolean function can be either 1 or 0. Consider the following example.
F=x+y
The function F is equal to 1 if x is 1 or if y is 1; otherwise F is equal to
0. The relationship between a function and its binary variables can be
represented in a truth table. To represent a function in a truth table, we
need a list of 2n combinations of the n binary variables. For example, for
three variables x, y and z, there are 8 possible distinct combination of
assigning bits.
To convert an algebraic expression into a logic diagram, we can use
Boolean function. A logic diagram is composed of AND, OR and inverter
gates. In a logic diagram, the variables of the function are taken to be the
inputs of the circuit, and the variable symbol of the function is taken as the
output of the circuit.
The purpose of Boolean algebra is to facilitate the analysis and design
of digital circuits. It provides a convenient tool to express a truth table
relationship between binary variables, in algebraic form. The input-output
relationship if logic diagrams are also expressed in algebraic form. It finds
simpler circuits for the same function.
By manipulating a Boolean expression according to Boolean algebra
rules, one may get a simpler expression that will require fewer gates. Now we
will see manipulative capability of Boolean algebra.
There is a list of identities that can be proved using truth tables. The
first 8 identities show the basic relationship between a single variable and
itself, or in conjunction with the binary constants 1 and 0. The next 5
identities are similar to ordinary algebra. Identities 12 and 16 are called
DeMorgan's theorems. The last identity states that if a variable is
complemented twice then the original value is obtained.

To understand the identities first we should know the Boolean

operations. These operations are implemented using logic gates. The
manipulation of binary information is done by logic circuits called gates.
They are nothing but blocks of hardware that produce signals of binary 1 or
0 when input logic requirement are satisfied.
AND: each gate has one or two binary input variables designated by A and B
and one binary output variable designated by x. the AND gate produces the
AND logic function: the output is 1 if all the inputs (A and B) are equal to 1,
otherwise the output is 0. These conditions can also be specified in the truth
table for the AND gate. The table shows that output x is 1 when both input
A and input B are 1.
This operation can be represented by a dot between the variables or
concatenate the variables without an operation symbol between them. They
many have more than two inputs; the output is 1 if and only if all the inputs

are 1.
Symbol AND

Truth table AND

Function AND

OR: This gate produces the inclusive-OR function; the output is 1 if input A
or Input B or both inputs is 1; otherwise the output is 0. The symbol for OR
function is +, similar to arithmetic addition. Like AND gates, they may have

more than two inputs and the output is 1 if at least one input is 1.
Symbol OR

Truth table OR

Function OR