':;? ..

5'" -

0 2-

++

7Dpp . ,.,.?,

Marine Propulsion

1n Small Craft
TECHNICAL PAPER FOR:
THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS
SOUTHEAST SECTION
A POWERBOAT SYMPOSIUM AND SECTION MEETING

Miami Beach, February 19 and 20, 1985

By :
DAVID F. BUTLER
BUTLER MARINE TECHNOLOGY INC.
600 SOUTHEAST FIFTH COURT
POMPANO BEACH, FLORIDA 33060
305-781-7458

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION
II .... FOUR CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINES
Ill ... TWO CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINES
IV ... TWO CYCLE

DIESEL ENGINES

V .... FOUR CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

VI ... TRANSMISSIONS AND DRIVE SYSTEMS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE NUMBER
SECTION

TITLE

1900 GASOLINE ENGINE 14 HORSEPOWER

1957 GASOLINE ENGINE 60 HORSEPOWER

TABLE OF ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

1985 V-8 GASOLINE ENGINE 320 HP

MERCURY 475 TURBO RACING ENGINE

HAWK 511 ENGINE WITH P-1000 EXHAUST

MERCURY 500 EFI RACING ENGINE

CARNOT ENGINE CYCLE

ACTUAL ENGINE CYCLE 305 CU INCH ENGINE

SECTION II

10

ENERGY DISTRIBUTION 305 RAW WATER

COOLED ENGINE WITH STERNDRIVE

11

ENERGY DISTRIBUTION 454 FRESH WATER

COOLED ENGINE SYSTEM

12

FUEL ECONOMY CURVES .. FOUR CYCLE

LIST

fiGURE NUMBER

SECTION Ill

SECTION IV

SECTION V

SECTION VI

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

(CONTINUED)

If ITLE

13

TABLE OF TWO CYCLE ENGINE SPECIFICATION

14

TWO CYCLE ENGINE DESIGN

15

ENGINE CYCLE FOR TWO CYCLE DESIGN

16

TABLE OF TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

17

TWO CYCLE SYTEM OF OPERATION

18

TURBOCHARGED TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

19

MARINE FOUR CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

20

VOLVO TMD 40 DIESEL ENGINE

21

DETROIT DIESEL 8.2 LITER ENGINE

22

PERFORMANCE CURVES 8.2 LITER (28 BERTRAM)

23

CATERPILLAR 3208 TA CONSTRUCTION

24

MTU 6V-396 FOUR CYCLE DIESEL

25

MARINE TRANSMISSION - GAS

26

VOLVO STERNDRIVE CONSTRUCTION

27

ELEMENTS OF A MARINE DIESEL

28

ARNESON DRIVE

INTRODUCTION
At the turn of the 20th century, sail and steam were the only
motive power of significance on the yachting scene and of these, sail
was the overwhelming choice.

While powerful, fast steam yachts were

in existance, their numbers were extremely small.

There were some

steam launches with small single-cylinder engines and simple upright

boilers, and a very few fast curisers with tandem or triple expansion
steam power plants.

New types of propulsion were appearing in small

runabouts - the Naptha powerplants (an offshoot of steam engine designs)

and the infant gasoline engines.

There was no question that sail dom-

inated the yachting scene, far overshadowing all other means of propulsion.
At the turn of the century gasoline engines for small launches
were typified by the Easthope one and two cylinder gasoline engines.
A single-cylinder model is shown in FIGURE ONE.

The inlet and

exhaust valves are driven by external push rods driving off the camshaft.

The distributor is driven by exposed bevel gears, and the

direct drive transmission is the ultimate in simplicity.

The engines of the period were typified by long strokes, and
this tended to limit maximum RPM.
a 5-inch stroke.

This engine had a 3. 875 bore and

Displacement was 59 cubic inches, and maximum

power was 14 horsepower at 900 RPM.

100 RPM, which is incredibly slow.
horsepower per cubic inch.
later turn out

The engine could also idle at

Specific power output was 1/4

Some of the new racing engines discussed

1. 4 horsepower per cubic inch while screaming away at

5, 400 RPM.
World War I provided a tremendous push to engine technology
By the end of the war, water-cooled military aircraft engines had
become amazingly modern in concept and construction.

Mercedes

with a straight six and Hispano-Suiza with a V-8 both had reliable

4
engines over 300 horsepower.

The Liberty aircraft engines in the

United States found their way into racing boats, and the new speed
records and publicity did much to popularize speedboats in the 1920's.
During the 1930s, intense research in diesel technology took
place with the development of powerful locomotives to replace the
steam engines.

Since steam locomotives are non-condensing, the

overall system efficiency was less than five percent, and the potential
cost savings with diesel locomotives was enormous.

By the beginning

of World War II, two and four cycle diesel engines in the sizes needed
for landing craft and submarines had
volume production.

been developed and were in low

World War II gave a tremendous push in all areas

of diesel technology, and many improvisations were required.

General

Motors had an outstanding diesel in the six cylinder 71 series engine,

but many applications required more power.

Arrangements were created

with two and even four 6-71 engines driving a single transmission, and
by 1947, the twin installations were able to provide 400 HP at 2000 RPM
for yachting applications.
In the post World War II period the gasoline engines specifically
designed for marine applications were gradually dropped in favor of
the new overhead valve automotive engines available for marine conversions.

These engines were built in new, highly automated plants

in large production volumes, and provided much higher power outputs

at reasonable cost than the older designs.
Diesel technology for yachts was pretty well dominated by
naturally aspirated designs in both two and four cycle until the early
1970s.

The Detroit Diesel SV-71-TI and the Cummins VT-370 became

popular engines for yachts in the 40 to 55 foot size, and pointed the
direction of future development.

During the past decade, intense

research has lead to a flood of turbocharged diesel engines in many

configurations, ranging from turbocharged six-cylinder designs attached
to sterndrives up to the complex turbocharged and aftercooled V-12
and V-16 diesels available in the 900 to 2630 Horsepower range.

MODEL

MARINE ENGINE

4-6

14 Hp at 900 Rpm

Easthope has been designing

and manufacturing marine engines
since 1897. As one of the oldest engine
manufacturers in the world, our sole aim
has been to build engines as basic and reliable
as possible. All our engines undergo the most thorough
examination both during and after construction, so that we
can confidently say that all the boat owner has to do is install
the engine and enjoy it. Easthope engines are completely handbuilt
and designed to give a lifetime of service with the minimum of maintenance.

.237 Hp
In 3

1900 Gasoline Engine

1!::::=====-1-

FOUR CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINES

The small gasoline engine shown in the introduction is still
manufactured today with one important area of change.

The ignition

systems at the turn of the century were a major source of unreliability,

and the little Easthope has a modern ignition system and alternator.
The dampness of the marine environment caused many serious problems.
Rolls Royce in the famous "Silver Ghost" series went to two totally
independant ignition systems with two spark plugs per cylinder.
Marine engines were also available with this system, and the Easthope
Model 8-14 twin cylinder can still be ordered with both magneto and
distributor ignition with two spark plugs per cylinder.

Careful

maintenance and good ventilation were the best recommendations for

reliable service on these early engines.

The Easthope single-cylinder

developing 14 horsepower at 900 RPM is typical of the period.

This

little engine could idle at 100 RPM, and the specific power output,
at .237 HP per cubic inch, was very modest.

If more power was

required, a two cylinder model was available, providing 38 horsepower

at 1200 RPM.

This was a later design which enclosed the valve push-

rods inside the basic engine castings.

The engine was still designed

with a common cast iron sump which provided the line of strength
from the engine through the transmission, and the flywheel was huge
to allow idling at 150 RPM.

The specific power output was considerably

higher at . 32 HP per cubic inch.

These small economical engines

powered thousands of launches and small runabouts early in the century.

They were far lighter and more fuel efficient than the steam powered
plants of the period and eliminated the need for a licensed steam engineer
and the need for shoveling coal to stoke the boiler on a hot summer's day.
A typical marine engine used from the mid-1930s up into the
1960s is shown in FIGURE TWO.

This is a Chris-Craft Model "B" of

1957, providing 60 horsepower at 3200 RPM.

This type of engine was

Chris-Craft 60-hp marine

Here's another power-packed Chris-Craft 60-hp engine.

You'll find the Model B will deliver the power and economy that you expect in all Chris-Craft marine engines.
Satisfied users of Chris-Craft marine engines can tell
you about the remarkable performance they've been
getting. One boat designer says, "Several years ago I
designed a fast fishing boat that was powered with a
Chris-Craft marine engine. After serving 14 years, this
engine was removed and installed in another boat-

and is still going strong!

"And," he says, "the economy of upkeep and operation of Chris-Craft marine engines has been truly
remarkable. For many years now, at my own boat yard,
I have installed Chris-Craft marine engines in new boats
and as replacements. None has ever given any trouble."
For smooth, dependable power, low upkeep, long
life, boat owners all over the world have chosen this
Model B marine engine.

60 Hp at 3200
133 Cu In
.45
1957 Gasoline Engine
-----------------2-----------------------~

MARINE

FOUR

CYCLE

GASOLINE

ENGINES

ENGINE

DISPLACEMENT

HORSEPOWER

EAST HOPE
MODEL 11-6

59

111

900

.237

EASTHOPE
MODEL 8-111

118

38

1200

.322

CHRIS CRAFT B

133

60

3200

45

CHRIS CRAFT K

230

95

3200

41

CHRIS CRAFT KFL

236.6

131

3800

.55

CHRIS CRAFT MCL

339.2

175

3400

.52

CHRIS CRAFT WB

404.3

200

3200

49

CRUSADER 220

305

205

4400

672

MERCRU ISER 260

350

245

4400

.700

CRUSADER 350

454

320

4400

.705

MERC 475 TURBO

454

1175

5200

1. 05

HAWK 511

511

570

5400

1. 12

MERC 500 EFI

1196

700

6000

1.52

MAX RPM

HP/CU INCH

FOUR CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINES

very widely used In the small Mahogany Runabouts.

For larger yachts,

60 horsepower was simply not sufficient even with the modest demands
of forty years ago.

The line of engines included a six-cylinder

companion, the Model K at 95 horsepower, with a very similar output

at .111 HP per cubic inch.
Cabin cruisers and high speed runabouts required still more
power, and this need was met by ( 1) increasing maximum RPM above
the 3200 limit ( 2) increasing displacement up to the maximum practical
limits in six cylinders,

The model WB had 11011 cubic inches, or 67 .II

cubic inches per cylinder.

engines.

( 3) Use of multiple carburetors on the

These fifty year old designs used Updraft carburetors with

a vertical plate-type flame arrestor as shown in FIGURE TWO, and a

pair could be mounted side by side feeding into a split intake manifold.
There was a V-8 monster available at about 7 liters capacity,
but it was such a specialized engine it was too expensive for normal
applications.

Most large yachts used two of the 175 or 200 horsepower

six cylinder engines and for the larger yachts over fifty feet, three
engines were often installed.

VEE EIGHT MARINE ENGINES

During the 1960s and 1970s, the marine gasoline engines
changed from the In-line blocks designed as marine engines to
the conversion of the new powerful overhead valve vee-eight
engines developed for automotive uses. Most of the current marine
engines are based on the General Motors series of blocks of 305
cubic inches up to 454 cubic inches. For race boat applications,
heavy-duty 454 blocks with the "four bolt main bearing design" allow
horsepower outputs up into the astronomical range. Often these
engines are re-worked with oversize bores and special crankshafts
to further increase the displacement to the 500 cubic inch range.
A comparison of the standard and high-performance vee-eight engines
is given below in the lower half of FIGURE THREE.
The power outputs on the chart show the current state of
the art with the large, strong automotive blocks. The Crusader 220,
the Mercruiser 260 and the Crusader 350 are the standard models
used in 90 percent of the inboard cruisers built today, and these same
basic engines are used in most of the stern drive models. Typically,
the 305 and 350 blocks are used in yachts under 30 feet, and the big
454 block is the workhorse for cruisers over 30 feet and in performance
racing boats in stern drive configuration. All of the "standard" engine
designs give a specific power output of about 70 horsepower per
cubic inch of displacement. This is three times as high as the typical
engine of 1900, and 55% higher than the 1957 engine shown in FIGURE TWO.

TOP OF THE LINE

POWER AND
PERFORMANCE

454 Cu Inch

320 Hp at 4400
.705 Hp/Cu In

tf= Thermo
Electron

Engine Division

CORPORATION

1100 E. 1s MH Road
Sterling Heights, Michigan 48077
{313)2641200

1985 V8 Gasoline Engine

I~------------4----------~~

TURBO-CHARGED GASOLINE ENGINES

The design of a turbo-charged gasoline engine based on the
454 cubic Inch block Is shown In FIGURE FIVE. This model is built
by the HI Performance Division of Mercruiser and provides a power
output of just over one horsepower per cubic inch of displacement.
This is accomplished by mounting a turobcharger at the end of
each exhaust manifold and using the two turbines to power air
compressors, boosting the incoming air in the intake manifold.
Turbocharging is highly successful in aircraft gasoline engines
and in marine diesels, but has really not been competitive in marine
gasoline engines.

Aircraft engines are designed from scratch to meet

the stresses of turbocharging, and the 325 horsepower Continental

opposed six, for example, can stand 39 inches of mercury boost on
take off which puts the pressure in the intake manifold at almost 34
pounds per square inch (psia). Such pressures would blow a conventional marine gasoline engine to bits, fracturing pistons, bending
rods and causing cracked heads and bearing failures.
The turbocharged Mere 475 must compromise on Intake boost
for these reasons, and the turbos cause restrictions in the exhaust
gas path.

TUNED EXHAUST
Another approach is to concentrate on getting the maximum
amount of air through the engine. This is illustrated by the HAWK
511 engine in FIGURE SIX. To achieve the 540 brake horsepower,
all the passages in the cylinder heads are carefully polished with
rotary grinders to smooth the air flow, oversize intake and exhaust

475T
4 75 Hp at 5200
454 Cu Inches
1.05 Hp/Cu In
SPECIFICATIONS
Horsepower ........... 475
Cylinders .............. V-8
Displacement .... 454 Cu. ln.
Bore & Stroke .... 4.2Sx4.00
Compression Rallo ...... 7:1
Induction .... Single 4 Barrel
Fu II Throllle Range .... 5200
Drive Unit ............ TRS,
MC II SSM
or MC Ill SSM

HI ::PERFORMANCE PRODUCTS
2521 Bowen Street Oshkosh. WI 54901
Telephone (414) 231-9180. Extension 331. or 353

A BRUNSWICK COMPANY
783

Tu rboc ha'rged Gas Engine

~---------------5---------------~

10

TUNED EXHAUST (CONTINUED)

valves are fitted, and special matched sets of pistons and machined-over connecting rods are assembled to special crankshafts.

This

power output can be further raised to 570 brake horsepower by the

use of Stelling exhaust headers. An engine and transmission set up
in full racing dress costs about $27,500 due to the tremendous input
of skilled hand labor and the very expensive materials used In construction.

TUNED INTAKE SYSTEM

About the highest power output per cubic inch of displacement
in marine gasoline engines is achieved using the approach shown in
FIGURE SEVEN.

Four tall stacks bring the air smoothly into each of

two huge Holley carburetors.

The exhaust would be similarly treated

with huge cast aluminum exhaust manifolds capable of handling the

exhaust gas with the absolute minimum pressure drop.

This is done

with large, polished passages, and a short, large-diameter path for

the exhaust gas directly aft and through the transom.

In this

illustration the exhaust headers have been removed to show the double
carburetor and intake air configuration.
be similar to FIGURE SIX.

The exhaust headers would

In the racing classes of engines, each

engine has a huge input of skilled mechanical effort, and this includes
Individual dynamometer testing of each engine. The 700+ horsepower
rating means a guarantee of over 700 brake horsepower centrified with
each engine.

This amounts to over 1. 5 horsepower per cubic inch

or in the current technology, nearly 90 horsepower per liter of displacement.

TYPE HIGH VOLTAGE COIL

TYPE SPECIALLY BALANCED DISTRIBUTOR
DOUBLE ENDED HOLLEY CARBURETOR

~F~E

WATER CONNECTION TO PORT

EXHAUST

ARRESTOR

SYSTEM-------------~

....

PUMP VENT LINE

PORT EXHAUST MANIFOLD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . ;

DISTRIBUTION MANIFOLD

COOLING WATER HOSE TO EXHAUST MANIFOLD

ENGINE LUBRICATING OIL fitTER

LINES TO BOTH ENDS OF THE CARBURETOR

ALUMINUM VALVE ROCKER COVER (STARBOARD)

WATER CONNECTION TO
STARBOARD EXHAUST SYSTEM

CAST ALUMINUM WATER COOLED

EXHAUST MANIFOLD

ENGINE STARTER SOLENOID - - - - - - - -

ENGINE STARTER ( 12 VOLT)

TRANSMISSION CONTROL
MARINE TRANSMISSION - - - - - OIL COOLING LINES
FUEL SUPPLY FROM PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE

SEA WATER PUMP DRIVING COOLING

WATER INTO ENGINE

HIGH VOLT AGE WIRES TO SPARKPLUCS

WATER LINE TO OIL COOLER

TYPE FUEL PUMP
HIGH CAPACITY OIL PAN
WITH INTERNAL BAFFLES

HAWK ENGINES

STARBOARD SIDE
~

Jo.

EFI
700 Hp at 6000
496 Cu Inches
1.43 Hp/CU In
SPECIFICATIONS
Horsepower .......... 700+
Cylinders .............. V8
Displacement ...... 482/496
Cu. ln.
Bore & Stroke ... 4.375x4.0/
4.440x4.0
Compression Ratio ..... 12:1
lnducllon ........ Eleclronic
Fuel Injection
Full Throtlle Range .... 6000
Drive Unll ...... MC Ill SSM

HI :-:PERFORMANCE PRODUCTS
2521 Bowen Street Oshkosh. WI 54901
Telephone {414) 231-9180. Extension 331. or 353

~ i,i ~MARINE
:tiH1:9
A BRUNSWICK COMPANY

783

Mercury 500 EFI

~----------------7

II

TUNED INTAKE SYSTEM (CONTINUED)

The outstanding mechanical performance of the modern V-8
marine engines Is the result of the billions of dollars in research
and development spent primarily in automotive engine technology,
Both the Daimler and Benz vehicles were operational in Germany
In 1886, and the pace and Intensity of gasoline engine research
has been steadily increasing during the past 99 years.

As each

major war came along, the direction of effort shifted but the
emphasis on technical engine development continued.
THERMODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY
Modern marine gasoline engines, operating with smoothly
finished parts, excellent lubrication systems, and relatively high
compression ratios give over double the thermal efficiencies of
the engines earlier In the century.

One of the most widely used

marine engines today is built on the Chevrolet 305 cubic inch V-8
block.

Models are converted by Crusader, MerCrulser, Chris-Craft

and others,

The typical conversion burns 20.5 gallons of 89 octane

fuel per hour to deliver 220 shaft horsepower at qqoo RPM,

This

amounts to 2.1 pounds of fuel per minute, and at normal fuel-air

ratios this requires 2ij.5 pounds of air per minute,

These huge

quantities of air make the use of four-barrel carburetors and large

exhaust systems very worthwhile.
Gasoline has a heat content of 18,900 BTU per pound of
fuel, providing a total availability of 39,700 BTU per minute of heat
energy,

If we had a magic engine which could convert all of this

chemical energy Into mechanical work, we would turn out an astonishing

936 horsepower instead of the 220 actually delivered,

A thermodynamic

PERFECTLY SMOOTH
CHANCEABLE

CYLINDER

CYLINDER WALLS WHICH

HEAD WHICH IS { 1) HOT

ARE ALSO PERFECT

(2) INSULATING (3) COLD

(q) INSULATING

INSULATORS { NO HEAT

PISTON, WHICH IS A

EXPANSION STROKE
lNG MEDIUM HEATED
BY HOT CYLINDER HEAD

FIT IN THE CYLINDER

(CONSTANT TEMPERATURE )

Psi
EXPANSION
NO

COMPRESSION STROKE
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
WITH NO HEAT TRANSFER

( WORKING MEDIUM COOLED

BY COLD CYLINDER HEAD )

Volume
Carnot

Engine

STROKE

TRANSFER

Cycle

IZ

THERMODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY (CONTINUED}

efficiency of 24% does not seem too good and leads to the need for
a fundamental look at the operating principles of the 4-cycle gasoline
engine.
The most efficient possible cycle for a piston engine was
postulated by a Frenchman, Nicholas Carnot, in 1820.

The Carnot

Cycle is shown in FIGURE EIGHT and is described as follows:

A cylinder contains a "working mixture".

Starting at point

"a" in the cycle, the gas is at pressure "P1" and temperature "T 111
The cylinder head is a hot surface at temperature T1, and the heat
transfer is so instantaneous and so perfect that T 1 is maintained as
the piston moves from point "a" to point "b" doing mechanical work
on the piston.
At point "b" the hot cylinder head is suddenly replaced by
a perfectly insulated head, and the cylinder walls and piston are
also perfectly insulated. While the process "a-b" is ISOTHERMAL
(constant temperature} the process "b-e" is ADIABATIC. The gas
has continued to do useful work on the piston and the mechanical
energy is represented by a drop in the internal energy of the gas
in the cylinder.
At point "c" a cold cylinder head at a temperature T 2 is
suddenly placed on the engine, and as the piston compresses the
gas, the cold head absorbs energy so that the work of compression
is far less than that of expansion.
process.

This is another ISOTHERMAL

At point "d" an insulating head is put on the cylinder

and the gas is compressed adiabatically back to point "a".

13

ACTUAL OPERATING CYCLES

The operating cycle of a typical 305 cubic inch V-8 marine
engine is shown in FIGURE NINE.

The curve shown is built on

the best available check point from laboratory dynamometer data,

but the shape of the curves have been simplified to make mathematical analysis easier.

COMPRESSION STROKE
The compression stroke swoops smoothly upward to peak
pressure and temperature in the Carnot cycle.

In real life the

performance is very different due to massive heat transfer from

the compressed charge to the cold cylinder walls.

Theoretically,

a compression ratio of B. 5 to 1 would achieve a pressure of 250

PSI, and a thermature of 750 degrees.

With a real engine, there

is massive heat transfer as 43 cubic inch charge is crammed into a

1 /2-inch high space at the top of the cylinder, and actual pressures
of about 175 PSI and temperatures of 500 degrees are achieved in
an engine in good mechanical condition.

POWER STROKE
About 20 degrees before the piston reaches top dead center
(TDC). the spark plug fires.

The combustion process burns the

charge to a pressure of about 850 PSI, and the central flame temperature is at about 2500 degrees.

Both the temperature and

pressure are much less than theoretical calculations due to massive

heat transfer.

Thermodynamically, the flame is burning in a large

diameter chamber only 1 /2-inch high with ice cold walls.

transfer possibilities are enormous.

The heat

The cylinder and heat must be

VOLVO TMD 40 TURBOCHARGED DIESEL ENGINE

PRE-COMBUSTION CHAMBER DETAIL

FIGURE

20

soo

600

Pressure

v~~~~.
-1----,

.... AUOT

"'-,~."'

4 00

psI
--~-.

I
\1
1'\..
I

~XPA

'
.to"'r~t
- "'I FSI
esh~_~=-r
~ ,..F"l'fe~l
~-~-=--'.J-~~'f....C'
=-::.-.,.
--....;;
);s 1-_Z '-~
--'j-e
.I= I!1 P'
1

_ . -_

ATHO
-,L,

0 ....,

IS

.., !.I

e.-

J:N.TA

10

NSION

L
"'1

20

25

'SO

'35

..co

4S

Volume Cubic Inches

OFIS

"'as

Pressure- Volume Curves 4 Cycle

'"---------9

POWER STROKE (CONTINUED)

kept so cold since a raw water cooled engine cannot allow the salt
water to get over 150 degrees or the salt starts to precipitate out
of solution.
The 20 degrees of travel between spark plug firing and top
dead center occurs in less than a millisecond at 400 RPM.

With

typical flame speeds of 150 feet per second, the burning occurs
basically with the piston near top dead center, and FIGURE NINE
shows a straight pressure rise to simplify calculations.

If the fuel

is not of high enough octane, there will be detonation which is

easy to hear in a car and far more difficult to detect in a marine
engine.

Fortunately, knock will rarely cause mechanical damage

to an engine and is easily solved by ( 1) proper grade of leaded

fuel; ( 2) retarding the spark ignition closer to top dead center.
Pre-ignition is an entirely different story.

If hot spots

develop in a chamber, the compressed charge may light off before

the plug fires. Flame speeds of 1000 feet per second give no audible
warning, but can cause severe engine destruction.

The flame fronts

and pressures are building at sonic velocity as the piston is still

coming up and peak pressures go so high that damage is inevitable.
Good engine cooling and avoidance of long maximum RPM operation
are the best preventatives.

EXHAUST STROKE
On a normal marine engine the exhaust valve opens about
50 degrees before bottom dead center (BDC).
is moved back toward 80 degrees before BDC.

On racing engines this

The remaining pressure

16

EXHAUST STROKE (CONTINUED)

drives the gas through the exhaust valve opening at sonic velocity
and with the exhaust typically at 1500 degrees, the opportunity for
heating the exhaust valve is tremendous.
The pressure remains well above atmospheric during the
entire exhaust stroke, and pumping the hot exhaust gas through
the slot around the exhaust valve represents negative work and
another loss in the operating cycle.

The exhaust valve closes about

15 degrees after top dead center.

INTAKE STROKE
About 15 degrees before top dead center the intake valves
open, resulting in about a 30 period when both intake and exhaust
valves are open.

With "tuned" intake and exhaust systems, the

moving exhaust gas and intake air columns continue to move properly,
even with both valves open.
The entire induction system of the gasoline engine operates
below atmospheric pressure.

A vacuum gauge in the intake manifold

would show up to 15 inches of mercury under low demand operation

(2000 RPM) but only 2 - 4 inches of mercury when the engine is
running wide open at 4400 RPM.

The critical operation it at wide

open throttle where only a small pressure differential must provide

huge air flows through the carburetor.

With a Rochester "Quadrijet"

4-barrel carburetor, 387 cubic feet per minute will flow even at low
differentials. The large Holley models can move 1050 CFM of air
through four barrels in a racing engine.

At the end of the intake

stroke, there is a cylinder full of air at ambient temperature and at

a pressure of 12.7 pounds per square inch absolute.

'"

HEAT LOSSES IN AN ENGINE

There is a serious limitation to the thermal efficiency of
an engine even using a CARNOT cycle.

When all the thermal and

friction losses are taken away, the operating cycle shown in FIGURE
NINE is much less efficient.
The overall distribution of the thermal energy burned in a
raw-water cooled 305 cubic engine is shown in FIGURE TEN.
The source of energy is the 201 gallons of gasoline burned
per hour at wide open throttle.

With fuel at 18,900 BTU per gallon

there is enough total energy to deliver 926 horsepower if it all could

be utilized.

Unfortunately, only 25% of it comes out as useful work

at the engine flywheel.

The largest loss is the huge thermal loss in the hot exhaust
gas.

The hot expanded gas in the cylinder at 72 PSI and 1500F

represents 35% of the total thermal energy available in the fuel.

The other gigantic loss is the 32% (or 300 horsepower) lost to
the cooling water.

Ideally, the cylinder walls would be kept at about

1500F and the gasoline injected at the end of the compression stroke
as in a diesel.

In thermodynamic terms, the cooling water at 140F

is ice cold and the gasoline is wasting most of its energy maintaining
a ball of hot gas surrounded by a deep freeze of cylinder walls,
piston and cylinder head.
After these huge exhaust and cooling losses, 309 horsepower
remains for useful work.

Seventy-five horsepower is lost in friction

in the engine, and a further 14 horsepower in the bearings and gears

of the transmission.

- ENE:R!GV

'

900

. RAW WATER

HEAT

800

~,~ooi
WII
iI

6-soo;
1

o..l

~~400
ol'
o:

ENGINE

TO
EXH AtiST

'3'21

WITH

OUTD!<:\Ve

35%
HP

HEAT LOST
TO C.OO LING

WATei'C.

'3'2%

"300 HP

HE~T
I~30Q CONTENT

GAS

. COOLED

LOST

GRS

LOSSES

T~ANSMISSION

LOSS

o936~p

14 HP

+200

I
\00

THRUST

6oAT

To

MoVE

154 HP -= I<Ocro
Burt-er?..
.... 82

Losses- Raw Water Cooled Gas

11--------10 ----------l

1'1

HEAT LOSSES IN AN ENGINE (CONTINUED)

The effective shaft horsepower of the overall system is 220.
With a propulsive efficiency of 70%, this gives 1511 horsepower to
actually push the boat through the water.

EFFICIENCY OF FRESH WATER COOLED ENGINES

The highest efficiency achieved in the marine gasoline power
plants was found in fresh water cooled, pressurized coolant systems
running at temperatures of 190 to 200.

This approach minimizes the

heat transfer from the operating gases to the coolant.

When this

approach is combined with carefully calibrated carburetors, improved

efficiencies are achieved.
The overall results are still poor, as shown in FIGURE ELEVEN.
The fuel rate of 25.11 gallons per hour provides sufficient thermal
energy for 12311 horsepower at 100% efficiency.
Thirty-five percent of this heat is lost in the exhaust gas; the
same percentage is in the raw water cooled engine. With the big block
engine, this amounts to a staggering 1132 horsepower.

The heat lost

to the cooling water is reduced from 32% to 30% but still accounts for
a whopping 367 horsepower.
Heat lost to friction is 100 horsepower or 8%, and the marine
transmission loss is 35 horsepower.

This figure is much larger than

on the raw water cooled engine due to the transmission characteristics.

The small engine has been shown with a "stern drive" which uses cone
clutches, while the fresh water cooled engines are almost always used
in inboard engine installations.

These transmissions have multi-disc

clutches with much higher transmission losses.

HE'AT
CoNTI!! NT

OF FUEL

1'2

HP

1200
HEAT
LOST TO

1000

EXHAUST

GAS

35%-=432HP

Ol 800
I-IE~T

UJ

To CoOLING-

0 GOO

Q..

UJ

WATeR.

~~

Ill

Ql
0
:t

. LOST

%=

:,aoHP

-400
P ~oPoL. SIVE

200

(33% OF
TH~~ST

YACHT
ENE~G'(

Cocn.. ED

LoSS aSHP
SHP)
I

TO

HoVe

190 HP =
LOSSES

t5%
F~e:SH

WATE~

GASOLINE IN8oA~D

b.F.B
8'i!-8S'

18

EFFICIENCY OF FRESH WATER COOLED ENGINES (CONTINUED)

The shaft horsepower available is 300, or 24% oy the thermal
energy of the fuel.

with a 70% propulsive efficiency, we have 17% of

the energy content of the fuel available to thrust the boat through
the water.

FUEL CONSUMPTION CURVES

Fuel consumption curves for a typical 305 cubic inch marine
engine is shown in FIGURE TWELVE.
in the lower, solid line.

The gallons per hour are shown

At idle, the engine burns about H gallons

per hour, and consumption rises to 201 gallons per hour delivering
220 brake horsepower at 4400 RPM.
A curve of fuel economy is shown in the upper curve on
the left-hand side.

Fuel economy Is measured in pounds of fuel

required per brake horsepower-hour.

Thus, at 1000 RPM it requires

2.27 pounds of fuel for each brake horsepower for an hour.

In the

most efficient range from 2500 to 3500 RPM, the engine requires only
6/10 pound of fuel per brake horsepower-hour.

At wide-open throttle,

the fuel consumption rises to about . 65 lb. per horsepower hour to

deliver about 200 shaft horsepower at 4400 RPM.

FUEL ECONOMY- MAIZ.INE V-S

305 1N3, 8.45: I

ENGINe:

c.R.

Z:l'T

Fuel

20

Gal

15

'-

2oo

Shaft
ISO

H.P.
100

Hour o

-- - 50
,69

..

500

1000

1500

-----

zooo

-- -----

2500

~000

3500

~000

4500

Engine R.P.M.
Fuel

Economy

Curves

o.e.

~-------------12--------------~

19

FUTURE TRENDS
Future trends in four-cycle gasoline engine technology are
visible today in the automotive developments in the United States,
Japan and Europe.
FOUR VALVE DESIGNS
Extremely high power outputs are being achieved by designing
with four valves per cylinder.

As heads manufactured this way become

available in automotive engines, they will move over into marine

very quickly.

If effect, the four valve design opens up the intake

and exhaust flow allowing specific outputs to exceed horsepower per

cubic inch in standard engines.
TURBOCHARGING
Turbos are being added to small displacement automotive engines
today.

When larger displacement engines are designed to handle the

higher maximum pressures developed by turbochargers, they will be

adapted for marine use.
LIGHT WEIGHT ENGINES
Considerably higher power outputs will be available in the
future with the same external engine size.

The new "lost foam"

casting process gives very accurate block castings with typical

cylinder wall thicknesses of 230 inches.

Larger bores, more

efficient water passages and higher weight are coming from this
casting technique, particularly when used with OSTEO-STENETIC
heat treatment procedures for machined castings, such as connecting
rods and crankshafts.

FUTURE TRENDS (CONTINUED)

FUEL INJECTION
Another area is to increase the burning efficiency by reducing
the fuel-air ratio.
results.

Intense research in this area is yielding excellent

Electronic sensors are being mounted in the engines to monitor

operating conditions.

The use of fuel injection systems monitoring

individual cylinders performance are in the works in automotive

applications and when this is combined with knock sensors which
adjust the timing of the spark plugs for individual cylinders, we
are pretty close to optimum efficiency.

2.1

TWO CYCLE MARINE GASOLINE POWER .ENGINES

The two cycle marine gasoline engine was first applied as a
small, low-powered outboard motor to propel rowboats at low speed.
The intent was to replace hours of hard work rowing with a small
portable engine which would accomplish the same purpose.

Many

inventors participated around the turn of the century, but the

Evinrude system turned out the best, and these heavy, low-powered,
single-cylinder motors became widely used.

In the 1920s, the emphasis

shifted to more powerful opposed piston twin-cylinder models.

By

mounting the cylinders opposite each other, the vibration was considerably reduced and higher power with lighter weight was achieved.
Eighty years of development has resulted in huge improvements
in compression ratios, fuel economy, reliability, smoothness and power
to weight ratios.
THIRTEEN.

A table of current engines is shown in FIGURE

The OMC "SAIL DRIVE" is a specialized small engine

designed to drive heavy loads at low speed.

It is included in the

chart since it shows that when current two-cycle technology is

applied to a "workboat"-type design problem, the maximum RPM and
power output per cubic inch are cut way back in the interest of durability and reliability in handling heavy loads. The maximum engine
RPM and the specific power output are typical of engines of forty
years ago.
Normally, outboard engines as a- class are utilized on the
lightest and smallest classes of recreational boats.

The basic designs

have been adjusted for this with extremely high power to weight ratios
and high specific power outputs.

The Johnson 275 horsepower engine,

for example, weighs 540 pounds, where a similar _power level in a four
cycle stern drive or inboard engine configuration weighs almost exactly
double this weight.

The price is paid in durability.

In commercial

service fishing outboard motors are often replaced yearly.

In fresh

water, outboard engines last for many years and in the modest hourly
usage of many salt water boats careful flushing of the engines after
use results in adequate service life.

ENGINE

DISPLACEMENT
CUBIC INCHES

HORSEPOWER

MAX RPM

HP/CU IN

OMC SAIL DRIVE

31.8

15

3300

47

MERCURY 60

49.8

60

5800

1.20

JOHNSON 120

110

120

6000

1. 09

JOHNSON 275

220

275

6000

1. 25

EVINRUDE V-8
FORMULA ONE

214

400+

10, 000

1. 92

MARINE TWO CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINES

~----------13------------~

TWO CYCLE MARINE GASOLINE POWER ENGINES (CONTINUED)

The highest power output in outboard engines is achieved
in the newest "Formula One" engines typified by the Evinrude model
shown last on FIGURE THIRTEEN.

The heart of the engine is a

214 cubic inch V-8 block specially manufactured and hand assembled.
Racing pistons in matched and balanced sets are assembled to racing
rods and the assembly topped off with a two-barrel carburetor for
each cylinder.

When mounted on a Formula One hydroplane, typically

one built of wood and weighing under 400 pounds, these engines can
drive the boat to 150 miles per hour.

The engines alone run about

$22,000 a copy and must be torn down and rebuilt after about seven
hours of running at full racing speed.

TWO CYCLE ENGINE DESIGN

The basic assembly of a two cycle outboard is shown in
FIGURE FOURTEEN.

The fresh charge is drawn into the crankcase

through a one-way reed valve during the movement of the piston

upward.

There are free-flowing carburetors, often one per cylinder,

on the high output engines and the crankcase serves as a receiver

for the fresh charge.

As the piston drives down on the power

stroke, the reed valves close and pressure builds up under the
piston.

This positive pressure is used to scavenge the old combustion

gases from the cylinder as the piston approaches bottom dead center.
This configuration, with a vertical crankshaft, has been developed
over the years into a very specialized form of engine design.
gas dynamics become very critical to success.

The

The time for the

exhaust gases to be swept out and replaced by a fresh charge are

VERY short, and the pressure differentials available to accomplish
the flows are quite low.

At full speed, the racing engine is turning

at 10,000 RPM, or 167 times a SECOND.

This means that from the time

the exhaust port is uncovered until bottom dead center is one millisecond
( 1/1000 second). Even a regular outboard, such as the 275 horsepower
model, at 6000 RPM has only 1/350 second for the entire exhaust and

CRANKCASE
FRESH

MIXTURE

FLOWING

CYLINDER
RIDGE
TO

ON

HELP

TOP

OF

FILLED

WITH

COMPRESSED GASOLINE-AIR
MIXTURE

PISTON

CYLINDER
AIR INTAKE
FOR ENGINE

VENTURI
SPARK

PLUG

REED

EXHAUST CAS
EXHAUST

CHECK

MAN I FOLD

CONNECTING

r!Two Cycle

Engine
14

TYPE
VALVES

ROD

Design

II

2.4

TWO CYCLE MARINE GASOLINE POWER ENGINES (CONTINUED)

recharging of the cylinder.

In a camera this is considered a fast

shutter speed, but in these engines it is the total time allowed for
complete purging of the cylinder.

It is small wonder that about

1/4 of the incoming charge mixes with the exhaust and is lost during
this very rapid transfer.

PRESSURE-DISTANCE CURVES
The pressure-distance relationships in a modern two-cycle
outboard are shown in FIGURE

FIFTEEN.

The cylinder volume is

27 cubic inches with the piston at bottom dead center.

During the

compression stroke, fresh fuel-air mixture flows into the cylinder

from the compressed charge in the crankcase.
22 cubic inches the intake port is cut off.

At a volume of about

The piston continues

upward and some of the fresh charge inevitably moves out the exhaust
port until it is closed off when 17 cubic inches of cylinder volume
remains.

The "trapped" or "effective" volume is the swept volume

between 17 cubic inches and the 2.4 cubic inches remaining at top
dead center.

During this compression period, the charge compresses

toward a theoretical 270 PSI; however, the spark plug fires before
top dead center is reaches and the pressure rises quite rapidly as the
piston gets near TDC.

POWER STROKE
Theoretically the charge would burn to a pressure close to
900 PSI, but this theoretical peak is chopped way down by the
burning rate of the fuel and heat transfer in
the piston.

th~

tiny space above

It is amazing that the engines work at all, since the

game is to build a 2500 degree fire in a chamber 1 /4-inch high with

a cold cylinder head above and a cold piston below.

Whether the

piston is at 150 or 300 degrees makes little difference when the fire
is 2200 degrees hotter.
enormous.

The losses to heat transfer have to be

THEORETICAL

TOP

/~\

DEAD

CENTER

PRESSURE

PEAK

PRESSURE

ACTUAL

PEAK

PRESSURE

IN
BLOV1DO>WN

CYLINDER
POUNDS/INCH

2
EXHAUST

P.S.I.
IGNITION

PORT

.t11.
~

---+---;..--

POINT

DEAD

CENTER

SCAVENGE
INTAKE

'

-L-I

TRAPPED

PORT

OPENS

1---- EFFECTIVE

PRESSURE

BOTTOM

OR
PORT

..
, -----...,""
EXHAUST

VOLUME

lij. 7 PSIA

PORT

CLOSES

CLOSES

0
CHAMBER
v6LUME

<?.40

17.0

CUBIC INCHES

J
I

CUBIC INCHES

27.0

'

SWEPT VOLUME

CYLINDER
CUBIC

VOLl,JME
INCHES

Volume
4

6on.tg:. "Btr

T.O.f<I~I(OHC

Two Cycle Pressure-Distance

15

TWO CYCLE MARINE GASOLINE POWER ENGINES (CONTINUED)

During the power stroke, the useful work is done by
the gas shoving the piston downward. At the beginning of the
stroke, the force exceeds two tons, and by the end of the stroke
just before the exhaust port opens, the force is typically about
1 /2 ton.

EXHAUST STOKE
When the piston reaches a swept volume of 17 cubic inches
the exhaust port opens, and the remaining gas pressure "blows down"
into the exhaust manifold.

With careful gas dynamics tuning the

remaining pressure is slightly over atmospheric when the intake port

is uncovered.

Obviously, if the remaining pressure is too high, the

exhaust gas will blow into the intake system and the column of gas
will develop a dynamic motion in the wrong direction.

The trick is

to have the exhaust system pressure down just about even with the
compressed intake charge when the port opens.

As the exhaust

pressure continues to decline, the compressed incoming charge starts

to flow into the cylinder, sweeping up one cylinder wall and driving
the remaining exhaust gas ahead into the exhaust manifold.

The fresh

charge continues to flow in past bottom dead center and until the
intake port is cut off by the rising piston,

The cycle then continues,

cutting off the exhaust port and compressing the charge until the
spark plug fires.
Modern two cycle engines represent some of the most
sophisticated gas dynamics in any engine technology today.
The entire intake and exhaust systems are tuned to take advantage
of the kinetic energy of the moving gas column and achieve gas flow
rates which are incredible in the time spans available.

These modern

two cycle designs provide extremely high power outputs for the engine
weight, and also very high power outputs for the engine displacement.

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

The main booster of the two cycle diesel principle for small
craft has been the General Motors Corporation with the Detroit
Diesel line of marine engines and the Electromotive Division which
manufactures mid-sized diesels for locomotives and commercial vessels
over 80 feet in length.
During World War II, thousands of the Detroit Diesel six-cylinder
71-series engines were installed in small landing craft.

For larger

ships, dual engine installations driving a single shaft were developed,

and when even more power was needed, an arrangement consisting
of four six-cylinder engines driving a common transmission was
developed.

By 1959 this concept had been refined so that the dual

engines could provide 470 horsepower, and special Quad units using
HV 80 injectors could supply 1008 Brake Horsepower for yachting
use.

Transmission losses were fairly high with this complex arrange-

ment, and the weight was also high at six tons.

In the 1960s, the basic line-up of two-cycle Detroit Diesels
was built on the 71 series engines, ranging from two-cylinder to
sixteen-cylinder models.

The basic workhorse 6-71 engine was

available in a turbocharged version with a power output of 310

horsepower at 2300 RPM.

This represented a 25 percent increase

in power, and this engine in both naturally aspirated and turbocharged

versions became popular in cruisers of forty feet and up.
In the early 1970s, the power outputs had risen slightly,
and a new series of smaller 53 cubic inch per cylinder engines had
been added to the line.

The 8V-53-N became a very popular engine

for yachts in the thirty-five to forty-five foot range.

A powerful

turbocharged engine had been added in the 8V-71-T providing 425

HP, and this became a widely used engine in yachts of the forty to
fifty-five foot range.

21

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

ENGINE

DISPLACEMENT
CUBIC INCHES

HORSEPOWER

MAXIMUM
RPM

HP/CU IN

ENGINES OF THE
1960 PERIOD:
6-71-N

426

235

2300

.55

6-71- T

426

310

2300

.73

12V-71-N

852

504

2300

.59

16V-71-N

1136

660

2300

.58

DETROIT DIESEL
BV-53-N

424

256

2800

604

DETROIT DIESEL
BV-71-N

568

350

2300

616

DETROIT DIESEL
BV-71-TI

568

425

2300

748

DETROIT DIESEL
12V-71-N

852

525

2300

616

6V-53-T I

318

305

2800

.96

6V-92-TA

552

475

2300

.86

12V-71-TI

852

900

2300

1. 06

12V-92-TI

1104

1050

2300

.95

ENGINES OF THE
EARLY 1970s:

ENGINES OF THE
MID 1980s:

16

2.8

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES (CONTINUED)

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION

A two cycle diesel works on a slightly different method
than the outboard engines.
FIGURE SEVENTEEN.

The basic principles are shown in

Four exhaust valves are installed in the

cylinder head, with a fuel injector mounted in the center.

The

left-hand illustration shows the intake and exhaust phase.

powerful "roots blower" is gear-driven from the camshaft and

provides a positive pressure in the intake manifold.

When the

piston gets close to bottom dead center (BDC), the exhaust valves
open and the remaining pressure in the cylinder "blows down" into
the exhaust manifold.

The incoming air enters through a ring of

ports around the bottom of the cylinder, and the positive pressure
in the intake manifold is used to give a torrent of air rising vertically
to clear the cylinder.

The time for clearing the cylinder is about 5

milliseconds at 2300 RPM, far longer than the time for change in an
outboard engine ( 1-1/2 milliseconds).

The cylinder in a Detroit

Diesel is also far larger than the outboard designs.

Since this is

a diesel, the incoming air has no fuel and excess air simply blows
and causes no losses.
The middle illustration shows the piston rising on the compression stroke, and at 17 to 1 compression, this results in a pressure
of about 600 PSI at top dead center.

About 20 degrees before top

dead center, the fuel injector starts blasting in a fine mist of fuel
oil at about 1150 PSI.

The injection stroke typically continues for

30 degrees at full load and would be cut off early under part load
operation.

With the two cycle diesel, each downward stroke of the

piston is a power stroke, and this has allowed the very high power
outputs developed in recent years.

Power outputs of 86 to 1. 06

Exhaust
and Intake

TWO

Stroke 1
Compression

CYCLE

DIESEL

1'7

Stroke 2
Power

OPERATION

'29

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES (CONTINUED)

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION (CONTINUED)
horsepower per cubic inch were considered impossible for the heavy,
unturbocharged diesels of a few years ago.

Intense research, and the

addition of turbochargers and coolers on the compressed incoming air

have made a tremendous difference.

The 12V-71-TI is currently rated

at 900 HP in specific models compared to 504 HP in the 12V-71-N of

the 1960 period.
FUEL AND AIR QUANTITIES
The modern turbocharged two cycle engines run with tremendous
excess air at full power.

The Roots-type blower must be sized to

properly scavenge the cylinder at idle speed, and the turbocharger

is contributing no flow at idle.

At about 1800 RPM, the roots blower,

running at twice crankshaft speed, Is still providing plenty of air,

but as the turbocharger comes on, the incoming air receives a second
boost.

The amounts of air to be handled in the exhaust are large.

An example is given below for a Detroit Diesel BV-92-TI engine installed

in a 46-foot Bertram:
Inlet air

130 pounds per minute

Fuel burned at full speed

3. 67 pounds per minute

Exhaust gas

133.67 pounds per minute at 770F

Exhaust gas volume

4000 cubic feet per minute

This huge quantity of exhaust gas results in a velocity of

340 feet per second in a pair of 6-inch exhaust tubes.

By injecting

cooling water into the exhaust, the equilibrium temperature after water
injection is reduced to 130 degrees. Volume of gas per cubic foot at

AIR

COMPRESSOR

DRIVEN

BY

TURBOCHARGER

ENGINE DRIVEN

COMPRESSOR

CAMSHAFT WITH ACCESSORY

DRIVES

ON

BOTH

ENOS
HEAD
EXHAUST

PUMP

CIRCULATING

THROUGH

BLOCK

FRESH

AND

WITH
VALVES

WATER

HEADS

"UN IT INJECTORS"
1150 PSI

ACCESSORY
BELTS

60 PSI INPUT

INJECTION TO CYLINDER

DRIVE

OFF
PISTON IN REPLACEABLE
IRON CYLINDER

CAST

ASSEMBLY

WITH
COUNTERWEIGHTS

Turbocharged Two Cycle Diesel Construction

18---------------------

TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES (CONTINUED)

FUEL AND AIR QUANTITIES (CONTINUED)
130 degrees is cut in half to 15 cubic feet per pound and the velocity
of gas in single 8-inch tubes is down to 98 feet per second.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURES
Diesel engines are very efficient compared to gasoline,
particularly at part loads.

While the gas engine must have a fuel

air mixture within specific limits at all speeds, the diesel can run
extremely lean at low speeds, providing just enough energy to overcome internal friction.

This can be seen in some tests run with a

Detroit Diesel 8V-92-TI engine.

ENGINE RPM

EXHAUST GAS
TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE OF
COOLING WATER JUST
BEFORE DUMPING IN EXHAUST

OF

OF

520

250

130

800

420

128

1000

520

124

1400

625

122

1800

670

120

2300

710

109

31

FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

In contrast to the two-cycle diesels, there are many
manufacturers offering four-cycle engines. A few of the most
popular engines are shown in FIGURE NINETEEN.
VOLVO TMD 40 AND TAMD 40
In the 1970s, Volvo introduced a series of six-cylinder
diesels suitable for small boats, all based on an in-line block of
219 cubic inches.

The Volvo engines were available either with

conventional transmissions or sterndrives, and are used in many

small yachts in the 20 to 35-foot range. The design of the engine
is shown in FIGURE TWENTY, together with the "pre-combustion
chamber".

The engine is shown with a turbocharger and intake

air compressor mounted at the aft end of the block, and the illustration also shows a clever transmission approach.

The inboard

transmission is built from the basic gear and clutch assemblies from
the Volvo sterndrive, thus giving a high commonality of parts between
inboard and sterndrive installations.

The engines were offered in

naturally aspirated versions at 85 SHP, turbocharged at 130 HP,

and turbocharged/aftercooled at 165 HP. The turbocharged versions
have become very popular in small boats in the 20 to 30-foot lengths.

PRE-COMBUSTION CHAMBER
The pre-combustion chamber, shown in the small insert, is
a system used on many small diesels, such as the Mercedes automotive
engines.

It provides quieter operation and ease of starting at a small

trade-off in efficiency.

Basically, the piston rams the compressed air

into the small anti-chamber, which is fitted with both a fuel injector and
a "glow plug".

To start the engine, a heavy, 12-volt electrical current

is applied to the glow plug which becomes red hot.

As the engine is

MARINE FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

MAX
RPM

HORSEPOWER
PER CU IN

ENGINE

DISPLACEMENT
CUBIC INCHES

VOLVO TAMD 40

219

165

3600

.75

CUMMINS VT-370

785

370

3000

.47

CUMMINS VT-555M

555

320

3000

.576

DETROIT DIESEL
8.2 LITER

508

240

3200

47

354

240

2800

.68

636

375

2800

.59

2892

1960

2100

.68

HORSEPOWER

PERKINS
T 6. 3544 (M)
CATERPILLAR
3208 TA
MTU VEE TWELVE
12V 396 TB 93

=========19===========

33

PRE-COMBUSTION

CHAMBER (CONTINUED)

cranked, the compressed air flows over the plug and is heated,
and the injector blasts the fine mist of fuel directly on the plug.
The compact chamber gives a small volume for the combustion to
take place efficiently, and as the pressure rises, the gas flows
out of the cavity and drives the piston downward.

There is a

small loss of efficiency due to gas friction and heat transfer as

the charge flows in and out of the chamber at very high speed.

DIESEL

INJECTOR

TECHNOLOGY

The technology of fuel injection, particularly on small diesel

engines is just short of incredible. An 8 Kilowatt Onan generator,
for example is powered by a small 14 horsepower four cycle diesel.
Turning at a steady 1800 RPM hour after hour it burns .90 gallons
of fuel per hour.

This must be divided up into 162,000 separate

injections of 1/1800 Ounce apiece.To measure such microscopic quantities, pressurize the fuel to 2000 PSI, and inject in a period of less
than 3 milliseconds (. 0028 seconds) takes incredible precision.
The typical four cycle fuel injector works with far larger
quantities. A Caterpillar 3208 TA at wide open throttle burns just
under 20 gallons per hour to develop 375 horsepower.

This works

out to 2 pounds per minute, which must be split up into 11,200

separate injections at 2800 RPM.

Each full throttle injection meters

1/338 ounce (. 003 ounce), pressurizes it, and injects into the cylinder
in about a 15 degree rotation of the crankshaft.

The time for this cycle

is shown in typical figures in the Illustration below.

The overall injection

starts about 18 degrees before top dead center (TDC), but since the

DIESEL

TYPICAL

INJECTOR

TECHNOLOGY (CONTINUED)

INJECTOR

PRESSURE

FUEL

TIME

CURVE

PEAK PRESSURE 1150 PSI TO

4500 PSI DEPENDING ON DESIGN
PRESSURE RISE
FULL THROTTLE

3000 TO 3500 TRANSIENT

~ TEMPERATURES

PRESSURE RISE
PART LOAD
COMBUSTION

TYPICAL
IGNITION .__.w10
DELAY
18 DEGREES BTDC
45 DEGREES AFTER TDC

Injector plunger Is cam driven there Is a pressure buildup In the

system during the cam rise. The bulk of the fuel Is Injected between
10 degrees before TDC, and shortly after TDC.

On part throttle

operation the metering system Is designed to cut off early, truncating

the Injection cycle.

Peak pressure vary widely.

Detroit Diesel, with

the "unit Injector" system has a cam driven rocker arm driving on top
of the plunger, and with such a short system pressures as low as 1150
PSI are used.

Four cyCle designs usually have long fuel injection lines

from the pump to the injector, and pressures of 2500 PSI to 4500 PSI
are typically used to give fast injection, and compensate for the slight
expansion of the steel lines under impact pressure.

35

CUMMINS VT-370 FOUR CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

In the early 1970s there were very few turbocharged diesel

engines available.

One outstanding engine was the Cummins VT-370

which provided 370 horsepower at 3000 RPM.

Installed in large yachts

such as the Chris-Craft 47-foot Commanders, these engines provided

high power output with relatively quiet operation.

Sound level tests

in the Salon above the engine room showed decibel readings 8 dBA
quieter than competitive engines and on a long cruise, this made a
tremendous difference.

Fuel economy in turbocharged four-cycle

diesels is good, and many of these 47-foot yachts are still in steady
operation, prized by their owners for an excellent balance of power,
quiet operation, relative economy and durability.

One advantage of

the turbocharged diesels was the ability to run comfortably all day on
a cruise RPM about 200 below maximum, giving a cruise speed in the
25 MPH range.
CUMMINS VT-555M SERIES ENGINE
In the 1970s Cummins brought out a series of 555 cubic inch
engines for yachts in the 30 to 40 foot range.

Over the past decade,

these engines have grown from the original 205 horsepower naturally
aspirated version to the "Big Cam" turbocharged current models
providing 320 HP at 3000 RPM, for a specific power output of .576
HP/cubic inch.

This represents a growth of over 55% in power output

over the .37 HP/cubic inch available on the original engines.

DETROIT DIESEL 8.2 LITER ENGINES
The 8. 2 liter engine represents the first small four-cycle
Detroit Diesel engine in many years.

Originally offered in the early

1980s as a naturally aspirated engine at just over 200 HP, it is in the

FRESH
COMPRESSED

AIR

SUPPLY

TURBOCHARGER AND
AIR COMPRESSOR

HEAT EXCHANGER
TANK

EXHAUST

REAR

ENGINE MOUNTS

ALTERNATOR

ADJUSTABLE FRONT
MOUNTS

DETROIT DIESEL 8.2 LITER ENGINE

21

MANIFOLD

DETROIT DIESEL 8.2 LITER ENGINES (CONTINUED)

growth stage with several turbocharged marine conversions by
distributors offered in 1982.

The current engine, factory built

with a single centrally mounted turbocharger, is shown in FIGURE

TWENTY ONE.
The performance of a pair of prototype B. 2 liter engines in
a Bertram 28 is shown in FIGURE TWENTY TWO.

A set of curves in

this format should be developed for every new engine installation in

a yacht.

The plot of MPH vs RPM covers the cruising range when the

yacht is fully up on plane and gives the owner valuable range vs

speed information.

Since hull friction varies as the square of the

speed, it is not too surprising to see that the best fuel economy
will be achieved at the lowest planing speed.
1. 9 MPG in the 1600 to 1900 range.

In this case, it is

In an interesting parallel test

with this same model yacht, the diesel fuel economy was 50% better
than the performance with a pair of the 235 HP two cycle gasoline
engines.

In both cases I ran each boat over a 60-mile course similarly

loaded over a weekend.

The outboard engines gave a higher top speed,

but the diesels really shine in the field of fuel economy.

PERKINS T 6,3544 (M) SIX CYLINDER DIESEL
An example of the results of a long development and refinement
process is the Perkins line of six cylinder diesels. A rugged 354 cubic
inch block is the heart of the engine, and the basic version with a
Brog-Warner transmission provides 135 horsepower at 2800 RPM.

After

a decade of development and refinement, the latest versions can pour

out 77% more horsepower through turbocharging, the integration of large
capacity coolers, and careful design of the induction and exhaust air
flow.

From a specific output of 38 HP /cubic inch, the power has grown

to .68 HP/cubic inch In the T 6.3544 (M} model

E
co

........
...CD

~I
CD
(,)

c:::

co

E
...

.......
0

Q)

a.

C\1
C\1

TURBOCHARGER
COMPRESSOR

INLET
HIGH

PRESSURE

INJECTtON

FUEL

PUMP

FILTERS

VALVE

TRAIN

-;;:o

INJECTOR

EXHAUST

VALVE -

EXHAUST

MANIFOLD

PISTON

i----HEAT

EXCHANGER

LUBRICATING

PUMP

WITH

CHAMBER

IN

TOP

CONNECTING

ROD

Caterpillar

Four

Cycle

Diesel

OIL

Design

23-------------------

CATERPILLAR 3208 TA FOUR-CYCLE DIESELS

Caterpillar has followed a similar development program with
the 636 cubic Inch V-8 line of engines.

Originally introduced in

the mid-1970s at 210 HP, the power output had grown through
turbocharging and design refinement to 250 HP by 1980.

This

grew to 300 HP, and the addition of "aftercooling" the induction

air and the use of larger oil coolers allowed the power output to
rise to 375 at 2800 RPM.

This represents a growth from 210 HP

( 33 HP /cubic inch) to 375 HP in the same 636 cubic inches. The

path is not always smooth. The maximum pressures developed by
turbocharging could not be handled by the original 636 cubic inch
block, and a very time consuming and expensive redesign was
required to strengthen all of the key elements sufficiently to allow
a 70 percent growth in power output to .575 HP/cubic inch.

MTU 396 SERIES

ENGINES

The highest powered diesels engines currently in general use on

American yachts are the MTU line of six to sixteen cylinder four cycle
diesels. MTU represents a combine of old line German diesel manufacturers
including M.A.N., Maybach, and Mercedes Benz.

M.A.N. has traditionally

been strong In the huge three story direct connected marine diesels.
The largest, a 12 cylinder, develops 56,160 horsepower, or 4680 HP
per cylinder turning at less than 100 RPM.
The MTU six-cylinder engine is shown in FIGURE TWENTY
FOUR.

The V-12 is basically two six cylinder blocks bolted end

to end, so the construction details are similar.

Two intake and

two exhaust valves per cylinder are fitted with a fuel injector
mounted in the center,oHhe cylinder head between the four valves.
The design is so compact that recesses must be machined into the top
of each piston to allow the valves to open with the piston at top dead
center. A Bosch in-line fuel injection pump is mounted in the center
between the banks of cylinders, and is gear driven from the camshaft.
High strength steel distribution lines carry the 2500 PSI injection fuel
from

the pump to the individual injectors.

EXHAUST

OUTLET

AIR
HIGH

CAMSHAFT

DRIVING

PRESSURE FUEL

INTAKE

MANIFOLD

VALVE

TRAIN THROUGH ROLLER

FOLLOWERS ON PUSHRODS

COOLANT
HEAT

TANK

EXHAUST

OUTLET

WITH

EXCHANGER

INTAKE

AND

EXHAUST

VALVES

CYLINDER
INJECTION
CENTER

GEAR

TRAIN

FUEL

INJECTION

OF

TO DRIVE
EXHAUST

PUMP

VALVE

WATER

COOLED

EXHAUST

FRONT

MAN I FOLD

ENG

MOUNT

REAR

ENGINE

MOUNT
CRANKSHAFT

WITH

COUNTERWEIGHTS
GEAR
OIL

DRIVEN
PUMP

OIL

PAN

WITH

BAFFLES

11T'UIDF8

--as-

Four

Cycle

MTU

Model 6
24

v- 396

Engine

VALVE

CYLINDER

IN

MTU

396 SERIES

ENGINES (CONTINUED)

At the end of each cylinder bank a turbocharger is installed

in a water cooled housing.

The gas exhausts from the turbocharger

upward and the compressed incoming air flows in toward the engine
centerline through a cooler and then forward into a pair of intake
distribution manifolds.

The MTU twelve cylinder engine can provide

1930 horsepower at 2100 RPM, for a specific power output of 67

horsepower per cubic inch.

These engines, or the Detroit Diesel

12V-92-TA models are becoming poular in yachts in the 55 to 90 foot

size.

Higher power levels are available, but the cost escalates rapidly.

The MTY 16V-396-TB63 can provide 2610 horsepower at 2100 RPM, and
this is accomplished in an engine

just over five tons in weight.

High

powered American diesels, such as the Detroit Diesel 16V-149-TI have

primarily been designed for commercial service and turn out 1600 BHP
at 1900 RPM in commercial trim, and up to 2000 BHP modified for
yachting use. Weight without marine gear for these engines is just
under six tons.

The difference is the MTU focus on military appli-

cations with a high value on minimum size and weight, compared to

the American commercial objectives of moderate cost with extended
service life and minimum maintenance expense.

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS

Most early marine gasoline engines were built using a common
base for the engine and transmission.

This type of design is shown

in the Easthope engine in FIGURE ONE.

the space between the two units.

A short drive shaft bridges

A manual lever was used to engage

the forward or reverse gear set, and generally these small, slow-turning
engines required no reduction.

The huge flywheel, required to allow

idling at 100 RPM, dominates the front of the engine and weighs more
than the entire transmission assembly.
As engines became more powerful and manufacturing more
specialized, the use of a separate transmission assembly bolted to
the engine flywheel housing became the accepted method of construction.
A modern in-line transmission manufactured by Borg-Warner is shown
in FIGURE TWENTY FIVE.

Since engine flywheels differ in diameter,

an "adapter plate" is bolted to the flywheel housing and the transmission

input shaft is splined to the crankshaft.
a gear-type oil pump is mounted.

At the front of the assembly

Since this is always rotating with

the .engine, it provides a constant supply of high pressure lubricating

oil to operate, lubricate and cool the transmission.
CLUTCHES
There is a large diameter clutch assembly located behind the
oil pump.

There are only a few elements in the clutch pack since

the large diameter give excellent torque transmission characteristics.

The clutch pack is engaged by bringing high-pressure oil into a
large diameter piston area.

The piston is just forward of the clutch

pack in the illustration, and when 150 to 200 PSI oil operates on the
ring-shaped piston surface, the forward gear clutch locks up very
tightly.

OUTER CLUTCH

PLATE

REDUCTION GEARS

OIL PRESSURE PUMP

MULTIPLE

DISK CLUTCHES
TAPERED ROLLER
BEARINGS

INPUT SHAFT
FROM ENGINE
TRANSMISSION COUPLING
{CONNECTS TO PROPELLER SHAFT)
PLANETARY GEAR SET

Marine Transmission - Gas Engines

25 _ _ _ _ _ _____.

40

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

CLUTCHES (CONTINUED)
A multiple disk clutch pack is shown behind the large
clutch assembly.

While smaller in diameter, it has more elements

to provide the torque transmission required. This pack is built

into a planetary gear set.
FORWARD AND REVERSE
Examination of FIGURE TWENTY FIVE will show that there
are actually three distinct shafts between input and output.

The

input shaft is locked to the engine and the forward planetary gear
set spins at engine speed.

It is a characteristic of planetary sets

to spin freely, with the small gears "walking around" the internal
gear and the external gear with no power output.

To go into

FORWARD, the large diameter clutch is used to lock all the elements
of the planetary together.

The middle shaft then turns at engine

speed, and the yacht is in forward gear.

When reverse is desired,

the outer clutch is released, and the small clutch pack engaged.
Under these circumstances, the small planetary gears reverse the
motion of their carrier so that the center of the shaft rotates in the
reverse direction.
REDUCTION GEARS
Bolted on to the aft end of the transmission is a set of
reduction gears.

In small, light yachts this can be eliminated, but

normally 1. 5 to 1 or 2 to 1 reduction gears are fitted to yachts above

24 feet in length.

As yachts get to 40 feet, a reduction of 2. 5 to 1

needs to be considered in the propeller calculations to give the best

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

REDUCTION GEARS (CONTINUED)
balance between thrust for acceleration and maneuvering and highest
speed.
The reduction gear set is designed with the outer gear
bolted to the transmission housing, as shown in FIGURE TWENTY
FIVE.

Since the external gear is splined to the middle shaft, the

little planetary gears must follow the differential motion by tracking

between the two large gears.

The planetary gear carrier is part of

the output shaft assembly and rotates at a reduced speed due to the
motion of the small gears.

The mating flange for the propeller shaft

is splined and bolted to the output shaft.

STERN DRIVE SYSTEM

During the 1950s, Jim Wynne invented a marine propulsion
concept which has had tremendous impact on the Industry.

The patent

was issued in 1959, and the "Sterndrive" was introduced by Volvo

both in Europe and the United States.

In the past twenty-five years,

the sterndrive has come to fill a key slot between the outboard motors
used generally on the small, light boats, and the straight inboard
drive used on larger yachts.

The basic design of the Volvo unit

is shown in FIGURE TWENTY

SIX.

The horizontal input shaft from the engine has a large-diameter

vibration dampener with coil springs to absorb torsional oscillations at
the front of the horizontal shaft.

The shaft passes through the tran-

som of the yacht and into a pair of universal joints, which allow

TILLER

ARM

TURNS

ENTIRE

WHICH
LOWER

STERN DRIVE ASSEMBLY

TRANSOM OF
YACHT
UPPER

UNIVERSAL JOINTS

BALL BEARINGS

ALLOW STERN
TO

CONE

CLUTCHES

FORWARD

AND

TURN

TO

DRIVE

AND

LIFT

FOR
REVERSE
HORIZONTAL
FROM

EXHAUST

SHAFT

ENGINE

PATH

CAVITATION

TRIM

EXHAUST PATH

TAB

FLEXIBLE

VERTICAL
PROPELLER
SPLINED

THROUGH
BELLOWS

SHAFT

ON

SHAFT
COOLING

WATER

INTAKE

BEVEL

GEARS

SUBMERGED

IN

AND

BEARINGS

LIGHT OIL

VOLVO
STERNDRIVE CONSTRUCTION
~--------------26--------------~

42.

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

STERN DRIVE SYSTEM (CONTINUED)

transmission of power as the unit is turned from side to side for

steering and also allows a limited vertical angular motion.

By this

means, the unit is "trimmed out" to give the maximum thrust

efficiency.

In the hands of a skilled operator on high-speed boats

running in the 60 mile per hour range, careful trimming out can
add three or four miles per hour to the top speed.
BEVEL GEARS AND CLUTCHES

After the universal joints the shaft passes through a pair of

high-capacity ball bearings and terminates in a bevel gear.

The

gear drives both an upper and lower bevel gear mounted on the
vertical shaft.

There are cone clutches mounted between the hor-

izontal gears, and if one clutch is engaged, the transmission is in

forward and the other clutch is used to provide reverse.
Power passes down the vertical shaft which terminates in
another bevel gear driving the propeller shaft.

Large bearings to

absorb propeller side loads are installed, as in an oil pump.

The

entire gear train is submerged in low viscosity oil, so the transmission

losses are low, and heat is easily i:lissipated through direct heat transfer from the oil to the surrounding water.
ADVANTAGES OF STERNDRIVES

The sterndrive has proven to be the most efficient method

of marine propulsion in wide use today.

In racing applications, the

combination of a high power output four-cycle gasoline engine with

43

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

ADVANTAGES OF STERNDRIVES (CONTINUED)

a specially constructed sterndrive, such as that shown in FIGURE
SEVEN, leads to tremendous speeds.

In deep-vee hulls, such as

the Cigarette 38, speeds over 80 miles per hour are possible, and
some of the new 30-foot catermeran designs have operated at over
100 miles per hour in relatively calm waters.

The cats partially

ride on an air cushion between the two hulls, leading to higher

speeds, but when waters get rough, nothing will perform or stand
up as well as a racing deep-vee hull.
For highest efficiency the sterndrive should:
1.

Have a fuel efficient four-cycle engine.

2.

Run with a stainless steel propeller of optimum design.

At high speed, a "Cleaver" design as shown in FIG. 7
has proven to most efficient.

3.

Have a clean, smooth lower unit on the sterndrive.

4.

Operate on a clean, smooth hull.

The high efficiency of the sterndrives is due to a reduction

of "appendage resistance".

In a standard inboard engine configuration,

the propeller shaft and main strut cause considerable turbulance in

the water before it gets to the propeller.

In addition, the rudder has

surface area resistance and adds considerably more drag when it is

at an angle to the water flow.

In the sterndrive, steering is by turning

the thrust line and the lower unit is carefully streamlined to reduce
drag to minimize levels.

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

DIESEL TRANSMISSIONS
Diesel engines for marine use are all designed for commercial
applications, and the transmissions match the heavy-duty design
philosophy.

A typical marine transmission is shown in FIGURE TWENTY

sEVEN. The torque is generally much higher on diesels, and almost all
have a reduction built In so the general approach is to have offset
shafts with the forward and reverse gears both splined to the input
shaft.

Normally there is a small clearance between the input and

output gear in reverse, and the change in direction is accomplished

through an idler gear mounted to one side of the shaft line.
In the Caterpillar Model 7241, transmission shown there are
concentric shafts on the input, and the sintered bronze clutch packs
are locked up by hydraulic pressure to drive through either the
forward or the reverse gear.

The oil pump is mounted at the extreme

aft end of the upper shaft, so It is always rotating, and draws oil
from the huge sump in the transmission housing.

Some reduction is

accomplished in the gearing between the input and output shafts, but
the overall reduction ratio is determined by the planetary gear set
located on the output shaft.

A pair of heavy tapered roller bearings

are Installed just forward of the output flange to absorb the forward
and aft thrust of the propeller, and also any side loads due to propeller
shaft misalignment.
Marine diesel transmissions are made in many variations and
by differing techniques.

ZF has a process where the gears are driven

onto tapered seats and have no splines.

Many accomplish the reduction

through spur gears instead of planetary, but all of the basic elements
will be present.

SINTERED BRONZE
CLUTCH PACKS

STATIONARY RING

FORWARD
EVERSE

7241

OUTPUT

FORWARD GEAR

PLANET GEAR
(3 USED)
MAIN THRUST BEARING

REVERSE GEAR

SUNG

ELEMENTS

OF

MARINE

DIESEL

FIGURE 27

TRANSMISSION

MARINE DRIVE SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)

ARNESON DRIVE
A relative newcomer to the marine propulsion scene is the
"Arneson Drive" which combines a steerable surface propeller with a
small rudder for low speed operation.

The configuration of a drive

with offset shafts is shown in FIGURE TWENTY EIGHT.

The penetration

through the transom is very similar to the sterndrive, and the housing
includes a pair of gears with a strong drive belt, which provides a
lower shaft speed on the output, and also lowers the output shaft
line.

A pair of universal joints held within the transom housing allow

the shaft assembly to move up and down for trim and from side to
side for steering.

The steering is controlled by a powerful hydraulic

cylinder mounted to the port side, and the elevation is controlled by

a cylinder mounted above and bolted through the reinforced transom.
Steering is accomplished by both the skeg and the thrust line
of the propeller.
prop

The skeg provides a measure of protection for the

and the upper blade includes a spray shield to cut down on the

vertical spray thrown off the prop.

A highly polished stainless steel

or N1-bral prop is used, and the best operation is normally found with
only the lower half of the prop in the water.

This is a surface prop,

and until the Arneson system was invented, the exact trim to achieve
optimum propulsion was very difficult to achieve.

The propeller

diameter on sterndrives is limited to about 16 inches, but the design

of the larger Arneson or KAAMA units permit much larger shaft
diameters, and the application of the system to large diesels in the
1000 HP range.

HYDRAULIC
RAISE

SPRAY

CYLINDER

TO

AND

DEFLECTOR

PROPELLER

SKEG
AND

FOR PROPELLER PROTECTION

LOW

SPEED

STEERING

ARNESON DRIVE

28

HYDRAULIC
RAISE

CYLINDER

TO

AND

STEERING CYLINDER

SPRAY

SKEG
AND

DEFLECTOR

FOR PROPELLER PROTECTION

LOW

SPEED

STEERING

ARNESON DRIVE

28