Dry Vacuum Pumps

Run Clean with Dry

Vacuum Pumps
The use of dry pumps is growing, replacing
workhorse steam jets and liquid-ring pumps.
Here is a comprehensive selection guide.

Jim Ryans and Joe Bays,

Eastman Chemical Co.

he term dry vacuum pump is

used to describe a positive-displacement vacuum pump that discharges continuously to atmospheric pressure and in which the swept volume is
free of lubricants or sealing liquids. Dry vacuum pumps were originally introduced in the
Japanese semiconductor industry in the mid1980s to address reliability problems associated
with oil-sealed pumps and contamination
caused by back-migration of vacuum pump oil.
The success of these pumps revolutionized
semiconductor processing. Dry vacuum pumps
were introduced into the U.S. chemical process
industries (CPI) in the late 1980s. In the next
ten years, it is anticipated that they will completely displace oil-sealed pumps, and will
make significant inroads into traditional markets for steam jets and liquid-ring vacuum
pumps workhorses for the high-throughput
mainstream processing operations in the CPI.
Dry pumps are compact and energy efficient,
and do not contribute to air pollution, a problem
with oil-sealed pumps, or water pollution, a
problem with steam jets and water-sealed liquid
ring pumps. Dry pumps are unique among CPI
vacuum pumps, because they do not require a
working fluid to produce vacuum, so nothing
contacts the load being pumped. Solvents or
products aspirated from the process can be dis-

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charged to an aftercondenser. Contamination is

not a concern, and the condensate can be recycled directly to the process.

Rough vacuum
Subatmospheric pressures can be divided into
four regions:
Rough vacuum
760 to 1 torr
Medium vacuum
1 to 10-3 torr
High vacuum
10-3 to 10-7 torr
Ultrahigh vacuum
10-7 torr and below
Rough vacuum is the region of greatest interest to the CPI, because it is where polymer
reactors, vacuum distillation columns and vacuum dryers normally operate. Medium vacuum is
used in molten metals degassing, molecular distillation and freeze drying. High and ultrahigh
vacuum are used in the production of thin films,
mass spectrometry, low-temperature research,
surface-physics research, nuclear research and
space simulation.
Semiconductor applications span rough to ultrahigh vacuum, but the capital-intensive, precision-technology operations that so characterize
the industry are high and ultrahigh vacuum operations. Semiconductor processing is characterized by corrosive gases (e.g., HCl), and the condensation/precipitation of hard solids (for example, AlCl3 and SiO2) from the process gas stream
in the pump (1). These challenges guided the

Figure 1. (a.) Three-stage Roots dry pump with interstage

coolers (Courtesy of Stokes Vacuum) (b.) Three-stage Roots dry
pump with water-cooled jacket (Courtesy of Stokes
Vacuum (c.) Four-stage Roots/claw dry vacuum pump
(Courtesy of BOC Edwards).

early development of dry vacuum pumps. The dry

pumps that were developed for the semiconductor
industry are medium vacuum pumps. Ultimate or
c
base pressure is typically 35 10-3 torr; dry
pumps used as backing pumps for the turbomolecular pumps required for high and ultrahigh vacuum typically operate at 10-2 to 1.0 torr.
In the beginning, building dry pumps for the CPI
meant redesigning the semiconductor pumps for rough
vacuum and considering a wider variety of applications.
CPI dry pumps are rough vacuum pumps that typically
operate at 0.1100 torr. These pumps are designed to handle a wider variety of materials than the semiconductor
pumps and to cope with liquid slugs and solids carried
over from the process.

Principles of operation
CPI dry pumps employ the operating principles of rotary-lobe Roots blowers, claw compressors or screw compressors (2). These three all have certain things in common. Tight clearances practically dictate cast iron or ductile iron construction. These pumps run hot and the potential for overheating is inherent in their design. Dissipating
the heat of compression is a problem. Temperature control
is required and is, increasingly, the key to engineering the
next generation of dry pumps. Generally, temperature control is done by using a water jacket or injecting cooled process gas or nitrogen into the working volume of the pump.
Occasionally, both methods are used.
Rotary-lobe Roots blowers
These dry pumps were developed from the rotary-lobe

Roots blower, a positive-displacement machine that normally operates as a dry compressor. Two interlocking rotors on two parallel shafts synchronized by timing gears
and rotating in opposite directions trap and transport gases.
Gears and bearings are oil-lubricated, but are external to
the pump; the rotors run dry. Clearances between the rotors
and between the rotors and the casing are generally
0.0040.020 in. Back-leakage across these clearances reduces pump capacity, increasing as the pressure differential
between intake and exhaust increases. Dry compression
and noncontacting rotors mean that blowers can operate at
high rotational speeds up to 4,000 rpm. These machines
are, therefore, limited to use across relatively small pressure differentials, but since they can run at high speeds,
they can be designed for high throughput.
Roots blowers have limited application as process vacuum pumps discharging against high-pressure differentials
to the atmosphere, but they are used extensively as vacuum
boosters in the 0.00150 torr range. Roots vacuum systems
were developed in the 1950s as backing pumps with
enough capacity to handle the discharge from diffusion
pumps used in medium and high vacuum. Blowers were
used to extend the operating range and to boost the capacity of rotary-piston pumps, thus, the convention of referring
to blowers used in integrated vacuum pumping systems as
vacuum boosters.

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Ratio of Outlet Pressure vs. Inlet Pressure

Dry Vacuum Pumps

60
Claw-Type
Mechanism

50
40
30

Roots
Mechanism

20
10
10-3

10-2

10-1

100

101

102

Outlet Pressure, mbar

Figure 2. Maximum compression ratio (for air) vs. discharge pressure

(1.0 mbar = 0.75 torr) (Courtesy of BOC Edwards).

Dry vacuum pump systems can be built by connecting

Roots vacuum pumps in series. Interstage coolers prevent
overheating in the initial stages of the train. In the final
stage, gas recycled from an aftercooler is admitted to the
working volume of the pump. The gas cools the pump and is
transported, along with the process gas, to the discharge
port. (Injection is in a location that does not significantly reduce the pumps throughput.) Gas injection allows Roots
blowers to achieve an ultimate pressure of about 100 torr
when discharging to atmospheric pressure.
Process constraints justify building such elaborate systems. Dry compressors are often required, for example, for
pumping hydrogen, HCl vapor, helium-SF6 test gases, and
highly reactive mixtures of combustible gases. Many of the
same concerns that drove the development of elaborate fivestage blower systems and the development of semiconductor
dry pumps are now driving the development of dry vacuum
pumps for the CPI.

Multistage Roots pumps

The first commercially successful dry vacuum pump was
introduced in Japan in 1984 and was based on the Roots
blower with six stages in series (3). The six-stage machine
was actually two three-stage machines operating in series. In
each machine, the rotors for three Roots stages were mounted on two parallel drive shafts and were held in phase by
timing gears. The first commercial dry vacuum pump for the
CPI (introduced in 1987) was also based on the Roots principle with three stages in series.
The three-stage pump shown in Figure 1a uses both interstage coolers and intercooling. The shell-and-tube heat exchangers in between the second and the third stages act as
interstage condensers. This is the principal advantage, and
the principal disadvantage of the design. The pump runs
cool, making it nearly ideal when solvent recovery is re-

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quired and the process involves, for example, alcohols from

the condenser train of a distillation column. The condensate
is not corrosive, and solids fouling of the heat exchangers is
not a concern. When the condensate is corrosive, corrosion
will compromise performance. When solids are present,
even soft polymers, the heat exchangers can foul.
The three-stage Roots pump (Figure 1b), the latest version of the pump, has a water jacket surrounding the working volume. Interstage heat exchangers have been eliminated, resulting in a compact design. The provisions for intercooling in this pump are very sophisticated. The way the gas
recirculates from the discharge of one stage to the working
volume of the previous stage minimizes the temperature difference between the rotors and the casing. This addresses the
major issue in protecting the pump from overheating uneven thermal expansion that causes the rotors to come in
contact with the casing.

Claw compressors
The first Roots/claw dry vacuum pump (Figure 1c) was
marketed in Japan in 1985. The first stage of the pump is
the familiar Roots configuration. The second, third and
fourth stages are intermeshing claws. Machines like the
one shown in Figure 1c are remarkably successful in competing with dry pumps based strictly on the Roots principle. The Roots/claw pump is fundamentally more rugged.
In the early 1990s, dry pumps based on intermeshing
claws premiered in the U.S. The volumetric efficiency of the
compressor is limited, as in all dry pumps, by backstreaming
through the clearances between the rotors. The critical clearances are between circular profiles that can be machined to
small tolerances. Since there is no relative movement between the profiles of the rotors, the gaps between them can
be kept small; 0.005 in. is typical. The self-valving action of
the claws means that continuous reworking of the gas in the
swept volume, a problem with the Roots, is not a problem
here. The valving action of the rotors limits the backflow of
hot gas into the next compression cycle. Intercooling, used
to cool Roots machines, is not required. Gas injection, used
for screw compressors, is also not required.
The rationale for combining Roots rotors with intermeshing claws and the order in which they are combined can be
found by plotting the maximum compression ratio vs. outlet
pressure (4), as presented in Figure 2. This figure shows that
intermeshing claws are more efficient at higher pressures,
and the the Roots, at lower pressures. CPI pumps are designed for operation across the range 0.1760 torr. There are
few applications in the range 0.010.1 torr. Figure 2 shows
that the three-stage claw is more efficient across the range
0.2760 torr. The Roots/claw machine is more efficient
across the range 0.10.2 torr, but the difference is not significant. And the three-stage claw is fundamentally a simpler
and more-rugged machine. Thus, in developing pumps for
the CPI, the Roots/claw design was abandoned in favor of
two- and three-stage claws.

 Figure 3. (a.) Three-stage claw Key: 1: Inlet; 2: Sealed high-vacuum

bushings; 3: Indirect cooling; 4: Modular construction; 5: Gearbox;
6: Torque limiter; 7: Outlet; 8: Reversed claw(Courtesy of BOC Edwards)
(b.) Horizontal screw compressor designed as a vacuum pump (Courtesy of
Busch, Inc.).

Figure 3a illustrates two aspects of claw machines that

are especially intriguing the pump is vertical and, in the
design shown, the second set of claws is reversed. Vertical
mounting is advantageous in handling condensable vapors,
or when the aspiration of a liquid slug or particulates from
the process is possible. Liquid drains through from the suction to the discharge and out the bottom of the pump. Reversing the orientation of the rotors in the second stage so
that the outlet of the first stage aligns with the inlet of the
second allows particulates to fall straight through the pump
and minimizes the area available for buildup of corrosive
residues (5).

Screw compressors
Screw compressors have been used as vacuum pumps
since the mid-1950s, but these machines were not designed
as vacuum pumps and were generally restricted to 100760
torr. A screw compressor designed as a dry vacuum pump
was introduced in the early 1990s (Figure 3b the dashed
circle in the figure indicates the pumps inlet). Process vapors entering the pump are trapped between two constantpitch Archimedean screws and are conveyed from the suction side to the discharge. Operation is isochoric. Compression occurs in the final half-turn of the screw. Busch, Kinney Vacuum, Nash Engineering, Stokes, Rietschle Pumps,
and Sterling SIHI currently market such vacuum pumps in

the U.S. They are not simply conventional screw compressors adapted for vacuum service. Ultimate pressure for
these machines is less than 0.1 torr, and some are capable
of compression ratios in excess of 1,000,000:1 and operation across 0.001760 torr.
To operate effectively as a vacuum pump, a screw compressor must have tight clearances or run at high speeds,
typically 6,00018,000 rpm (6). In developing vacuum
pumps for the CPI, manufacturers looked at the problems
associated with high-speed operation, and elected, initially,
to design for 3,600 rpm. To preserve volumetric efficiency
at lower speeds, it was necessary to design for tight clearances. Clearances between the rotors and between the rotors
and the casing are very tight, frequently less than 0.004 in.
Some tolerance is required to allow the rotors to bed in.

Figure 4. Vertical screw compressor designed as a vacuum pump

(Courtesy of Sterling SIHI).

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Dry Vacuum Pumps

200
Jet

Pumping Speed, acfm

175
150
Dry Pump
Liquid-Ring
Pump

125
100
75
50
25
0
0.1

Performance curves for:

3-stage Steam Jet
2-stage Liquid Ring-Pump
Dry Vacuum Pump

10

100

1,000

Suction Pressure, torr

Figure 5. Performance curves for a three-stage steam jet, two-stage liquid-ring pump,
and a dry vacuum pump.

Some manufacturers address this by coating the rotors and

the casings with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). This sacrificial coating is abraded as the rotors bed in and the running
clearances for the pump are established (2).
The pump shown in Figure 4 operates at 8,000 rpm. The
rotors are stainless steel and a PTFE coating is not used.
Vertical screws transport process vapors from the top inlet
to the bottom discharge. Problems posed by high rotational
speeds contamination of the working volume by bearing
lubricant, vacuum-tight sealing of shafts, and high noise
levels associated with timing gears have been addressed
in the design. Cartridge-mounted bearings, used to support
the shafts, are mounted inside the rotors. The resulting cantilever design addresses contamination of the working volume by bearing lubricant and vacuum-tight sealing of the
shafts. The bearings are on the discharge side of the pump
and mechanical shaft seals have been eliminated. Gear lubrication has also been eliminated. Two electronically synchronized motors drive the rotors. The timing gears are
noncontacting.
Isochoric operation of the rotors means that the temperature at the discharge end of vacuum screw compressors
can exceed 300C. High temperatures prevent the condensation of process vapors; this protects the pump from corrosion. High temperatures, however, reduce the life of
seals and bearings and can result in thermal degradation,
polymerization or autoignition of process vapors. Gas injection has been used to solve the problem, but when sol-

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vent recovery is required, injected

gas can drive up capital and operating
costs for the recovery system.
Research has been done by Japan
(7) and U.S. manufacturers on reducing operating temperatures, and making pumps more energy-efficient and
compact. The results call for changing the pitch, or profile, of the screw
axially along its length. A change in
the profile, for example, midway
through the pump, shifts part of the
work away from the discharge, creating a more energy-efficient machine
that generates less heat. Changing
the profile of the screw reportedly
drops temperatures to 130200C
(8). In addition, the reduced lead
angle at the inlet gives the pump
greater volumetric capacity, so it can
achieve the same throughput with
about one-third less horsepower and
a smaller footprint (7, 8). Virtually
every manufacturer of screw-compressor dry pumps has an aggressive
program to redesign its pump line
based on these findings.

Why specify a dry pump?

The potential for eliminating process contamination is
the main driving force for specifying dry vacuum pumps
for fine-chemicals and current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) plants. It is anticipated that, in the future,
environmental constraints and the incentive for solvent
and product recovery will increasingly dictate the specification of these pumps for mainstream CPI applications.
Process integration is also a factor, because dry pumps
are so versatile.
Process contamination
Oil-sealed pumps in pharmaceutical, pharmaceutical intermediates and some food processing plants are coming
under increased scrutiny from regulatory agencies. The potential for contamination of the process by pump oil was always an issue, but the real issue now is cleanliness; the potential for contamination of the process and for contamination associated with the use, handling, and disposal of pump
oil. Dry pumps provide an ideal solution to the problem.
Eliminating the oil eliminates the problem.
Process contamination is also an issue when steam jets or
water-sealed liquid-ring pumps are used in cGMP plants.
When a single batch is worth $500,000, the potential for
contamination, for example, as a result of backstreaming of
steam from an unstable steam jet, is unacceptable if installing a dry pump can eliminate the risk. If the steam sys-

device, such as a stripping column, may be used to

handle wastewater discharged from the entire plant. If
a large control device is installed, condensate from
steam jets and spent sealant from water-sealed liquidring pumps can be discharged to the control device. In
this case, emissions reductions alone will seldom justify installation of dry pumps.

$70k
Three-Stage Roots
$60k
Screw
Compressor
Purchase Cost

$50k

$40k
Skid-Mounted
Liquid-Ring

$30k

Three-Stage
Claw
$20k

$10k

50

100

150

200

250

300

Free Air Displacement, cfm

Figure 6. Purchase costs for dry pumps vs. liquid-ring pumps.

tem at a cGMP plant is not a sanitary system approved for

direct or incidental contact in cGMP applications, backstreaming of steam to the process will contaminate the product. Also, there are regulatory and legal issues. A process
upset, triggered by backstreaming of steam, interrupts the
processing cycle. The upset, especially if it is an aberration
not provided for in a Drug Master Filing, may require that
the plant scrap the batch. The manufacturer must establish
that the upset had no impact on product quality and did not
result in contamination. Dry pumps eliminate this potential
for contamination.

Environmental constraints
As environmental regulations place increasing restrictions on the discharge of contaminated working fluids, dry
pumps are being considered for point source elimination of
pollution from steam jets, liquid-ring pumps, and oil-sealed
pumps. Steam jets and water-sealed liquid-ring pumps contribute to water pollution. Oil-sealed pumps contribute to air
pollution, and the contaminated oil presents yet another
waste disposal problem. Dry pumps do not contribute to the
problem; dry pumps are part of the solution.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 resulted in severe
restrictions on discharging wastewater containing air pollutants to industrial sewers and wastewater-treatment plants.
Dry pumps can eliminate wastewater emissions at the source,
and this has been one of the driving forces behind dry pump
development. But, in many plants, vacuum system wastewater is a small part of the total wastewater problem. A control

350

Solvent/product recovery
In most applications involving dry pumps, solvent/product recovery is easy. The dry pump discharges to an aftercondenser. Contamination is not a
concern, and the condensate from the aftercondenser
can be recycled directly to the process.
The success of dry pumps in solvent/product recovery follows the precedent established by solventsealed liquid-ring pumps. Liquid-ring pumps are a
natural choice for vacuum distillation, vacuum drying and evaporator service, because the pump handles noncondensables saturated with process vapors.
The condensing effect, inherent in the operation of
the pump, means that vapors discharged to the liquid-ring pump may condense in it. If the pump is
dedicated to a single process that uses a solvent with
a sufficiently high boiling point, for example, xylene, the solvent can be used as the sealing liquid.
Process vapors condense in the pump, and the condensate
is recycled to the process (9).
Solvent-sealed liquid-ring pumps have been used extensively in the CPI to replace water-sealed liquid-ring
pumps, oil-sealed pumps, and single- and two-stage jets.
There are, of course, limitations to this approach. The
vacuum that can be achieved by a liquid-ring pump is
limited by the vapor pressure of the sealing liquid. The
lower limit for process applications is approximately 25
torr. (Operation at lower pressures, in the range 510 torr,
is possible, but careful engineering is needed to ensure
that reliability is not compromised.) Liquid inventory is
also a problem. Changing to a new solvent contaminates
the sealing liquid, and the potential for contamination
may dictate changing out the sealing liquid at the end of
each production campaign. Dry pumps eliminate both of
these problems.
Dry pumps offer similar performance and economics
across the same operating range as solvent-sealed liquidring pumps, but with the additional benefit of lower ultimate pressures. Because of this, dry pumps are viable alternatives to three-, four-, and five-stage jets. There are no
liquid inventory problems; replacing a solvent-sealed
pump with a dry pump eliminates the liquid inventory.
Dry pumps are frequently a better choice for general-purpose use, because changes in the process, product or solvent that might affect the performance of solvent-sealed
pumps will usually have little, if any, effect on the performance of dry pumps.

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Dry Vacuum Pumps

Note: 1.0 torr = 133.3 Pa

0.60

1-Stage Pump
2-Stage
Screw Compressor

0.50

provide vacuum across the entire

range 1760 torr. The same pump
that is used to maintain 5 torr on a
reactor can be used to maintain 50
torr on a dryer and 500 torr on a rotary vacuum filter.

Thermal Efficiency

Suction pressure and

capacity
Three-Stage Roots
0.40
The most important parameters affecting vacuum pump selection are the suction pressure
0.30
and capacity required for the
Two-Stage
Liquid-Ring
process. Suction pressures and
Three-Stage Claw
0.20
capacities for steam jets, liquidSingle-Stage
ring pumps, dry pumps, and inLiquid-Ring
tegrated systems are described
0.10
in the table. The information
Multistage Steam Jets
presented here can be used to
eliminate pumps or pumping
2
4
6 8 10
20
40 60 80 100
200
400 600
systems that cannot meet process requirements. The ultimate
Suction Pressure, torr
pressures shown in the table are
synonymous with the blind
Figure 7. Adiabatic thermal efficiency of various pumps.
suction pressures for the pumps
or pumping systems; that is, the
suction pressures at zero load.
Process integration
The lower limit for process applications is an approxProcess integration is an iterative approach to reduce
imate limit established by technical considerations
the complexity of the process flow diagram, and ultimately
and economics.
to reduce capital and operating costs for the plant. The
Dry pumps span the range from 0.05760 torr with caprincipal advantage of dry pumps in this context is versatilpacities in the range of 501,400 acfm. Steam jets can be
ity. Dry pumps are often a cost-effective alternative to
designed for throughputs in excess of 1 million acfm in a
steam jets and liquid-ring pumps in batch operations besingle unit. Liquid-ring pumps are available with capacicause they are so versatile. The same pump that is used to
ties up to 22,000 acfm. Dry pumps are limited to 1,400
pull vacuum on the reactor can be used to pull vacuum on
acfm, but they have relatively flat operating curves. This
downstream operations.
gives them the advantages, compared to steam jets, of
Dry pumps are anticipated to increasingly dominate
faster pumpdown and better response to overloading. Dry
process applications in fine-chemicals, pharmaceuticalpump makers are, however, moving away from building
intermediates and pharmaceutical plants. These are genthe larger pumps, those with capacities in excess of 500
erally multipurpose facilities built around reactor bays. A
acfm. There is simply no demand for them. They are exreactor bay consists of several stirred-tank reactors that
pensive, and it makes more sense to couple vacuum
can be configured to make different products. If the
boosters to smaller pumps to boost the capacity of the
product is heat-sensitive, the reactor and downstream
smaller pumps than to build the larger machines.
distillation column or evaporator will probably run under
Purchase costs
vacuum. If the product is a solid, downstream crystallization, filtration and drying operations will usually be
Figure 6 can be used to estimate purchase costs for dry
under vacuum.
pumps and compare them with those of liquid-ring pumps.
Figure 5 presents performance curves that are based on
Costs for Roots pumps and claw compressors are based on
actual equipment. Steam jets are used traditionally in finethree-stage machines. Purchase costs for screw compressors
chemicals, pharmaceutical-intermediates and pharmaceutiare based both on machines that are mechanically and eleccal plants in the range 150 torr; liquid-ring pumps, for
tronically simple and on smart pumps that are complex. Be25500 torr. The performance curves in Figure 5 show why
cause of differences in the level of complexity from one
dry pumps are often a cost-effective alternative to steam jets
pump to another, screw compressors are both the least and,
and liquid-ring pumps in batch operations. A dry pump can
paradoxically, the most expensive of the dry pumps. The

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pressure, P2, divided by the actual

brake horsepower (bhp) required (10):
Suction
Load

E = Theoretical adiabatic hp
Actual hp

PLC
N2

Water Outlet
Temp.

This concept provides a convenient

means to evaluate the energy costs of
vacuum pumps at a specific vacuum
level. The adiabatic horsepower required to compress w lb/h of dry,
70F air from P1 to P2 may be calculated from:

TI

Gas
Ballast

TI

Casing
Temp.

(1)

Exhaust
Temp.
and Pressure

Adiabatic hp = (w/20) [(P2/P1)(0.286) 1]

(2)

TI

PI

The bhp actually required can be

found by performance testing and by
converting motive steam usage for
steam jets into an equivalent electriOil Level LI
II
Amp Meter
or Pressure
cal power requirement.
Efficiencies calculated by this techSC
M
nique were used to generate the
curves shown in Figure 7. MotiveVariable-Frequency Drive
steam requirements for steam jets are
based on 100-psig steam and were
converted to an equivalent electrical
requirement (1,000 Btu = 0.293
kWh). Calculated efficiencies for
Figure 8. Instrumentation required for smart pump installations.
multistage jets were based on condensing jets with surface condensers,
upper limit for liquid-ring pumps is based on stainless-steel
and 70F cooling water. Mechanical pumps are assumed
skid-mounted models with total sealant recirculation systo be electrically driven. The efficiencies for single-stage
tems. These systems provide solvent/product recovery beneliquid-ring pumps were based on 70F sealing water. The
fits similar to a dry pump. The companies that market dry
curve for two-stage liquid-ring pumps assumes a lowpumps realize that they are competing with such systems.
vapor-pressure sealing liquid (i.e., vapor pressure of < 1
The lower limit for screw compressor costs is, therefore,
torr at 70F).
about equal to the upper limit for top-of-the-line skidThe curves represent approximations because there are
mounted liquid-ring models.
significant variations in the efficiencies of pumps from difDifferences in capital costs are seldom the determining
ferent manufacturers. The motive steam requirement for a
factor in an evaluation of alternatives. Operating costs, the
steam jet is a function of steam pressure. The bhp for a mealready-mentioned
environmental
factors,
and
chanical pump depends on rpm, and larger pumps are gensolvent/product recovery will almost always be more imerally more efficient than smaller ones of the same type.
portant. Also, purchase cost is only one component of capNevertheless, the efficiencies indicated in Figure 7 are genital cost. Purchase cost for a steam jet may be lower than
erally representative of the efficiencies with which the
that for a dry pump, but total installed costs may be higher
pumps evaluated will handle noncondensable loads. The
when factoring in the cost of adding boiler capacity, runfigure indicates that dry pumps are more efficient than
ning steam lines, and installing steam separators, stream
steam jets across practically the entire range 1760 torr. Dry
traps, and piping for condensers.
pumps are more efficient than liquid-ring pumps across the
range 150 torr, and this difference is significant for the
Energy consumption
range 120 torr.
The adiabatic thermal efficiency, E, of a vacuum pump
Higher thermal efficiency is not synonymous with lower
may be defined as the adiabatic horsepower required to comenergy costs. The electrical equivalent of a pound of steam
press a process gas from an initial pressure, P1, to a discharge
will usually cost 36 times more than the steam due to
Water In

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Dry Vacuum Pumps

over-instrumentation and redundancy

are the rule. The casing temperature
transmitter, for example, interfaces
Type
Ultimate
Lower Limit
Single-Unit
with the DCS and is hard-wired to a
or Base Pressure
for Process
Capacity
field-mounted thermal snap switch.
Applications Range, ft3/min
When temperature control is crucial
and there is an upper control limit
Steam-jet ejectors
101,000,000
One-stage
50 torr
75 torr
(UCL), two thermal snap switches may
Two-stage
4 torr
10 torr
be used. One is tied to the DCS and
Three-stage
0.8 torr
1.5 torr
acts to trip an alarm. If the uplink to the
Four-stage
0.1 torr
0.25 torr
DCS is lost, the second switch provides
Five-stage
10 micron*
50 micron
Six-stage
1 micron
3 micron
redundancy. If the casing temperature
exceeds the UCL, the second thermal
Liquid-ring pumps
318,000
snap switch shuts down the pump.
60F water-sealed
The configuration of the DCS is
One-stage
50 torr
50 torr
Two-stage
20 torr
25 torr
crucial to the strategy for protecting
Oil-sealed
1 torr
10 torr
the pump. Both startup and shutdown
Air ejector first stage
1 torr
10 torr
are especially crucial:
Startup The DCS is configured
Dry vacuum pumps
Three-stage rotary-lobe
0.5 torr
1.5 torr
60240
to ensure that the pump has time to
Three-stage claw
0.1 torr
0.3 torr
60270
come up to its operating temperature
Screw compressor
50 micron
0.1 torr
501,400
before it comes online. The pump is
isolated by a block valve and allowed
Integrated pumping systems
Booster liquid-ring pump
1 torr
5 torr
10015,000
to work against an inert gas or nitrogen
Booster rotary-lobe dry pump 25 micron
0.25 torr
1001,500
bleed until the heat of compression
Booster claw compressor
10 micron
0.1 torr
1002,500
brings it to operating temperature. This
Booster screw compressor < 0.1 micron
1 micron
1005,000
protects the pump from corrosion
*1.0 micron = 0.001 torr
caused by condensation of process va The base pressure depends on the pump model. Fifty microns is an "averaged" value. The range, across
pors and ensures that the vapors do not
several vendor pump lines, is almost four orders of magnitude 0.75 micron to 0.5 torr.
freeze out as solids.
Shutdown The DCS activates a
cleaning cycle prior to shutdown. This
steam-cycle condensing losses and the more expensive hardensures that shutting down does not trap process vapors in
ware required to generate electricity. Projects aimed at rethe pump. Condensation of vapors trapped in the pump
placing steam jets with dry pumps to reduce energy costs
could leave the pump full of corrosive liquid that could dammust, therefore, be reviewed carefully. Energy costs for dry
age it during a prolonged shutdown. (The DCS is, of course,
pumps, especially at operating pressures in the range 120
configured to allow manual intervention to shut down the
torr, may be higher.
pump immediately in an emergency.)
During the cleaning cycle, the pump is isolated from the
Smart pumps
process and an inert gas or nitrogen bleed purges it of all
Running clearances for dry pumps are typically 0.010
residual gases prior to shutdown. Such purging also disin. or less. Dry pumps must be protected to minimize melodges solids. The purge gas scours the rotors and the caschanical damage. Equipment manufacturers use the smart
ing, and blows out debris. In demanding applications, the
pump or intelligent pumping system concept to address
DCS interrupts the production cycle and isolates the pump
this issue. Microprocessors monitor and control the pump,
when the motor amperage exceeds a UCL. The pump is aland support the interlocks and self-diagnostics required to
lowed it to run, sometimes for extended periods, at near-atprotect the pump. The usual configuration is a vendor-supmospheric pressures to clear the debris. When the amps
plied standalone programmable logic controller (PLC) that
drop, the DCS brings the pump back online.
interfaces with a distributed control system (DCS) or a
Safety
PLC housed within the operating system for a DCS.
The instrumentation required for smart pump installaSafety related to the operation of dry pumps has retions includes, but is not limited to, the requirements deceived a lot of attention in the literature, because dry
scribed in Figure 8. An array of sophisticated electronic
pumps are new. The issues are not unique to dry pumps.
sensors is required to monitor the pump and support the
Safety must be addressed, for example, when flammable
higher-level control functions. Variable-frequency drives,
solvents such as acetone or gasoline are used as the sealing
Capacity and operating range for steam jets, liquid-ring pumps, dry vacuum
pumps, and integrated systems.

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October 2001

CEP

liquids for liquid-ring pumps. Indeed, it may be argued that

the there are more safety issues associated with solventsealed liquid-ring pumps than with dry pumps. Still, the
safety issues associated with dry pumps must be understood to ensure safe operation (11).
Safety is an issue in pumping flammable vapors and
gases because of the potential for an explosion initiated, for
example, by a spark caused by contact between the rotors
and the casing. Dry pump manufacturers address safety in
part by designing pumps that will contain an internal explosion. Flame propagation is still a consideration. Inerting with
nitrogen or other inert gas prior to startup takes care of propagation back to the process during startup. When the process
runs at < 75 torr, an explosion is not a consideration since
the vapor/gas mixture in the void space in the pump and in
the process is inert. Installing a flame arrestor in the vent line
addresses the concern that an explosion might propagate
from the pump discharge to the atmosphere.
Autoignition is also a consideration (12). Dry pumps
run hot, with discharge temperatures for screw compressors sometimes reaching 350400C. To cope with this, the
latest generation of dry pumps runs at lower temperatures
and has precise temperature control. This is accomplished
by designing the machines to be more energy-efficient, by

redesigning the rotors to avoid hot spots, and by applying

state-of-the-art technology to the cooling system. Dry
pumps are offered that are rated for T4 applications, that is,
those in which internal temperatures must not exceed
135C. It is, nevertheless, good practice to use caution in
specifying dry pumps for any application with vapors with
an autoignition temperature of less than 200C. CEP

Short glossary
Backing pump: The pump that produces the necessary
discharge pressure for a vacuum pump incapable of
discharging directly to atmospheric pressure.
Booster: A pump that operates as part of a multistage
system to boost the capacity of a pump that discharges
directly to atmospheric pressure.
Compression ratio: Discharge pressure divided by
suction pressure.
Discharge pressure: The absolute static pressure
measured at the discharge of the pump, torr.
Isochoric: Constant volume..

Literature Cited
1. Lessard, P. A., Dry Vacuum Pumps for Semiconductor Processes:
Guidelines for Primary Pump Selection, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 18
(4), pp. 17771781 (Jul./Aug. 2000).
2. Harris, N. S., Modern Vacuum Practice, 2nd. ed., Nigel Harris
Publisher, Crawley, West Sussex, U.K., website: www.modernvacuumpractice.com/, pp. 289310.
3. Troup, A. P., and N. T. M. Dennis, Six Years of Dry Pumping: A
Review of Experience and Issues, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 9 (3), pp.
20482052 (May/Jun. 1991).
4. May, P. L., and B. S. Emslie, Oil Free Vacuum Pumping System
for Plasma Processes, BOC Edwards Publication No. 12-A401-31895, BOC Edwards, Crawley, West Sussex, U.K. (1987).
5. Wycliffe, H., U.S. Patent No. 4,504,201 (1985) and U.K. Patent GB
2.088.957B.
6. Tadashi, S., and M. Nakamura, Spiral Grooved Vacuum Pump
Working in High Pressure Ranges, Vacuum, 43 (11), pp. 10971099
(1992).
7. Akutsu, I., et al., A Gradational Lead Screw Dry Vacuum Pump,
J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 18 (3), pp. 10451047 (May/Jun. 2000).
8. Crabb, C., Vacuum Pumps Fill a Void, Chem. Eng., 107 (2), pp.
3741 (Feb. 2000).
9. Bays, J., Minimizing Wastes from Vacuum Pumping Systems,
Chem. Eng., 103 (20), pp. 124130 (Oct. 1996).
10.Ryans, J. L., and D. L. Roper, Process Vacuum System Design &
Operation, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 221226 (1986).
11. Oliver, G., Vacuum Explosions, The Chem. Engr., Issue 619, pp.
2122 (Sept. 1996).
12.Fuessel, U., Keep Explosion Risk Low Gas Temperatures in
Dry-Compressing Vacuum Pumps, Chem.Anlagen Verfahren, 29
(5), pp. 3233 (1996).

Suction pressure: The absolute static pressure measured

at the suction of the pump, torr.
Torr: One millimeter of mercury absolute. 1 micron =
0.001 torr; 1 in. Hg absolute = 25.4 torr; 1 mbar = 0.750
torr; 133.3 Pascal = 1 torr.

JIM RYANS is an engineering associate with Eastman Chemical Co., in

Eastmans Process Design group (P.O. Box 511, Kingsport, TN 37662-5054;
Phone: (423) 229-3486; Fax: (423) 224-0453; E-mail:
jryans@eastman.com). He has 28 years experience in the design,
development and operation of a variety of chemical processes and
equipment. Ryans coauthored Process Vacuum System Design &
Operation (McGraw-Hill, 1986), he wrote the section Pressure
Measurement in the 4th edition of Kirk-Othmers Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology (John Wiley, 1996), and holds patents on the design
of vacuum systems for controlling pressure in PET reactors. He earned a BS
in mathematics from East Tennessee State Univ. and a BSChE from the
Univ. of Tennessee. He is a member of AIChE and the American Vacuum
Soc., and is a registered professional engineer in Tennessee.
JOE BAYS is a principal chemical engineer with Eastman Chemical Co. (P.O.
Box 511, Kingsport, TN 37662-5054; Phone: (423) 229-5854; Fax: (423)
224-7268; E-mail: jnbays@eastman.com). He works in Eastmans
Chemicals-from-Coal Facility, and has 13 years experience in the design,
development and operation of a variety of chemical processes and
equipment. Bays previously authored an article Minimizing Wastes from
Vacuum Pumping Systems on recovering process material in vacuum
systems. He earned a BSChE from Virginia Tech and an MSChE from the
Univ. of Tennessee. He is a member of AIChE and a registered professional
engineer in Tennessee.

CEP

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