Originalveroffentlichung in: M. L. Bierbrier (Hg.), Portraits and Masks. Burial customs in Roman Egypt. Colloquium London 13.-14.7.

1995
(London 1997), S. 26-32

The Dead as a Guest at Table?

Continuity and Change in the Egyptian Cult o f the Dead
Barbara Borg

I n h i s e p i c p o e m Punica (13.475) Silius Italicus d e s c r i b e s

several years i n E g y p t , w h e r e h e h e l d a h i g h p o s i t i o n i n

t h e visit o f S c i p i o A f r i c a n u s t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d . T h e r e

the office o f the prefect o f Egypt. For the m o s t

Scipio meets the ghost o f A p p i u s Claudius, w h o was

i n t r i g u i n g part i n t h e passage q u o t e d above, t h e

fatally w o u n d e d near C a p u a . A p p i u s l a m e n t s that h e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f m u m m i e s at b a n q u e t s , h e e v e n stresses

c o u l d n o t f i n d p e a c e b e c a u s e his f r i e n d s h a d f a i l e d t o

h i s t e s t i m o n y as a n e y e w i t n e s s .

c r e m a t e a n d b u r y his b o d y . S c i p i o w i s h e s t o d o h i m this

I n s o m e o f t h e texts t h e E g y p t i a n s a n d t h e i r strange

f a v o u r b u t c l a i m s that h e d o e s n o t k n o w a c c o r d i n g t o

h a b i t s c l e a r l y f u n c t i o n as ' t h e o t h e r ' o f G r e e k s o r

w h i c h rites it s h o u l d b e d o n e , s o h e lists a n u m b e r o f

R o m a n s . 7 N e v e r t h e l e s s , this does n o t necessarily

d i f f e r e n t p r a c t i c e s : ' A l l o v e r t h e w o r l d t h e p r a c t i c e is

i n d i c a t e that t h e h a b i t s u s e d i n this w a y w e r e s i m p l y

different i n this matter, a n d u n l i k e n e s s o f o p i n i o n

i n v e n t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e . I n t h e case o f E g y p t ,

produces various ways o f b u r y i n g the dead and

particularly, there existed e n o u g h bizarre practices t o

d i s p o s i n g o f t h e i r ashes. I n t h e l a n d o f S p a i n , w e are

s e r v e t h e s e n e e d s , a n d this applies n o t o n l y t o m u m m i

t o l d (it is a n a n c i e n t c u s t o m ) t h e b o d i e s o f t h e d e a d are

f i c a t i o n itself. A n i m a l w o r s h i p , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o v e d

d e v o u r e d b y l o a t h l y vultures. W h e n a k i n g dies i n

to be a major argument in the mostly unfavourable

H y r c a n i a , it is t h e r u l e t o let d o g s h a v e access t o t h e

c o n c e p t i o n s o f E g y p t , as p r o p a g a t e d b y n o n - E g y p t i a n

corpse. T h e Egyptians enclose their dead, standing i n an

a u t h o r s . H o w e v e r , i t w a s also a n actual a n d w i d e s p r e a d

u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n , i n a c o f f i n o f s t o n e , a n d w o r s h i p it;

practice in G r a e c o - R o m a n Egyptian popular religion.8

a n d t h e y a d m i t a b l o o d l e s s spectre t o t h e i r b a n q u e t s . '

W e f i n d f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e i n C h r i s t i a n texts w h i c h

T h e t e x t g o e s o n l i k e this b u t w e w i l l s t o p h e r e b e c a u s e

relate that e v e n t h e C o p t i c C h r i s t i a n s u s e d t o k e e p t h e

o u r interest t o d a y is d i r e c t e d at t h e E g y p t i a n p r a c t i c e .

preserved and a d o r n e d bodies o f venerated persons,

W e f i n d c o n f i r m a t i o n f o r this i n L u c i a n ' s De luctu

predominantly martyrs, above ground. A c c o r d i n g to

(21): ' U p t o that p o i n t , t h e w a n i n g , t h e s a m e s t u p i d

A t h a n a s i u s t h i s c u s t o m d r o v e St A n t h o n y i n t o t h e

c u s t o m prevails e v e r y w h e r e ; b u t i n w h a t f o l l o w s , t h e

d e s e r t t o await his d e a t h i n s o l i t u d e . 9 I t w a s this c u s t o m

burial, they have a p p o r t i o n e d o u t a m o n g themselves,

a g a i n ( a n d n o t m u m m i f i c a t i o n i t s e l f ) that p r o v o k e d t h e

nation b y nation, the different m o d e s . T h e G r e e k burns,

censure o f bishops and other higher clergy an idle

t h e P e r s i a n b u r i e s , t h e I n d i a n e n c a s e s i n glass, t h e

c e n s u r e , as it t u r n e d o u t , as is s h o w n n o t least b y t h e

S c y t h i a n eats, t h e E g y p t i a n salts. A n d t h e latter I h a v e

d i s p l a y a n d w o r s h i p o f relics u p t o t h e p r e s e n t day. It

seen w h e r e o f I speak after d r y i n g t h e dead m a n

c a n hardly b e i m a g i n e d that t h e C o p t s 'invented' the

m a k e s h i m h i s g u e s t at table!' 2

h a b i t t h e m s e l v e s , b u t i t is p l a u s i b l e t o p r e s u m e that t h e y

T h e s e r e p o r t s b y t w o a u t h o r s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d
c e n t u r i e s A D s t r i k e a m o d e r n r e a d e r as b e i n g f a i r l y
strange. O n e w o u l d e x p e c t t h e m t o h a v e i n s t a n t a n e

a d o p t e d it from t h e i r p a g a n p r e d e c e s s o r s . 1 0
S u p p o r t f o r o u r hypothesis can b e f o u n d i n the
m u m m i e s themselves: Flinders Petrie reports that

o u s l y p r o v o k e d s c i e n t i f i c c u r i o s i t y . S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s is

several o f t h e m u m m i e s h e e x c a v a t e d at H a w a r a ' h a d

n o t t h e case, a n d these passages h a v e a r o u s e d little o r n o

been m u c h injured by exposure during a long period

interest. I t is, h o w e v e r , n o t t h e p l a c e h e r e t o e x a m i n e

before burial'. T h e ' m u m m i e s had often been k n o c k e d

the reasons f o r this a w k w a r d silence w i t h i n t h e

a b o u t , t h e s t u c c o c h i p p e d off.' T h e y w e r e ' d i r t i e d , fly-

academic community.3

m a r k e d , c a k e d w i t h dust w h i c h w a s b o u n d o n b y r a i n ' .

First o f all, o n e s h o u l d n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e c a n b e little

O n the footcases o f the m u m m i e s 'the w r a p p i n g h a d

d o u b t as t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s . T e l e s ,

b e e n u s e d b y c h i l d r e n , w h o s c r i b b l e d caricatures u p o n

D i o d o r u s , C i c e r o a n d Sextus E m p i r i c u s c o n f i r m that

it.' P e t r i e a l r e a d y c o n n e c t e d h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h e

t h e E g y p t i a n s k e p t t h e m u m m i e s o f t h e i r relatives at

t r a d i t i o n that t h e d e a d w e r e k e p t i n t h e h o u s e s o f t h e i r

h o m e . 4 T o b e sure, s o m e o f t h e texts s h o w great

relatives a n d also a s s u m e d a d o m e s t i c c u l t f o r t h e m . 1 1

similarity and therefore m a y d e p e n d o n each other o r

T h e passage i n H e r o d o t u s w h i c h P e t r i e a n d o t h e r s

o n still a n o t h e r c o m m o n s o u r c e . 5 B u t at least t w o

s u c c e e d i n g h i m d r e w u p o n c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , serve as

authors k n e w E g y p t personally. D i o d o r u s visited

p r o o f . H e r o d o t u s r e p o r t s (2.78) that at b a n q u e t s p e o p l e

A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g t h e 1 8 0 t h O l y m p i a d (6056 BC)

i n E g y p t used to s h o w around a w e l l - m a d e and nicely

moreover, R . Merkelbach recendy confirmed the

p a i n t e d veKpov u \ i v o v t o r e m i n d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f

g e n e r a l reliability o f p a r a g r a p h s I 9 1 - 9 3 b y c o m p a r i n g

t h e transitoriness o f life a n d t o encourage t h e m t o

D i o d o r u s ' description o f the j u d g e m e n t - c e r e m o n i a l

e n j o y t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e p r e s e n t . T h e r e are t w o m a i n

w i t h e v i d e n c e from t h e p a p y r i 6 - w h i l e L u c i a n s p e n t

reasons w h y t h i s c a n n o t p o s s i b l y h a v e a n y t h i n g t o d o

26

THE DEAD AS A GUEST AT TABLE?

w i t h "the c u s t o m w e are c o n s i d e r i n g here. First o f all, it

f a i t h f u l . 1 6 L i k e w i s e , I h a v e s h o w n e l s e w h e r e 1 7 that t h e

appears h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t veicpov ^vXivov c o u l d ever

scenes a n d s y m b o l s o n t h e b o d i e s o f p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s

b e translated as m u m m y . T h e e x p r e s s i o n m u s t refer t o

w e r e selected p u r p o s e f u l l y a n d represent f o r t h e m o s t

s o m e sort o f w o o d e n figure o f a dead p e r s o n o r even

part a small range o f p r i n c i p a l ideas. A d d i t i o n a l l y , it

o f d e a t h i t s e l f - o n e t o t w o ells l o n g , a c c o r d i n g t o

c o u l d b e s h o w n that t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f e c l e c t i c i s m that

H e r o d o t u s . It m a y w e l l b e a w o o d e n s k e l e t o n , as is

c o m e s to m o s t people's m i n d s w h e n seeing the portrait

indicated b y b a n q u e t e q u i p m e n t w i t h representations

m u m m i e s is d e c e p t i v e . S k e t c h e s i n E g y p t i a n style o n

o f skeletons.12 S e c o n d l y , t h e sense o f t h e p r o c e d u r e

t h e p a n e l s , 1 8 realistic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f b o d i e s o n t h e

d e s c r i b e d b y H e r o d o t u s is c o n t r a r y t o t h e w h o l e

m u m m y , 1 9 a n d certain attributes m a k e it clear that

m e a n i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m u m m y , especially o n e o f a

' G r e e k ' a n d ' E g y p t i a n ' e l e m e n t s are n o t s t r i c t l y c o n -

relative. 1 3 T h e m u m m y w a s a s y m b o l o f a n d g u a r a n t o r

fined t o a c e r t a i n p a r t o f t h e m u m m y . T h e s e p a r a t i o n o f

n o t f o r d e a t h b u t f o r life, e v e n t h o u g h f o r a n o t h e r -

p a i n t i n g a n d b o d y appears so natural o n l y t o o u r eyes,

worldly one.

trained o n m o d e r n m u s e u m conditions.20

Lorelei C o r c o r a n recently referred to a narrative

by X e n o p h o n o f Ephesos.

14

H e tells t h e s t o r y o f a

L a k e d a i m o n i a n fisherman n a m e d A i g i a l e u s w h o

A c c o r d i n g to these considerations to w h i c h
L o r e l e i C o r c o r a n seems to agree i n p r i n c i p l e - the
b e h a v i o u r o f t h e fisherman i n X e n o p h o n c a n n o t b e

preserved the dead b o d y o f his w i f e 'in an E g y p t i a n

connected w i t h the Egyptian custom, w h i c h derived

w a y ' t o h a v e h e r a r o u n d a little l o n g e r , t o talk t o her, eat

from r e l i g i o u s a n d social n e e d s .

a n d sleep w i t h h e r a n d s o o n . C o r c o r a n suggests that

the Egyptian custom o f keeping the m u m m i e s o f

T h i s takes us b a c k t o t h e a n c i e n t texts m e n t i o n e d
above and to the observations b y Flinders Petrie o n the

r e l a t i v e s at h o m e o r i g i n a t e d i n a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e

g i l d e d m a s k s a n d p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s . A s these s e e m t o

t o w a r d s t h e d e c e a s e d . B u t is this p r o b a b l e ? First, t h e

b e the o n l y material evidence for the habit o f keeping

c o n t e x t indicates that t h e b o d y was n o t w r a p p e d in

m u m m i e s i n the houses, they well deserve a closer

l i n e n , as all t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y E g y p t i a n m u m m i e s w e r e ,

examination.

b u t t h a t t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f t h e d e c e a s e d w a s still

I w o u l d l i k e t o start w i t h a s h o r t l o o k at t h e

v i s i b l e , so t h a t A b r o k o m e s c o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , r e c o g n i s e

social b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e p e r s o n s d e p i c t e d . S u r p r i s i n g l y

the old age o f T h e l x i o n e . Secondly, according to

e n o u g h , w r i t t e n r e f e r e n c e s t o p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s are

the s o m e w h a t grotesque story b y X e n o p h o n , the

n o t k n o w n . 2 1 A c o m b i n e d study o f b o t h the m u m m i e s

preservation o f the w o m a n ' s b o d y was b y n o means

a n d the u n i q u e l y detailed i n f o r m a t i o n about R o m a n

r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d b u t w a s t h e desperate a t t e m p t o f a

F a y u m s o c i e t y as p r o v i d e d b y t h e p a p y r i nevertheless

G r e e k (!) w i d o w e r t o p r o l o n g t h e h a p p y days o f his

a l l o w s us t o d r a w a r o u g h p i c t u r e o f t h e social g r o u p

m a r r i a g e b e y o n d t h e d e a t h o f his w i f e . 1 5 T h e f a c t that

represented here.22 T h e s e p e o p l e doubdessly b e l o n g e d

f i s h e r m e n salt fish f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e

t o t h e l o c a l elite, c o n s i s t i n g o f l a n d o w n e r s , h i g h -

E g y p t i a n t e c h n i q u e s o f m u m m i f i c a t i o n are s o m e w h a t

r a n k i n g l o c a l officials a n d veterans o f t h e R o m a n a r m y .

similar ( r e m e m b e r that the G r e e k expression for

V e r y p r o b a b l y , s o m e o f t h e s e w e r e also R o m a n citizens

mummifying,

Tapixeua), is t h e s a m e as

f o r salting o f

w i t h all t h e p r i v i l e g e s t h a t w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h that

fish) m a y i n t h e eyes o f a u t h o r a n d r e a d e r h a v e l e n t

status. O n o n e p o r t r a i t that has r e c e n d y b e e n e x c a v a t e d

s o m e p l a u s i b i l i t y t o t h e story. T o p r e s u m e s i m i l a r l y

at T h e b e s w e find a naukleros.23 S o m e c h i l d r e n w e a r a

p e r s o n a l s e n t i m e n t s as t h e m o t i v e that gave rise t o t h e

h a i r s t y l e t h a t is t y p i c a l f o r t h o s e w h o are g o i n g t o

E g y p t i a n c u s t o m w o u l d i m p l y that the individuals

c e l e b r a t e t h e mallokouria, a r i t e o f passage restricted t o

c o n c e r n e d h a d n o serious relation t o either the religious

o l dtTro yv\ivao'iov.24 A l l i n all, t h e y w e r e m e m b e r s o f

b a c k g r o u n d f o r m u m m i f i c a t i o n o r t h e sacred scenes

t h e r i c h l o c a l u p p e r class. I n i m p e r i a l t i m e s this elite

depicted o n the m u m m i f i e d bodies.

I n fact, t h e a s s u m p t i o n that t h e p e r i o d o f G r e e k a n d ,

w a s e t h n i c a l l y m i x e d . T h i s is d e m o n s t r a t e d n o t o n l y b y
p a p y r o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e l i k e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e epikrisis-

especially, R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n w a s o n e o f increasing

lists, b u t a l s o b y t h e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s o n m u m m y

d e c a d e n c e , w h e n t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t o f b o t h rituals

portraits, w h i c h d o n o t a l l o w a n y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e

and depictions was n o longer understood and had

e t h n i c i t y o f t h e d e p i c t e d . 2 5 T h e n e c r o p o l e i s from

degenerated to a mere formality adopted comparatively

w h i c h the portraits c o m e m a i n l y b e l o n g to garrison

m e a n i n g l e s s l y a n d i n c o h e r e n t l y , w a s a n d still is q u i t e

t o w n s or t o w n s a n d villages that w e r e f o u n d e d or

c o m m o n . B u t this o p i n i o n seems t o h a v e b e e n

n e w l y f o u n d e d b y t h e G r e e k s o r R o m a n s a n d that

m o d i f i e d i n t h e last f e w years - n o t least b y L o r e l e i

w e r e cultural m e l t i n g pots i n particular. G r e e k s a n d

C o r c o r a n herself. Studies o f a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f

R o m a n s l e f t t h e i r traces p r e d o m i n a n t l y o n a d m i n i s -

genres h a v e s h o w n that e v e n i n i m p e r i a l t i m e s , scenes

t r a t i o n a n d social o r g a n i s a t i o n , b u t also o n t h e o u t e r

n o t o n l y served decorative purposes but originated in

a p p e a r a n c e o f this class, w h o l a r g e l y r e s e m b l e t h e o t h e r

m e a n i n g f u l c o n c e p t s d e s i g n e d b y priests a n d e m b o d i e d

i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e e a s t e r n R o m a n p r o v i n c e s as t h e y

i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f o l d E g y p t i a n beliefs. T h e y w e r e o n l y

a p p e a r t o us i n t h e f o r m o f statues, busts a n d reliefs.

m o d i f i e d : o n t h e o n e h a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d b y n e w ideas,

R e m a r k a b l e o n l y is t h e a b s e n c e o f t y p i c a l l y R o m a n

o n the o t h e r h a n d r e d u c e d to a smaller selection o f

a t t r i b u t e s . T h e E g y p t i a n i n f l u e n c e is especially s t r o n g i n

subjects that c o n f o r m e d best w i t h the n e e d s o f the

r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , e v e n i n t h e beliefs a b o u t d e a t h a n d
27

PORTRAITS AND MASKS

l i f e after d e a t h , a field t h a t is u s u a l l y least s u s c e p t i b l e t o

p r o p e r t o m b s , b u t i n m a n y instances w e r e p l a c e d i n

n e w ideas. A s early as t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC G r e e k s

p l a i n pits i n t h e d e s e r t sands w i t h o u t g r a v e g o o d s . A n d

b e g a n t o have their dead m u m r n i f i e d .

this was d o n e n o n e t o o g e n d y : w h e n t h e pit t u r n e d o u t

A t first these m u m m i e s l o o k e d m u c h t h e s a m e as
t h e o r d i n a r y E g y p t i a n o n e s . O n l y after t h e b e g i n n i n g

t o b e t o o s m a l l t h e m u m m y w a s c r a m m e d i n t o it e v e n
i f it b r o k e o r o t h e r w i s e s u f f e r e d . S o m e t i m e s , t h e shafts

o f R o m a n rule d i d painted portraits gradually a n d

o f o l d chamber t o m b s were re-used and the m u m m i e s

o n l y at c e r t a i n p l a c e s a n d a m o n g a s m a l l social g r o u p

w e r e s q u e e z e d i n i n a n u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n o r h e a d first.

r e p l a c e t h e o l d E g y p t i a n m a s k s t h a t w e r e m e a n t as a n

M o r e o v e r , after t h e p i t w a s r e f i l l e d w i t h s a n d t h e p l a c e

i m a g e o f t h e deceased b u t carried ideal features.

c o u l d never b e traced again because n o marker, h o w -

B y a d o p t i n g the veristic portrait the m u m m y was

ever inconspicuous, was placed above ground. D e a t h

i n d i v i d u a l i s e d (PI. 45, 3).

r i t u a l s t h a t w e r e c o m m o n i n all r e l i g i o n s r e l e v a n t t o

T h i s , h o w e v e r , is o n l y t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t . T h e
f u n c t i o n a n d m e a n i n g o f portraits differ greatiy a m o n g

o u r c o n t e x t c a n n o t have taken place here. C o n s i d e r i n g

these circumstances o n e c o u l d perhaps have explained

R o m a n s a n d Egyptians. T h e portraits o f the R o m a n s

the costly decoration o f a m u m m y in the Egyptian

i n c l u d i n g their sepulchral portraits w e r e neither cult

style b y p o i n t i n g t o the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m a g i c

objects n o r s o m e t h i n g necessary for a life to c o m e .

p o w e r s associated w i t h it. Y e t , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a

T h e y c o n t r i b u t e d rather t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e d e c e a s e d

m u c h m o r e h u m a n appearance n o w b e c o m e s totally

i n the m e m o r y o f their social surroundings. T h e y w e r e

u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , s i n c e this d e p r i v e d t h e d e c e a s e d o f s o m e

a means o f creating identity and o f enabling self-

o f these m a g i c forces. O n l y i f Petrie was right, a n d

representation o f the deceased w h o o f t e n e n j o i n e d b y

t h e m u m m i e s t h a t w e r e later o n treated s o b a d l y s t o o d

w i l l t h e e r e c t i o n o f i m a g e s - a n d o f his family.

first i n t h e h o u s e o f t h e i r relatives a n d r e c e i v e d s o m e

T h e portrait was never identified w i t h the person

k i n d o f d o m e s t i c cult, can these circumstances b e

d e p i c t e d b u t w a s always u n d e r s t o o d as a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .

explained.30

Its p u r p o s e w a s t o k e e p a w a k e i n his o w n f a m i l y t h e
m e m o r y o f t h e a n c e s t o r s w h o s e mos a n d e x a m p l e s t o o d

W h a t , t h e n , w a s t h e o r i g i n o f that c u s t o m ? N e i t h e r
i n G r e e k n o r i n R o m a n r e l i g i o n is t h e r e a n y i n d i c a t i o n

b e f o r e t h e eyes o f t h e d e s c e n d a n t s , a n d also i n t h e

o f a domestic cult o f the dead. Likewise, in pharaonic

w i d e r e n t o u r a g e that c o u l d b y v i e w i n g t h e m r e c o g n i s e

E g y p t the dead were not kept in the house o f the

the i m p o r t a n c e o f the family.

relatives b u t , after e m b a l m i n g , w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d i n a

I n c o n t r a s t t o this t h e E g y p t i a n m u m m y w a s de facto
as w e l l as s y m b o l i c a l l y t h e d e c e a s e d h i m s e l f . T h e m a s k

ceremonial procession to the tomb, w h e r e they were

b u r i e d a n d r e c e i v e d sacrifices. Later o n t h e y w e r e

w a s h i s i m a g e as O s i r i s N N a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e d

c o m m e m o r a t e d o n v a r i o u s days. T h e f a m i l y o f f e r e d

w i t h h i s i d e a l , t h a t is d i v i n e , f e a t u r e s . 2 6 L i k e t h e g o d

sacrifices at t h e t o m b a n d a p p a r e n d y also i n v i t e d guests

O s i r i s a n d i n as c l o s e a n a s s i m i l a t i o n t o h i m as p o s s i b l e ,

t o a s o l e m n b a n q u e t t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n special r o o m s o f

the deceased w i s h e d to o v e r c o m e death and to gain

the temple.31

eternal life b e y o n d . B o t h m u m m i f i c a t i o n a n d the

H o w e v e r , f o r s o m e t i m e n o w , an increasing n u m b e r

divine appearance o f the m u m m y contributed in a

o f references h a v e i n d i c a t e d that there already existed i n

magical w a y to the protection o f the dead o n their

p h a r a o n i c times a cult for the deceased i n the h o u s e o f

dangerous w a y into the other world.27 T h e always-

t h e relatives. R . J . D e m a r e e 3 2 p u b l i s h e d a g r o u p o f

identical outer appearance o f the m u m m y does n o t

stelae, t h e s o - c a l l e d a k h - i k e r stelae, m a i n l y from D e i r

originate i n a possible lack o f i m a g i n a t i o n o n the part

e l - M e d i n a , b u t s o m e f r o m o t h e r places as w e l l , that all

o f t h e a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s , w a i t i n g , as it w e r e , o n l y f o r

b e l o n g t o t h e i 8 t h - 2 0 t h d y n a s t i e s (PI. 2 6 , 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g

t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s t o release t h e m f r o m this state.

to their inscriptions they were dedicated to the

R a t h e r , t h i s o u t e r a p p e a r a n c e as a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e

d e p a r t e d b y f a m i l y (fathers, s o n s , b r o t h e r s ) or, i n s o m e

appearance o f an Osiris was an integral part o f the h o p e

cases, b y a d m i r e r s w h o d i d n o t b e l o n g t o t h e f a m i l y .

f o r a n afterlife a n d o f t h e m a g i c c e r e m o n i a l .

T h e s e stelae w e r e a p l a c e i n w h i c h t o f a c e t h e d e a d a n d

N o w the mask w i t h the divine face o f Osiris was

t o s a c r i f i c e t o t h o s e w h o s e spirits w e r e o n t h e o n e h a n d

replaced b y a h u m a n , individual portrait. F u r t h e r m o r e ,

feared a n d therefore had to be appeased but f r o m

i n s o m e cases t h e w h o l e b o d y o f t h e d e c e a s e d w a s

w h o m , o n the other hand, intercession and other

d e p i c t e d , 2 8 p e r m i t t i n g its o r d i n a r y e a r t h l y a p p e a r a n c e

advantages w e r e also e x p e c t e d . S o m e offering-tables

t o d o m i n a t e t h e h o l y features o f t h e m u m m y . A c c o r d -

a n d libation-basins must, according t o their inscrip-

i n g t o the E g y p t i a n religious c o n c e p t this m u s t have

tions, have served the same purpose. R e m a r k a b l y

diminished the magic powers o f the Osirian f o r m a

e n o u g h , these D e i r e l - M e d i n a stelae, tables a n d basins

serious e n c r o a c h m e n t that invites t h e question: for

h a v e all b e e n f o u n d i n t h e l i v i n g quarters o f t h e t o w n .

w h i c h n e w value might they have replaced the old

T h e y s t o o d i n v o t i v e c h a p e l s , i n t h e streets a n d p u b l i c

one?

p l a c e s , b u t also i n w a l l recesses i n t h e h o u s e s .

T h i s m a r k e d change appears e v e n m o r e astonishing

w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e o f b u r i a l at H a w a r a as w e

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a d o m e s t i c c u l t o f t h e d e a d is
c o n f i r m e d b y t h e ' c a l e n d a r o f l u c k y a n d u n l u c k y days'

k n o w it f r o m P e t r i e a n d s o m e scattered n o t e s . 2 9 T h e

that m o s t p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s t o the 19th dynasty a n d

m a j o r i t y o f t h e m u m m i e s w e r e n o t b u r i e d carefully i n

w h i c h prescribes d o m e s t i c offerings t o t h e dead.33

28

THE DEAD AS A GUEST AT TABLE?

Finally, a g r o u p o f l i f e - s i z e t o h a l f - l i f e - s i z e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c busts p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s t o a d o m e s t i c ancestral

f a c t that m o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e f o r ancestral c u l t c o m e s
from D e i r e l - M e d i n a m a y b e t h e v e r y a b i l i t y o f t h e

c u l t o r cult o f t h e d e a d (PI. 2 6 , 2 ) . O n l y rarely d o t h e y

craftsmen l i v i n g there t o manifest their beliefs i n a

b e a r i n s c r i p t i o n s b u t t h e y are n o w a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y

m o r e 'visible' f o r m . T h u s , i n spite o f the lack o f

r e g a r d e d as i m a g e s o f d e c e a s e d p e r s o n s . 3 4 M o s t o f t h e m

c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n c e , t h e later c u s t o m o f k e e p i n g

again c o m e f r o m D e i r e l - M e d i n a w h e r e they were

the m u m m i e s o f the deceased i n the h o u s e can o n l y b e

d i s p l a y e d m a i n l y i n h o u s e s p r e s u m a b l y i n t h e first

d e r i v e d from t h e E g y p t i a n ancestral c u l t .

r e c e p t i o n h a l l a n d , m o r e rarely, i n p u b l i c c h a p e l s .

I n c e r t a i n c o n t r a c t s , fixed days w e r e s o m e t i m e s

O t h e r s are f r o m d i f f e r e n t sites a n d s h o w slight i c o n o -

determined for ceremonies for the dead, but additions

g r a p h i c a l t e r a t i o n s . T h e i r a d o r a t i o n is s h o w n o n t w o

c o n t a i n i n g t h e g e n e r a l f o r m u l a t i o n ' a n d o n a n y festive

reliefs (Fig. i ) . 3 5

occasions' o r the like suggest that there w e r e n o

c o m m o n s p e c i f i c days f o r t h e d e a d . T h e y c o u l d rather
b e c o m m e m o r a t e d o n a n y festival. 3 8 It m u s t r e m a i n a
m a t t e r o f s p e c u l a t i o n as t o w h a t f o r m a d o m e s t i c c u l t
for the m u m m y m i g h t have taken, w h i l e n e w p a p y r o l o g i c a l o r m a t e r i a l e v i d e n c e is n o t available. P o s s i b l y t h e
sacrifices f o r the m u m m i e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l m a n n e r i n front o f t h e a k h - i k e r stelae, tables,
basins o r busts, b u t Silius Italicus a n d L u c i a n also
a l l o w f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n that t h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f t h e
m u m m i e s at b a n q u e t s h e l d o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h o s e
festivals i m p l i e d t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e d e c e a s e d i n it,
a n d t h u s r e p l a c e d a p r o p e r sacrifice.
Festivals, a n d b a n q u e t s i n particular, p l a y e d a m a j o r
r o l e i n E g y p t i a n practices s u r r o u n d i n g d e a t h f o r a l o n g
t i m e . I n o u r c o n t e x t , t h e representations o f banquets
for the dead i n N e w K i n g d o m t o m b s m a y b e interesti n g . 3 9 T h e early r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are d o m i n a t e d b y m a n y
registers o f guests. T h e i r great n u m b e r emphasises t h e
s p l e n d o u r o f t h e feast, w h e r e a s t h e s t e r e o t y p e d setting
gives t h e d e p i c t i o n a r a t h e r ritual character. L a t e r o n
the o w n e r o f the t o m b 'moves' m o r e and m o r e into the
c e n t r e , d i s p l a y e d t o g e t h e r w i t h his w i f e i n front o f a n
o f f e r i n g - t a b l e o r a s m a l l stand, f a c i n g smaller g r o u p s o f
guests o n t h e o t h e r side o f it. T h e latter are s h o w n far
m o r e v i v i d l y a n d c a n also consist o f m i x e d c o u p l e s . T h e

. - J
F i g . 1. D r a w i n g o f stela from A b y d o s , s h o w i n g w o r s h i p
o f a n ancestral b u s t (after M a r i e t t e ) .

o r i g i n a l l y stiff a n d c e r e m o n i a l s c e n e b e c o m e s a l i v e l y
d e p i c t i o n o f a b a n q u e t w h e r e t h e d e c e a s e d is i n t e g r a t e d
i n t o the c o m m u n i t y o f the participants a n d enjoys the
a m e n i t i e s o f t h e festival.
N o w , w h e n during the Greek and R o m a n periods
m u m m i e s are p r e s e n t at t h e b a n q u e t s i n t h e h o u s e o f
t h e i r relatives, t h e d e c e a s e d is r e g a r d e d n o t j u s t as a

I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , t h e r e are several clear i n d i c a -

p i c t o r i a l representation substituting f o r reality b u t

t i o n s o f a d o m e s t i c ancestral c u l t a l r e a d y i n p l a c e i n

as a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t . H i s h u m a n a p p e a r a n c e , w i t h t h e

pharaonic E g y p t , a cult that c o u l d b e celebrated even i n

realistic p o r t r a i t a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e w h o l e b o d y

front o f i m a g e s o f t h e d e c e a s e d ! 3 6 S u c h cults s e e m t o

depicted o n the l o w e r part o f the m u m m y , corres-

have b e e n t h e e x c e p t i o n rather than the rule, a n d u p t o

p o n d s p e r f e c t l y t o his c h a r a c t e r as a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e

n o w t h e r e is n o c h r o n o l o g i c a l series i n t o t h e G r e e k a n d

festival.

R o m a n p e r i o d s . T h e r e m a y b e t w o m a i n reasons f o r

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e step f r o m v e n e r a t i n g

this. First, e x c a v a t i o n s o f l i v i n g quarters that c o u l d

t h e d e a d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f substitutes l i k e stelae o r

p r o v i d e f u r t h e r data are still rather scarce a n d , s e c o n d l y ,

busts, o r from t h e d e p i c t i o n o f b a n q u e t s f o r t h e d e a d ,

w e face a p r o b l e m o f visibility o r lack o f attention to

t o t h e factual, physical attendance o f the deceased i n

less c l e a r l y v i s i b l e m a t e r i a l . A n c e s t r a l c u l t w a s m a i n l y

t h e f o r m o f his m u m m y , c a n n o t b e o v e r e s t i m a t e d , a n d

part o f the p o p u l a r religion, the beliefs a m o n g the

i t w o u l d b e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g t o k n o w w h e n it w a s

m i d d l e a n d l o w e r classes, 3 7 w h e r e a s t h e m a t e r i a l

m a d e a n d u n d e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . It w a s n o later

e v i d e n c e that usually catches the attention o f a r c h a e o -

t h a n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y BC, as w e k n o w from Teles, b u t i t

logists a n d E g y p t o l o g i s t s gives i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y a b o u t

m a y h a v e b e e n e v e n earlier. O n c e t h e practice w a s

t h e u p p e r m o s t class a n d its i d e o l o g y . O n e r e a s o n f o r t h e

introduced, the n e w f o r m o f the portrait m u m m y must

29

PORTRAITS AND MASKS

h a v e f u l f i l l e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c u l t as w e l l as t h e

e f f e c t u p o n society. T h e y b e c a m e a m e d i u m f o r r e p r e -

d e m a n d for r e p r e s e n t a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l .

s e n t a t i o n o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d his f a m i l y . T o w h a t

U p t o n o w w e have f o c u s e d essentially o n t h e

degree ancestors i n R o m a n E g y p t h a d a n o r m a t i v e

r e l i g i o u s aspects o f t h e c h a n g e s c a u s e d b y t h e a d o p t i o n

b e a r i n g , as t h e y h a d i n R o m e itself, has t o b e e x a m i n e d

o f the veristic R o m a n portrait into E g y p t i a n cult

b y m o r e c o m p e t e n t scholars a n d o n t h e basis o f a w i d e r

p r a c t i c e , b u t t h e r e is a n o t h e r a s p e c t . A s w e n o t i c e d

range o f material. I n pharaonic E g y p t the cult o f the

above, the change f r o m an idealised d i v i n e appearance

d e a d that g r a n t e d t h e afterlife w a s a c e n t r a l c o n s t i t u e n t

t o a naturalistic o n e resulted i n an individualisation

o f d a i l y life, w h e r e a s t h e ancestral c u l t d i d n o t p l a y a

o f the m u m m y . N o w , individualism was not only a

m a j o r role. I n R o m e a p p a r e n d y it w a s t h e o t h e r w a y

R o m a n b u t also a n o l d E g y p t i a n p r i n c i p l e w i t h i n t h e

r o u n d . T h e a c t u a l c u l t o f t h e d e a d that s e r v e d t h e s o u l s

beliefs s u r r o u n d i n g death, p r o v i d i n g c o n t i n u i t y o f the

i n the other w o r l d was o f m i n o r importance compared

i n d i v i d u a l b o t h in eternal life a n d in collective

t o t h e rites c o n c e r n i n g t h e ancestors. T h e h o p e f o r a n

m e m o r y . 4 0 T h e o l d E g y p t i a n portrait sculpture already

i n d i v i d u a l afterlife w a s l o o k e d u p o n r a t h e r sceptically.

s h o w e d phases o f v e r i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s that a l t e r n a t e d

S u r v i v a l as a n i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t e d o n l y i n t h e m e m o r y

w i t h generalising a n d idealising ones. Characteristically,

o f t h e descendants a n d o f society. T h u s sepulchral

a n e w dimension o f verism was reached the m o m e n t

r i t e s h a v e a p r e d o m i n a n d y c o m m e m o r a t i v e character.

that t h e i m a g e s n o l o n g e r s t o o d i n t h e l o c k e d c h a m b e r

A n c e s t r a l portraits carried a r o u n d i n funeral processions

o f t h e serdab, sealed o f f f r o m a n y e x t r a n e o u s g l a n c e , b u t

g u a r a n t e e d t h i s s u r v i v a l i n m e m o r y as w e l l as a n y

w e r e erected i n p u b l i c places, t h e temples, w h e r e t h e y

d i s p l a y o f p o r t r a i t s i n t h e p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e sphere. 4 5 A t

w e r e accessible at least o n c e r t a i n o c c a s i o n s t o a l i m i t e d

t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y also s e r v e d t h e d e s c e n d a n t s as a

n u m b e r o f p e o p l e : h e r e t h e y also s e r v e d a representative

f o c u s f o r creating identity b o t h w i t h i n the f a m i l y a n d

and c o m m e m o r a t i v e p u r p o s e directed towards the

w i t h i n society. T h u s t h e i r f u n c t i o n w a s a t o p i c a l o n e .

c o m m u n i t y o f the living.41

Accordingly, the a d o p t i o n o f the R o m a n portrait

I n the G r e e k and particularly i n the R o m a n periods

i n t o t h e E g y p t i a n c u l t o f t h e d e a d is at t h e s a m e t i m e a

this v e r i s m i n c r e a s e d dramatically. T h i s is t r u e b o t h f o r

p r o d u c t a n d a cause o f a shift i n t h e emphasis b e t w e e n

sculptures, t h e p u r p o s e o f w h i c h c a n n o t i n m o s t cases

t h e c u l t o f t h e d e a d a n d a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p o f t h e latter.

b e d e t e r m i n e d d u e t o m i s s i n g c o n t e x t s , as w e l l as f o r

T h e d e c e a s e d a n d h i s a f t e r l i f e are n o l o n g e r t h e

the m u m m i e s considered here. T h e o u t e r appearance o f

d o m i n a n t c e n t r a l issue o f t h e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e b u t t a k e

these m u m m i e s w i t h their n e w retrospective, w o r l d l y

o n , a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y m e a n t t o take o n , a m a j o r r o l e i n

a n d i n d i v i d u a l characteristics m u s t b e seen i n c o n -

s h a p i n g social r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T o b e sure, this h a b i t c o u l d

n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r p r e s e n c e at a p l a c e t h a t w a s far m o r e

b y n o m e a n s h a v e b e e n prevalent. N o t o n l y was it

accessible t h a n a n o l d E g y p t i a n t e m p l e . T h e m u m m i e s

r e s t r i c t e d t o a v e r y small, elite g r o u p o f society, b u t also

therefore s e e m to fulfil an urge for representation

t h e s e f a m i l i e s w i l l h a r d l y h a v e treated all t h e i r d e p a r t e d

granted b y b o t h the individualistic depiction and the

i n t h e s a m e w a y . 4 6 T h i s is i n d i c a t e d n o t least b y t h e

luxurious decoration.

U m i t e d space available i n t h e h o u s e . W e s h o u l d p r e s u m e

I n this c o n n e c t i o n w e m a y r e c o n s i d e r a n o b s e r v a t i o n

rather that o n l y a m i n o r i t y o f the family's deceased

b y B.V. B o t h m e r . H e n o t i c e d that the p r o d u c t i o n o f

w e r e h o n o u r e d i n this w a y f o r r e a s o n s w e d o n o t

m u m m y p o r t r a i t s b e g i n s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e

know.

t i m e as t h e g e n r e o f p r i v a t e statues i n t h e t e m p l e s

W h a t e v e r the religious beliefs a n d social implications

c o m e s to an end.42 W e d o n o t k n o w w h y these

i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the display a n d veneration o f

statues d o n o t o c c u r a n y m o r e , a n d t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l

p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s m a y h a v e b e e n precisely, t h e f a c t t h a t

c o i n c i d e n c e c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d either. K . Parlasca

m u m m i e s were kept in the house for s o m e time, and

s u g g e s t e d that t h e statues m i g h t h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y

m o s t p r o b a b l y r e c e i v e d s o m e s o r t o f c u l t there, h e l p s t o

p a i n t e d portraits, 4 3 b u t it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e e r e c t i o n

e x p l a i n t h e discrepancy b e t w e e n the character o f t h e

o f private images in the temples was prohibited f r o m

m u m m i e s c o s d y b u t w e a k e n e d in their m a g i c p o w e r s

s o m e t i m e i n t h e early i m p e r i a l p e r i o d o n w a r d s , o r it

b y t h e i r n e w w o r l d l y s h a p e a n d t h e i r careless,

m a y just have g o n e o u t o f use for s o m e u n k n o w n

s o m e t i m e s even r u d e burial w i t h o u t any grave markers.

r e a s o n . T h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e t e m p l e statues w a s m o r e

T h e E g y p t i a n ancestral c u l t rarely g o e s b a c k m o r e t h a n

o r less t h e s a m e as t h a t o f g r a v e s t a t u e s , 4 4 a n d from

o n e o r t w o g e n e r a t i o n s , as is s h o w n n o t least b y t h e

the N e w K i n g d o m onwards their character b e c a m e

i n s c r i p t i o n s o n t h e a k h - i k e r stelae. 4 7 T h i s leads t o t h e

i n c r e a s i n g l y representative. A f t e r this g e n r e o f p r i v a t e

a s s u m p t i o n that t h e portrait m u m m i e s w e r e kept i n t h e

t e m p l e statues ceased t o e x i s t , t h e r e f o r e , a n d after t h e

h o u s e for approximately the same time. After the

o p p o r t u n i t y t o erect p r i v a t e i m a g e s i n t h e t e m p l e s m a y

i m m e d i a t e relatives h a d d i e d themselves, a n d after

a n y w a y have b e e n restricted, this f u n c t i o n m a y have

interest i n t h e m o r e distant ancestors h a d f a d e d , t h e

shifted t o the private a n d sepulchral sphere.

m u m m i e s m a y have been h a n d e d over to the temple i n

H e r e t h e o u t e r , aesthetic s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e m u m m y

c h a r g e . A s is s h o w n b y t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s , t h e k i n d

portraits t o b o t h t h e a n c e s t o r s ' p o r t r a i t s a n d h o n o r a r y

o f burial they w e r e given d e p e n d e d o n m a n y factors

images o f the R o m a n s meets w i t h a similarity in

t h a t c a n o n l y b e i d e n t i f i e d o n t h e basis o f n e w e v i d e n c e

m e a n i n g : l i k e t h e latter, t h e y n o w h a d a r e t r o a c t i v e

a n d e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h . 4 8 I n t h e case o f t h e careless

30

THE DEAD AS A GUEST AT TABLE?

burials m e n t i o n e d above, a proper family t o m b was

o b v i o u s l y n o t available. Perhaps t h e relatives w e r e

Chrysippus, who, he says, has collected these and even more

abnormal customs among the peoples of the world.

n o t interested any m o r e in an expensive burial and

6. R . Merkelbach, 'Diodor iiber das Totengericht der

entrusted t h e m u m m i e s o f their ancestors to t h e priests

Agypter', ZAS 120 (1993), 7 1 - 8 4 .

o r servants o f t h e t e m p l e w h o , a w a y f r o m t h e c o n t r o l o f
t h e f a m i l y , c a r e d as l i t t l e f o r t h e b u r i a l as t h e y o f t e n
did before for the treatment o f the bodies during
embalming.

49

Acknowledgements

This essay is a slighdy extended version of a paper presented

at the London colloquium and at Heidelberg University in
July 1995. I am indebted, above all, to the organisers of the
London colloquium, W V . Davies and M.L. Bierbrier, for the
invitation. The British Museum and Heidelberg University
are gratefully acknowledged for their financial support. I am
also grateful to the participants in each of the discussions for
their comments and criticism. Not least I should like
to thank Angela Wheeler and Glenn W. Most for their
corrections to my English.

7. This is certainly true for Silius Italicus (or whoever inserted

the relevant passage, if it was not Silius Italicus himself, as
some critics suggest), Teles (who may draw from Bion),
Cicero and Sextus Empiricus.
8. For a general survey of the subject see K.A.D. Smelik and
E.A. Hemelrijk, '"Who knows not what monsters demented
Egypt worships?" Opinions on Egyptian animal worship in
antiquity as part of the ancient conception of Egypt', ANRW
II 17.4 ( B e r l i n / N e w Y o r k , 1984), 1852-2000.

9. Athanasius,Ant. 90-91; Ch. Mohrmann (ed.), Vite dei Santi

I-.Vita diAntonio (Milan, 1974) 1 6 9 - 7 3 ; 2 6 6 (comment).

10. C. Schmidt, 'Ein altchristliches Mumienetikett, nebst

Bemerkungen iiber das Begrabniswesen der Kopten',
ZAS 32 (1894), 52-62; Th. Baumeister, 'Vorchristliche
Bestattungssitten und die Entstehung des Martyrerkultes in
Agypten', RdmQSchr 69 (1974), 1 - 6 .

Notes
1. Aegyptia tellus claudit odorato postfunus stantia saxo corpora et a

11. W.M.F. Petrie, Roman Portraits and Memphis (IV) (London,

1911), 2.

mensis exanguetn haud separat umbram. Translation by J.D. D u f f ,

12. For the present cf. C. Nauerth, Vom Tod zum Leben. Die

Loeb edition vol. II (Cambridge, MA/London, 1961).

christlichen Totenerweckungen in der sp'dtantiken Kunst. Gottinger

2. TapixetieL 8e 6 AtyfrnTios'. OUTO? p e v ye - Xiyut 8e IStov

- f n p d v a TOV veKpov avvSeiirvov Kal <jv\nr6rT\v

eTroi.f|CFaTO. Translation by A. M. Harmon, Loeb edition vol.

IV (Cambridge, M A / London, 1961).
3. Another manifestation of this lack of interest is the fact that
many editors and commentators trace back the statements of
these two authors and some others quoted below (note 4) to
Herodotus 2.78, which, as will soon be shown in more detail,
has nothing to do with these references. The most outstanding case is H. Rupprecht's translation of'exanguem . . .
umbram' as 'Skelett' (skeleton) (Titus Catius Silius Italicus.
Punia, das Epos vom zweiten Punischen Krieg, II (Mitterfels,

1991), 120, note 476; 121).

Orientforschungen II, 1 (Wiesbaden, 1980), 117-25. A.B.

Lloyd in his commentary on Herodotus (Herodotus, Book II,
Commentary ig8 (Leiden, 1976), 335-7) mentions some small

figures from Egypt that are also skeletons or dried bodies (but
no mummies so it remains obscure why even Lloyd
suggests that Lucian, De luctu, 21 might belong in this
context).
13. On the meaning of this procedure cf. Plut. Is. 17 = mor.
357 F and Sept. Sap. Conv. 2 = mor. 148 A-B. On the memento
mori or carpe diem cf. e.g. G. Wohrle, 'Eine sehr hiibsche
Mahn-Mumie . . .' Zur Rezeption eines herodoteischen
Motivs, Hermes 118 (1990), 2 9 2 - 3 0 1 .

14. Abrokomes and Anthia V 1, 4-11. L. Corcoran, 'A Cult

Function for the so-called Faiyum Mummy Portraits?', in J.

4. Teles, ed. Hense, 31, 9-10; 32, 1: Kal f\\ieig pev Kal ISeiv

H . Johnson (ed.), Life in a Multi-Cultural Society: Egypt from

K a l dipaoQai 6KVOV[1V ol 8e OKeXerevoavres evSov

Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond, S A O C 51 (Chicago,

exovaiv ti>s KaXov TL K a l evixv?a Tvs veKpovg

XapfMvouaiv.
Diodorus 1.92.6: TO Se crwpa TiOeaaiv ol pev ISLOUS"
e X O ^ T e ? Tdcfjou? ev TOXS cUToSeSeiypevais' Of^ai?, ots 8'oux iJTrdpxoixn Ta<fxov KTf)creis", Kawbv oucnpa iTOLoOca

Kara TT|V ISlav oiKiav, Kal irpos' T6V dcrcJxiXecrraTOV TWV

TOLXUV 6p0r]V lOTaca TT)V XdpyaKa. According to Diodorus,
the habit of keeping the dead in the house is restricted to
those families that do not possess a private sepulchre. If this is
true it does not imply that the habit applies to poor people:
mummification and the material used for it was available
only for the wealthy anyway.
Cicero, Tusc. 1.108: 'Condiunt Aegyptii mortuos et eos
servant domi ...'
Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrh. hyp. 3.226: A l y m m o i 8e Td
e v T e p a e^e\6vres Tapixeuocav airrovs Kal aw kavTols

(rrrep yfjs- ^XovaiV5. Cf. the lists of funerary practices in Cicero, Silius Italicus,
Lucian and Sextus Empiricus. Cicero (note 4 above) refers to

1992), 60.

15. Cf. the lamentations of Admetos in Euripides' Alkestis

(348-52), who intends to have an artist make an image of
Alkestis to lie in his bed and drive away his loneliness.
16. See e.g. D. Kurth, Der Sarg der Theiiris (Mainz, 1990); D.

Kurth, 'Die Friese innerhalb der Tempeldekoration

griechisch-romischer Zeit', in M. Minas and J. Zeidler (eds),
Aspekte spdtagyptischer Kultur. Festschrift fur Erich Winter zum

65. Geburtstag, Aegyptiaca Treverensia 7 (Mainz, 1994),

191-201; L. Corcoran, Portrait Mummies from Roman Egypt (I-

IV Centuries AD), S A O C 56 (Chicago, 1996).

17. B. Borg, Mumienportrats - Chronologie und kultureller

Kontext (in press), Ch. 6.

18. Cf. Warsaw, National Museum, inv. 127191 = K. Parlasca,
Repertorio d'Arte dell'Egitto Greco-Romano, Series B, vol. I

(Palermo, 1969), 35-6 no. 35, pi. 10,1 (subsequent quotations

from this and the following two volumes II and III (Rome,

31

PORTRAITS AND MASKS

1977 and 1980), which also provide a good bibliography, are

abbreviated as Rep. x.); Stuttgart, Wiirttembergisches
Landesmuseum, inv. 7.4 = Rep. 172; New York, M M A , inv.
44.2.2 = Rep. 444; Private Collection = Rep. 475.
19. Cairo, Aegypt. Mus., C.G. 33217 = Rep. 101; Cairo,
Aegypt. Mus., C.G. 33218 = Rep. 127; London, BM, Dept. of
Egyptian Antiquities, inv. 6715A = Rep. 413; Hildesheim,
permanent loan Stiftung Niedersachsen, Hannover (PelizaeusMuseum Hildesheim, Die Agyptische Sammlung (Mainz,
1993). I0<5. % Malibu, C A , J. P. Getty Museum, inv.
81.AP.42 (D. L.Thompson, Mummy Portraits (Malibu, 1982) ,
32 no. 1; colour pi. on 33; 64).
20. For more detailed discussion see Borg (note 17 above).
21. However, papyrological evidence for ritual and other
practices connected with death are generally rare; for some of
these see D. Montserrat, this volume.
22.1 have treated this topic in more detail elsewhere (Borg,
note 17 above, particularly Ch. 7), but it still remains a vast
field for further multidisciplinary research.
23. J. Quaegebeur, 'Fouilles de l'Assassif 1970-1975', CdE 50
(1975). 37-8.

24. D. Montserrat,'Mallokouria andTherapeuteria. Rituals of

transition in a mixed society?', BASP 28 (1991), pp. 439; B.
Legras, 'Mallokouria et mallocouretes. Un rite de passage
dans 1'Egypte romaine', Cahiers du Centre G. Glotz. Revue
d'histoire ancienne 4 (1993), 11327; Borg (note 17 above), Chs
6.1,7.7.

25. Cf. R.S. Bagnall in this volume; with special reference to

the mummy portraits, see Borg (note 17 above), Ch. 7.1.

31. D. Montserrat, "The Kline ofAnubis'JIM 78 (1992), 301-6.

32. R.J. Demaree, The Ih ikr n R'-Stelae. On Ancestor Worship
in Ancient Egypt (Leiden, 1983).
33. A . M . Bakir, The Cairo Calendar No. 86637 (Cairo, 1966), 33

(Rt. XXIII 11).

34. W. Kaiser, 'Zur Biiste als einer Darstellungsform
agyptischer Rundplastik', MDAIK 46 (1990), 26985 with
bibliography.
35. Kaiser (note 34 above), 272 nos 20-1.
36. O n Egyptian ancestral cult in general, see M. Fitzenreiter,
' Z u m Ahnenkult in Agypten', Gottinger Miszellen 143 (1994),
51-72.

37. Cf. Fitzenreiter (note 36 above).

38. LA VI, 645-7 s.v. Totenfeste; 677-9 s.v. Totenmahl
(U. Verhoeven).
39. S. Schott, 'Das schone Fest vom Wiistental Festbrauche
einer Totenstadt', Abhandlungen der Mainzer Akademie der
Wissenschqften und Literatur 11 (Wiesbaden, 1952); J. Assmann,

'Der schone Tag. Sinnlichkeit und Verganglichkeit im

altagyptischen Fest', in W. Haug and R . Warning (eds), Das
Fest. Poetik und Hermeneutik 14 (Munich, 1989), 3-28.
40. J. Assmann, Stein und Zeit. Mensch und Gesellschaft imAlten
Agypten (Munich, 1991), 159-161.

41. Assmann (note 40 above), 13861.

42. B.V. Bothmer, Egyptian Sculpture in the Late Period.
Exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum 18 October ig6o g January

1961 (NewYork, i960), X X X I I I - X X X I V ; 183-4.

26. For a summary of these ideas see e.g. M. C. Root, Faces of 43. K. Parlasca, Mumienportrdts und verwandte Denkmaler
(Wiesbaden, 1966), 93-4 no. 20.

Immortality: Egyptian Mummy Masks, Painted Portraits and

Canopic Jars in the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology (Ann Arbor,

i979)> 5-

27. E. Hornung, 'Vom Sinn der Mumifizierung', Die Welt des

Orients 14 (1983), 16775.

28. Cf. note 19 above.

29. W.M.F. Petrie, Hawara, Biahmu andArsinoe (London 1889),

44. H . Kayser, Die Tempelstatuen agyptischer Privatleute im

mittleren und im neuen Reich (Heidelberg, 1936).

45. O n the similar function of ancestral and honorary

portraits cf.T. Holscher, 'Die Anfange Romischer Reprasentationskunst', RM 85 (1978), 31557, particularly 324-44, w h o

stresses the representative and political aspects.

20; Petrie (note 11 above), 23; H. Brugsch, 'Der Moeris-See

46. We find, for example, different kinds of decoration on
und das Todtenfeld von Hawara', 15. Jahresbericht des Vereinsmummies that were discovered in what were most probably
fur Erdkunde zu Metz (1892/3), 25; R . V. Kaufmann,
family tombs: e.g. R . Germer, H. Kischkewitz and M.
Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologic,
Luning,'Das Grab der Aline und die Untersuchung der darin
Ethnologie und Urgeschichte 24 (1892), 416.
gefundenen Kindermumien', AW 24 (1993), 186-96; W A .
30. We might consider whether these burials could be
secondary burials, as some participants in the conference
suggested. To my mind at least two arguments can be raised
against this. First of all, the Hawara pits were mosdy single
graves, and rarely contained more than two mummies. In this
necropolis there is no evidence so far for cachettes containing a multitude of mummies as is typical for the earlier
secondary burials. Secondly, simple pit graves are not
restricted to Hawara but seem to have been (among others) a
common Graeco-Roman type (cf.Achmim, necropolis A: R .
Forrer, Mein Besuch in Achmim. Reisebriefe aus Agypten

(Strassburg, 1895), 36-9; K. P. Kulhmann, Materialien zur

Archaologie und Geschichte des Raumes von Achmim (Mainz,
1983), 52-63, fig. 14).

32

Daszewski,'Marina el-Alamein 1991', Polish Archaeology in the

Mediterranean III (Warsaw, 1992), 2939.

47. LA I (Wiesbaden, 1975), 11112 s.v. Ahnenkult

(D. Wildung); Demaree (note 32 above), 282.
48. Cf., for example, the different kinds of burials described
in reports quoted above (note 46 above); Parlasca (note 43
above), 18-58; Borg (note 17 above), Ch. 9.
49. Cf. J. Filer, this volume.