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2.
The total energy released was E = (17 10 3 ton ) ( 4.0 10 9 J 1 ton = 6.8 1013 J, and according
to the mass-energy equivalence (E = mc 2 ), the mass converted was
m=
6.8 1013 J
E
=
2
c
( 3.00 108 m s
= 7.6 10 4 kg = 0.76 g
3.
The decay p +10 e + e would conserve charge (+1 +1 + 0), electron lepton number
(0 1 + 1), and strangeness (0 0 + 0 ), and can conserve energy if the total kinetic energy of
the decay products equals the energy equivalent of the mass loss. However, it does not conserve
baryon number (+1 0 + 0), and the decay cannot occur. The correct choice is then (b).
4.
Both the charge and mass of a particle are independent of its spin so both choices (c) and (d) are
false. A spin-12 particle could be among the decay products, provided it is possible for the spins of
all the decay products to couple to 23 and conserve angular momentum. Also, in a magnetic eld,
a spin-23 particle could have spin states of
ms = 3 2 , 1 2 , 1 2 , and 3 2
so choices (a) and (e) are false, while choice (b) is true.
452
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3/26/08 1:56:42 PM
453
5.
The annihilation 01 e + +01 e can conserve energy [2(0.511 MeV) = 1.02 MeV ], does conserve
charge [ 1 + 1 = 0], conserves baryon number [0 + 0 = 0 ], and conserves lepton number
[ +1 1 = 0 ]. However, the total momentum is zero before annihilation and the momentum
of the single photon afterward is p = 1.02 MeV c 0 . Thus, it cannot occur, and the correct
choice is (b).
6.
Slow neutrons have a much higher probability of causing ssion in a collision with a nucleus in
the fuel elements than do fast or high energy neutrons. The purpose of the moderator is to slow the
neutrons down, and without it the chain reaction would quickly die out. The correct choice is (c).
7.
Positively charged particles, such as protons and alpha particles, have difculty approaching the
target nuclei because of Coulomb repulsion. Fast-moving particles may not stay in close proximity with a uranium nucleus long enough to have a good probability of producing a reaction. The
best particles to trigger a ssion reaction of the uranium nuclei are slow-moving neutrons, so
choice (d) is the correct answer.
8.
1
137
96
1
In the ssion reaction 235
92 U + 0 n 53 I + 39 I + n( 0 n ), where n is some unknown number of
neutrons, we see that charge is conserved ( 92 + 0 = 53 + 39 + 0 ) regardless of the value of n. The
reaction must also conserve baryon number, so it is necessary that
235 + 1 = 137 + 96 + n
or
n=3
The reaction of choice (a) fails to conserve baryon number [1 + 1 1 + 1 1], while the reaction of
choice (e) fails to conserve tau-lepton number [+1 0 1 + 0], so neither of these reactions can
occur. The reactions of choices (b), (c), and (d) satisfy all conservation laws and may occur. The
correct answer for this question is choices (a) and (e).
10.
The reaction of choice (c) fails to conserve charge [0 + 1 0 + 0], while the reaction of choice
(d) fails to conserve baryon number [+1 2(+1) + 0 + 0], so neither of these reactions can occur.
The reactions of choices (a), (b), and (e) satisfy all conservation laws and may occur. The correct
answer for this question is choices (c) and (d).
The two factors presenting the most technical difculties are the requirements of a high plasma
density and a high plasma temperature. These two conditions must occur simultaneously.
4.
Notice in the fusion reactions discussed in the text that the most commonly formed by-product of
the reactions is helium, which is inert and not radioactive.
6.
They are hadrons. Such particles decay into other strongly interacting particles such as p, n, and
p with very short lifetimes. In fact, they decay so quickly that they cannot be detected directly.
Decays which occur via the weak force have lifetimes of 10 13 s or longer; particles that decay
via the electromagnetic force have times in the range of 10 16 s to 10 19 s.
8.
Each avor of quark can have three colors, designated as red, green, and blue. Antiquarks are
colored antired, antigreen, and antiblue. Baryons consist of three quarks, each having a different
color. Mesons consist of a quark of one color and an antiquark with a corresponding anticolor.
Thus, baryons and mesons are colorless or white.
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 453
3/26/08 1:56:45 PM
454
Chapter 30
10.
The decays of the neutral pion, eta, and neutral sigma occur by the electromagnetic interaction.
These are the three shortest lifetimes in the table. All produce photons, which are the quanta of
the electromagnetic force, and all conserve strangeness.
12.
A neutron inside a nucleus is stable because it is in a lower energy state than a free neutron and
lower in energy than it would be if it decayed into a proton (plus electron and antineutrino). The
nuclear force gives it this lower energy by binding it inside the nucleus and by favoring pairing
between neutrons and protons.
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
30.1
The mass of a single 235 U atom is matom = (235 u )(1.66 10 27 kg u ) = 3.90 10 25 kg , so the
total mass of 235 U required is
235
92
98
40
1
Zr + 135
52 Te + 3 0 n is
Q = ( m ) c 2 = m 235 U 2 mn m 98 Zr m135 Te c 2
92
40
52
30.3
235
92
88
38
1
Sr + 136
54 Xe + 12 0 n is
Q = ( m ) c 2 = m 235 U 11 mn m 88 Sr m136 Xe c 2
92
38
54
= 235.043 923 u 11(1.008 665 u ) 87.905 614 u 135.907 220 u ( 931.5 MeV u )
= 126 MeV
30.4
30.5
(a)
1
0
n+
235
92
U 90
38 Sr +
144
54
Xe + 2 10 n
144
54
Xe
1
0
n+
235
92
U 90
38 Sr +
143
54
Xe + 3 01 n
143
54
Xe
1
0
n+
235
92
U 90
38 Sr +
142
54
Xe + 4 01 n
142
54
Xe
With a specic gravity of 4.00, the density of soil is = 4 000 kg m 3. Thus, the mass of
the top 1.00 m of soil is
2
kg
1m
m = V = 4 000 3 (1.00 m ) ( 43 560 ft 2
= 1.62 10 7 kg
3.281 ft
m
At a rate of 1 part per million, the mass of uranium in this soil is then
mU =
m 1.62 10 7 kg
=
= 16.2 kg
10 6
10 6
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 454
3/26/08 1:56:45 PM
(b)
235
92
455
U in the soil of
30.6
P t
N=
Eevent
(1.00 10
J s ( 8.64 10 4 s d
1.28 10
11
235
92
J event
) = 6.75 10
24
events d
The mass of 235 U in 1.0 kg of fuel is 0.017 kg, and the number of 235 U nuclei is
N=
0.017 kg
m
=
= 4.336 10 22
matom ( 235 u ) (1.66 10 27 kg u
At 208 MeV per ssion event and 20% efciency, the useful energy available from this number
of ssion events is
30.8
(a)
E
2 .9 1011 J
=
= 2 .9 10 6 m = 2 .9 10 3 km (or about 1800 miles)
Fdrag 1.0 10 5 N
(b)
) 10
kg 3 g
= 3.1 1010 g
10
ton
kg
m 3.1 1010 g
=
= 1.3 10 8 mol
M 235 g mol
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 455
3/26/08 1:56:46 PM
456
Chapter 30
(c)
Assuming all atoms undergo ssion and all released energy captured, the total energy
available is
MeV 1.6 10 13 J
MeV
31
= 2.6 10 21 J
E = N 208
=
7
8
10
208
.
events
(
event 1 MeV
event
(d)
At a consumption rate of 1.5 1013 J s, the maximum time this energy supply could last is
t=
(e)
30.9
2.6 10 21 J
1 yr
= 5.5 yr
Fission is not sufcient to supply the world with energy at a price of $130 or less per
kilogram of uranium.
Eevent
8.64 1010 J
= 2 .60 10 21
( 208 MeV) (1.60 10 13 J MeV
(a)
mU = 3 10 3 3 4 ( 6.38 10 6 m
m 3
(b)
) ( 4 10 m ) =
2
4 1015 g
Fissionable 235 U makes up 0.7% of the mass of uranium computed above. If we assume all
of the 235 U is collected and caused to undergo ssion, with the release of about 200 MeV
per event, the potential energy supply is
0.7 mU
E = number of 235 U atoms 200 MeV =
200 MeV
100 m 235 U
atom
)(
0.7 mU
100 m 235 U
200 MeV
atom
)(
J
1 yr
3.156 10 7 s
= 5 10 3 yr
continued on next page
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 456
3/26/08 1:56:47 PM
(c)
30.11
The uranium comes from dissolving rock and minerals. Rivers carry such solutes into the
oceans, so the oceans supply of uranium is steadily replenished. Further, if breeder reactors
are used, the current ocean supply can last half a million years!
Be +
(a)
4
2
He + 24 He
8
4
(b)
8
4
Be + 24 He
12
6
(c)
457
C +
30.12
1
2
= [1.007 825 u + 2.0014 102 u 3.016 029 u ] ( 931.5 MeV u ) = 5.49 MeV
30.13
1
2
= [ 2.014 102 u + 3.016 049 u 4.002 603 u 1.008 665 u ] ( 931.5 MeV u )
30.14
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 457
8.64 1010 J yr
E
=
= 3.06 10 22 events yr
Q 2 .82 10 12 J event
C
13
7
N +
(b)
13
7
13
6
C + 11H
14
7
N +
(d)
14
7
N + 11H
15
8
(f)
15
7
(a)
1
1
(c)
(e)
H+
12
6
15
7
N +
0
+1
e+
13
6
C+
N + 11H
0
+1
15
8
12
6
e+
O +
C + 24 He
3/26/08 1:56:48 PM
458
30.15
Chapter 30
With the deuteron and triton at rest, the total momentum before reaction is zero. To conserve momentum, the neutron and the alpha particle must move in opposite directions with
equal magnitude momenta after reaction, or p = pn . Neglecting relativistic effects, we use
the classical relationship between momentum and kinetic energy, KE = p 2 2 m , and write
2 m KE = 2 mn KEn , or KE = ( mn m )KEn.
To conserve energy, it is necessary that the kinetic energies of the reaction products satisfy the
relation KEn + KE = Q = 17.6 MeV. Then, using the result from above, we have
KEn + ( mn m )KEn = 17.6 MeV, or the kinetic energy of the emerging neutron must be
KEn =
30.16
(a)
17.6 MeV
= 14.1 MeV
1.008 665 u
1+
4.002 603 u
5
2
(b)
The proton and the boron nucleus both have positive charges. Thus, they must have
enough kinetic energy to overcome the repulssive Coulomb force one exerts on the other
and approach each other very closely.
30.17
Note that pair production cannot occur in a vacuum. It must occur in the presence of a massive
particle which can absorb at least some of the momentum of the photon and allow total linear
momentum to be conserved.
When a particle-antiparticle pair is produced by a photon having the minimum possible frequency,
and hence minimum possible energy, the nearby massive particle absorbs all the momentum of
the photon, allowing both components of the particle-antiparticle pair to be left at rest. In such an
event, the total kinetic energy afterwards is essentially zero, and the photon need only supply the
total rest energy of the pair produced.
The minimum photon energy required to produce a proton-antiproton pair is
and
30.18
Ephoton
h
3.00 10 10 J
= 4.52 10 23 Hz
6.63 10 34 J s
c 3.00 10 8 m s
=
= 6.64 10 16 m = 0.664 fm
f
4.52 10 23 Hz
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 458
3/26/08 1:56:48 PM
30.19
The total rest energy of the 0 is converted into kinetic energy of the photons. Since the total
momentum was zero before the decay, the two photons must go in opposite directions with equal
magnitude momenta (and hence equal energies). Thus, the rest energy of the 0 is split equally
between the two photons, giving for each photon
Ephoton =
pphoton =
and
30.20
459
f =
ER, 0
2
Ephoton
Ephoton
h
c
=
135 MeV
= 67.5 Mev
2
= 67.5 MeV c
Observe that the given reactions involve only mesons and baryons. With no leptons before or after
the reactions, we do not have to consider the conservation laws concerning the various lepton numbers. All interactions always conserve both charge and baryon numbers. The strong interaction also
conserves strangeness. Conservation of strangeness may be violated by the weak interaction but
never by more than one unit. With these facts in mind consider the given interactions:
K0 + +
K0
total before
total after
Charge
+1
Baryon number
Strangeness
+1
+1
This reaction conserves both charge and baryon number, but does violate strangeness by one unit.
Thus, it can occur via the weak interaction but not other interactions.
0 + +
0
total before
total after
Charge
+1
Baryon number
+1
+1
Strangeness
This reaction fails to conserve baryon number and cannot occur via any interaction.
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 459
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460
Chapter 30
30.21
30.22
Reaction
(a)
p + p + + e
Le : ( 0 + 0 0 + 1); and L : ( 0 + 0 1 + 0 )
(b)
+ p p ++
Charge, Q :
(c)
p + p p ++
Baryon Number, B :
(1 + 1 1 + 0 )
(d)
p+pp+p+n
Baryon Number, B :
( 1 + 1 1 + 1 + 1)
(e)
+ p n +0
Charge, Q:
( 1 + 1 + 1 + 1)
(0 + 1 0 + 0)
+ 0 + e+ +?
Le = 0 0 0 1 + Le , so Le = +1
(b)
?+ p + p + +
L = 0 L + 0 1 + 0 + 0, so L = +1
(c)
0 p + + ?
L = 0 0 0 + 1 + L , so L = 1
(d)
+ + + ?+ ?
L = 0 0 1 + L , so L = +1
L = 0 1 0 + L , so L = 1
?+ p n + +
Conservation of charge
Q + e 0 + e
or
Q = 0
B +1 1+ 0
or
B=0
Le + 0 0 + 0
or
Le = 0
L + 0 0 1
or
L = 1
L + 0 0 + 0
or
L = 0
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 460
3/26/08 1:56:50 PM
30.24
(a)
461
+ + p K+ + +
Baryon number, B:
0 +1 0 +1
B = 0
Charge, Q:
1+1 1+1
Q = 0
Baryon number, B:
0 +1 0 +1
B = 0
Charge, Q:
1+1 1+1
Q = 0
+ + p + + +
(b)
0 + 0 11
S = 0
0 + 0 0 1
S = 1
The second reaction cannot occur via the strong or electromagnettic interactions .
(c)
If one of the neutral kaons were also produced in the second reaction, giving
0 + 0 0 1 +1
S = 0
Because the total mass of the product particles in this reaction would be greater than
that in the rst reaction [see part (a)], the total incident energy of the reacting particles
would have to be greater for this reaction than for the first reaction .
30.25
(a)
0 + +
Charge:
1 0 1 + 0
Q = 0
Baryon number:
+1 +1 + 0 + 0
B = 0
Le :
00+0+0
Le = 0
L :
0 0 +1+1
L 0
L :
00+0+0
L = 0
2 1 + 0 + 0
S 0
Lepton numbers,
Strangeness:
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 461
3/26/08 1:56:53 PM
462
Chapter 30
(b)
K0 2 0
Charge:
00+0
Q = 0
Baryon number:
00+0
B = 0
Le :
00+0
Le = 0
L :
00+0
L = 0
L :
00+0
L = 0
+1 0 + 0
S 0
Lepton numbers,
Strangeness:
(c)
K + p 0 + n
Charge:
1 + 1 0 + 0
Q = 0
Baryon number:
0 +1 1+1
B 0
Le :
0+00+0
Le = 0
L :
0+00+0
L = 0
L :
0+00+0
L = 0
1 + 0 1 + 0
S = 0
Lepton numbers,
Strangeness:
(d)
0 0 +
Charge:
00+0
Q = 0
Baryon number:
1 1+ 0
B = 0
Le :
00+0
Le = 0
L :
00+0
L = 0
L :
00+0
L = 0
1 1 + 0
S = 0
Lepton numbers,
Strangeness:
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 462
3/26/08 1:56:54 PM
(e)
e+ + e + +
Charge:
11 11
Q = 0
Baryon number:
0+00+0
B = 0
Le :
1 + 1 0 + 0
Le = 0
L :
0 + 0 11
L = 0
L :
0+00+0
L = 0
0+00+0
S = 0
Charge:
1 + 0 0 1
Q = 0
Baryon number:
1 + 1 1 + 1
B = 0
Le :
0+00+0
Le = 0
L :
0+00+0
L = 0
L :
0+00+0
L = 0
0 + 0 +1 1
S = 0
Lepton numbers,
Strangeness:
(f)
p + n 0 +
Lepton numbers,
Strangeness:
30.26
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 463
463
proton
total
strangeness
baryon number
1
3
1
3
1
3
charge
2e 3
2e 3
e 3
neutron
total
strangeness
baryon number
1
3
1
3
1
3
charge
2e 3
e 3
e 3
3/26/08 1:56:55 PM
464
30.27
Chapter 30
Each molecule contains 10 protons, 10 electrons, and 8 neutrons. Thus, there are
N e = 10 N = 3.34 10 26 electrons , N p = 10 N = 3.34 10 26 protons,
and
N n = 8 N = 2.68 10 26 neutrons
Each proton contains 2 up quarks and 1 down quark, while each neutron has 1 up quark and
2 down quarks. Therefore, there are
N u = 2 N p + N n = 9.36 10 26 up quarks , and
N d = N p + 2 N n = 8.70 10 26 down quarks
30.28
K 0 Particle
0
total
strangeness
baryon number
13
1 3
charge
e 3
e3
0 Particle
30.29
30.30
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 464
total
strangeness
baryon number
13
13
13
charge
2e 3
e 3
e 3
suu = +
(b)
ud =
(c)
sd = K 0
(d)
ssd =
(a)
2 2 1
uud : charge = e + e + + e = e . This is the antiproton .
3 3 3
(b)
2 1 1
udd : charge = e + + e + + e = 0 . This is the antineutron .
3 3 3
3/26/08 1:56:57 PM
30.31
465
30.32
(a)
(b)
(c)
30.33
3
2
4
2
0
1
0
+1
Q = ( m ) c 2 = m1 H + m 3 He m 4 He 2 me c 2
1
2
2
= 1.007 825 u + 3.016 029 u 4.002 6 03 u 2 ( 0.000 549 u ) ( 931.5 MeV u )
= 18.8 MeV
30.34
For the particle reaction, + + e 2 , the lepton numbers before the event are L = 1 and
Le = +1 . These values must be conserved by the reaction so one of the emerging neutrinos must
have L = 1 while the other has Le = +1. The emerging particles are and e .
30.35
(a)
e +
(b)
n p + e + e
(c)
0 p + 0
(d)
p e+ +0
(e)
0 n + 0
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466
30.36
Chapter 30
Assuming a head-on collision, the total momentum is zero both before and after the reaction
p + p p + + + X . Therefore, since the proton and the pion are at rest after reaction, particle X
must also be left at rest.
Particle X must be a neutral baryon in order to conserve charge and baryon number in the
reaction. The rest energy this particle is
Particle X is a neutron .
30.37
If a neutron starts with kinetic energy KEi = 2.0 MeV and loses one-half of its kinetic energy in
each collision with a moderator atom, its kinetic energy after n collisions will be KE f = KEi 2 n.
The kinetic energy associated with particle in a gas at temperature T = 20.0C = 293 K (see
Chapter 10 of the textbook) is
KE f =
3
3
1 eV
2
2
1.60 10 19
= 0.0379 eV
J
Thus, the number of collisions the neutron must make before it reaches the energy associated
with a room temperature gas is n ln 2 = ln( KEi KE f ) , or
6
1 2.0 10 eV
ln
= 26
n=
ln 2 0.0379 eV
30.38
(a)
1 kg
m
= 3.00 10 26
=
matom ( 2.01 u ) (1.66 10 27 kg u
1 MeV = 7.85 10 J
2
2
(b)
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 466
6
= $1.74 10 = $1 740 000
J
(c)
(d)
Whether it would be cost-effective depends on how much it cost to fuse the deuterium and
how much net energy was produced. If the cost is nine-tenths of the value of the energy
produced, each kilogram of deuterium would still yield a prot of $174 000.
3/26/08 1:57:00 PM
30.39
(a)
467
1
.
0
1
.
0
gal
(
)
1 gal 1 L
cm 3
m V
= 2.1 10 2 mol
n=
=
=
M
M
18 g mol
so the number of hydrogen atoms (2 per water molecule) will be
At a consumption rate of
energy needs is
t =
30.40
1.0 1010 J 1 d
= 12 d
1.0 10 4 J s 86 400 s
or
Einput =
(100 000 10
Erequired
efficiency
P ( t )
efficiency
J s (100 d ) ( 86 400 s d )
= 2.9 1015 J
0.30
Einput
208 Mev
235
235
U nuclei needed is
25
= 8.7 10
J
U atoms will be
8.7 10 25 atoms
N
g 1 kg
m=
M
= 34 kg
=
235
23
mol 10 3 g
6.02 10 atoms mool
NA
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 467
3/26/08 1:57:01 PM
468
30.41
Chapter 30
[1]
Since the total momentum was zero before the decay, conservation of momentum requires the
muon and antineutrino go off in opposite directions with equal magnitude momenta, or p = p .
The relativistic relation between total energy and momentum of a particle [Equation (26.10) in
the textbook] then gives for the antineutrino: E = p c , or p = E c. Applying the same equation to the muon, we obtain
( )
E2 E2 = E + E
)(E
and
E E =
(105.7 MeV)2
E + E
[2]
Substituting Equation [1] into [2] gives E E = (105.7 MeV)2 139.6 MeV, or
E E = 80.0 MeV
[3]
Subtracting Equation [3] from Equation [1] yields 2 E = 59.6 MeV, and
E = 29.8 MeV
30.42
30.43
Each occurrence of this reaction consumes four protons. Thus, the energy released per proton
consumed is E1 = 26.4 Mev 4 protons = 6.68 Mev proton .
Therefore, the rate at which the Sun must be fusing protons to provide the power output that
it has is
rate =
56165_30_ch30_p452-468.indd 468
P
E1
3.85 10 26 J s 1 MeV
38
= 3.60 10 proton s
3/26/08 1:57:01 PM