Section 2. Mechanics Course Notes

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS
SECTION II: Newtonian Mechanics
SECTION II
Newtonian Mechanics
CIE A-Level [AS and A2]
________________________
Course Notes
DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

Syllabus Details______________________

3. Kinematics [AS]___________________________
Content
3.1 Linear motion
3.2 Non-linear motion
Learning outcomes_____________________________________
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
Symbol
Displacement
Velocity
Speed
Acceleration
s
v or u
v or u
a
Definition
Distance moved in particular direction
Velocity = change in displacement / time
Speed = total distance / time
Acceleration = change in velocity / time
SI
unit
m
ms-1
ms-1
ms-2
Vector /
Scalar
Vector
Vector
Scalar
Vector
(b) use graphical methods to represent displacement, speed, velocity and

acceleration

(c) find displacement from the area under a velocity-time graph
(d) use the slope of a displacement-time graph to find the velocity

(e) use the slope of a velocity-time graph to find the acceleration
SEE PHET SIM

(f) derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations that
represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line
v=u+at
s=[(u+v)/2]t
v2=u2+2as
s=ut+1/2at2
s=vt-1/2at2
u
v
a
t
s
Initial velocity
Final velocity
Acceleration
Time
Displacement
DERIVATION
Start with definition of acceleration
a = (v-u) / t
Rearrange to get first equation
v = u + at
Take definition of average velocity
Average velocity = s / t
Average velocity = (v +u)/2
Therefore
s / t = (v +u)/2
Rearrangement gives
s = [(v + u)t]/2
Taking v = u + at and s = [(v + u)t]/2. To eliminate v
s = ut + 1/2at2
Taking v = u + at and s = [(v u)t]/2. To eliminate t
v2=u2+2as
These formula are given on the test paper

(g) solve problems using equations that represent uniformly accelerated motion in a
straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field
without air resistance
If a body falls in a vacuum near the Earths surface it has an acceleration g of freefall
(h) recall that the weight of a body is equal to the product of its mass and the
acceleration of free fall
Mass = related to the amount of matter in an object
Weight = force of gravity exerted on an object (or the force on a supporting scale)
Weight (N) = mass (kg) x g (ms-2)
g=acceleration of free fall

6

(i) describe an experiment to determine the acceleration of free fall using a falling
body

(j) describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field
with air resistance

(k) describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a
uniform acceleration in a perpendicular direction.
Projectile Motion
Gravitational field in vertical direction
vV
vV
vH
vH
vH
vV
parabolic motion
vV
vH
vV
vH
vH has no force acting so is constant
vH
vV
vV has a constant force acting so there is a constant acceleration
Parabolic in absence of air resistance

The vertical and horizontal components are independent
SEE PHET SIM

4. Dynamics [AS]____________________________
Content
4.1 Newtons laws of motion
4.2 Linear momentum and its conservation
(a) state each of Newtons laws of motion
NEWTONS FIRST LAW:
An object continues in uniform motion in a straight line or at rest unless a
resultant force acts.
NEWTONS SECOND LAW:
The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the resultant
force which acts on the object.
NEWTONS THIRD LAW:
when two bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and
opposite to the force B exerts on A.
(b) show an understanding that mass is the property of a body that resists change in
motion
Mass is a property of a body that resists change in motion
10

(c) describe and use the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a
mass
Weight = force of gravity exerted on an object (or the force on a supporting scale)
Weight (N) = mass (kg) x g (N/kg)
g=gravitational field strength
(d) define linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity

Momentum = Mass x velocity
p (kgms-1) = m (kg) x v (ms-1)
(e) define force as rate of change of momentum
Force = change in momentum / time
F= p/ t
11

(f) recall and solve problems using the relationship F = ma, appreciating that
acceleration and force are always in the same direction
REMEMBER: Acceleration is always in the direction of the resultant force

SEE PHET SIM
(g) state the principle of conservation of momentum

Law of conservation of linear momentum:
The total linear momentum of a system of interacting particles remains
constant provided there is no resultant external force.
12

(h) apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems

including elastic and inelastic interactions between two bodies in one dimension
(knowledge of the concept of coefficient of restitution is not required)
EXAMPLE..
(i) recognise that, for a perfectly elastic collision, the relative speed of approach is
equal to the relative speed of separation
13

(j) show an understanding that, while momentum of a system is always conserved in

interactions between bodies, some change in kinetic energy usually takes place.
ELASTIC AND INELASTIC Collisions..
Inelastic Collisions are the normal situation
14

5. Forces [AS]_______________________________
Content
5.1 Types of force
5.2 Equilibrium of forces
5.3 Centre of gravity
5.4 Turning effects of forces
(a) describe the forces on mass and charge in uniform gravitational and electric
fields, as appropriate
Particle
Field
Effect
Uncharged mass
Gravitational
Uncharged mass
Charged mass
Electric field
Gravitational field
Positive charge
Electric field
Negative charge
Electric field
Attracted in direction of
field line
No effect
field line
field line
Repelled in opposite
direction to field line
(b) show an understanding of the origin of the upthrust acting on a body in a fluid
In a fluid...
Particles are constantly colliding with the sides of the container or

immersed object
These collisions produce a force
This force provides the upthrust on the immersed body
15

(c) show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous forces including
air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required)
Frictional forces are forces that act against the direction of motion
Viscous forces result from motion through fluids
Both types of forces are due to the interaction between charges on the
moving object and the material it is close to
SEE PHET SIM
(d) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium
(e) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as

acting at a single point known as its centre of gravity
16

(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces that tends to

produce rotation only
(g) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple
(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no

resultant torque, a system is in equilibrium
(i) apply the principle of moments.

If an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about a pivot are
equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments.
17

6. Work, energy, power [AS]__________________

Content
6.1 Energy conversion and conservation
6.2 Work
6.3 Potential energy, kinetic energy and internal
energy
6.4 Power
(a) give examples of energy in different forms, its conversion and conservation, and
apply the principle of energy conservation to simple examples
Energy Type
Example
Kinetic Energy
Gravitational Potential
Energy
Chemical Energy
Strain Energy
Nuclear Energy
Internal Energy
Electrical Energy
Light Energy
Sound Energy
Moving objects (Car)

Raised objects (Water in a dam)
Energy stored in bonds (coal, oil)
Energy due to flexing of materials (elastic band)
Energy associated with atomic nuclei (Fission
reactors)
Energy of materials kinetic from particles moving
+ potential from bonds
Energy from moving charges (electricity)
Energy from Electromagnetic waves (light, IR)
Energy due to vibrating particles (sound)
Principles of Conservation of Energy:
Overall the total energy of any closed system must be constant
18

Energy is neither created or destroyed, it just changes form

There is no change in the total energy of the Universe
(b) show an understanding of the concept of work in terms of the product of a force
and displacement in the direction of the force
Work = Force x distance moved by force
(c) calculate the work done in a number of situations including the work done by a
gas that is expanding against a constant external pressure: W = p .V
This formula is given on the test paper
19

(d) derive, from the equations of motion, the formula Ek = mv2

Kinetic Energy gained by an object is equal to the work done on that object
Start with
v2 = u2 + 2as
Rearrange to form
as = u2 v2
Multiple both sides by mass
mas = mu2 mv2
F=ma so
Fs = mu2 mv2
(e) recall and apply the formula Ek = mv2

Kinetic energy = energy associated with a moving object
Kinetic Energy (J) = 1/2mv2
m=mass, v=velocity
(f) distinguish between gravitational potential energy, electric potential energy and
elastic potential energy
20

SEE PHET SIM
(g) show an understanding and use the relationship between force and potential
energy in a uniform field to solve problems
(h) derive, from the defining equation W = Fs, the formula Ep = mgh for potential
energy changes near the Earths surface
(i) recall and use the formula Ep = mgh for potential energy changes near the
Earths surface
(j) show an understanding of the concept of internal energy

21

Internal Energy = Total Potential Energy + Total Random Kinetic Energy

Random Kinetic Energy = Translational Kinetic Energy + Rotational Kinetic
Energy
Translational energy is the energy associated with the whole molecule moving in
a certain direction.
Rotational energy is the energy associated with the molecule rotation around a
certain point.
Potential energy is the energy associated with intermolecular forces.
(k) recall and understand that the efficiency of a system is the ratio of useful work
done by the system to the total energy input
Efficiency = Useful work OUT / Total energy transferred
Efficiency = Useful energy OUT / Total energy IN
Efficiency = Useful power OUT / Total power IN
(l) show an appreciation for the implications of energy losses in practical devices and
use the concept of efficiency to solve problems
Efficiency = Kinetic Energy Out / Chemical Energy In
22

(m) define power as work done per unit time and derive power as the product of
force and velocity
Power = Rate at which Energy is transferred
Power (W) = energy transferred / time taken = work done / time taken
1 Watt (W) = 1 Js-1
Power = W/t
W = Fs
Power = Fs/t
Power = Fv
(n) solve problems using the relationships P = W/t and P = Fv.
SEE PAST PAPER QUESTION BOOKS
23

7. Motion in a circle
[A2]_____________________
Content
7.1 Kinematics of uniform circular motion
7.2 Centripetal acceleration
7.3 Centripetal force
(a) express angular displacement in radians
(b) understand and use the concept of angular velocity to solve problems
(c) recall and use v = r to solve problems
24

(d) describe qualitatively motion in a curved path due to a perpendicular force, and
understand the centripetal acceleration in the case of uniform motion in a circle
Force applied perpendicular to the velocity direction

Acceleration in direction of force
25

SEE PHET SIM
(e) recall and use centripetal acceleration a = r 2, a = v2/r

Centripetal acceleration: The acceleration of an object travelling in circular motion.
Centripetal acceleration = acentripetal = v2/r
r = radius
acentripetal = r 2
(f) recall and use centripetal force F = mr 2, F = mv2/2
Centripetal force = ma
= mv2/r
= m r 2
26

8. Gravitational field [A2]_____________________

Content
8.1 Gravitational field
8.2 Force between point masses
8.3 Field of a point mass
8.4 Field near to the surface of the Earth
8.5 Gravitational potential
(a) show an understanding of the concept of a gravitational field as an example of
field of force and define gravitational field strength as force per unit mass
g = gravitation field strength

m = test mass
units = N kg-1 = ms-2
(b) recall and use Newtons law of gravitation in the form F = Gm1m2/r2
Newtons law of universal gravitation: Every mass in the universe attracts all
the other masses in the universe.
27

(c) derive, from Newtons law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field
strength, the equation g= GMr 2 for the gravitational field strength of a point mass
(d) recall and solve problems using the equation g= GM/r2 for the gravitational field
strength of a point mass
(e) show an appreciation that on the surface of the Earth g is approximately

constant and is called the acceleration of free fall
As changes in r at the surface of the Earth are small in comparison to the distance
to the center of the Earth (and so the center of gravity) g can be considered
constant.
g = 9.81 N/kg = 9.81 ms-1 = acceleration of free fall
(f) define potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to
the point
(g) solve problems using the equation = GM/ r for the potential in the field of a
point mass
Gravitational potential energy: work done in moving a mass from infinity to a
point
Zero of potential energy is at infinity

Potential energy taken as a negative value
The work done in moving a mass between two points in a gravitational
field is independent of the path taken
Gravitational potential: Energy per unit test mass.

Gravitational potential: Energy per unit test mass.
28

potential energy decreases as

gravitational force does work
zero potential energy

at infinity
F1
F2
m
m
Force on m increases
Gravitational potential energy of mass m=
GMm
r
This formula is given on the test paper
29

(h) recognise the analogy between certain qualitative and quantitative aspects of
gravitational field and electric field
zero potential
at infinity
potential increase
F2
+Q
F1
q
Force on q increases
Electric Potential Energy of charge q =
Qq
r
Electric potential energy: work done in moving a charge from infinity to a point
Zero of potential energy is at infinity

Potential energy taken as a negative value
The work done in moving a charge between two points in an electril field
is independent of the path taken
Electric potential: Energy per unit test charge.
30

(i) analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational
force to the centripetal acceleration it causes
Gravitational attraction = centripetal force

GMm
mv2
=
r
r2
GM = v2 r
v = GM
r
v = 2r
T
( )
GM = 2r
T
3
r = r
T2
r3
T2
= Constant
(j) show an understanding of geostationary orbits and their application.
Earths rotates once every 24hrs.

By using r3 / T2 the radius of orbit needed for geostationary orbit can be calculated
31

Background Reading_________________
PHYSICS, Giancoli 6th edition, Chapter 2-8
Useful Websites______________________
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/new
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/physics.html
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/index.cfm
http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/java/ntnujava/index.html
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl
Constants___________________________
[These are given on each test paper]
32

Section 2. Mechanics Course Notes

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Section 2. Mechanics Course Notes

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A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

SECTION II: Newtonian Mechanics

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

(b) use graphical methods to represent displacement, speed, velocity and

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

(c) find displacement from the area under a velocity-time graph

(d) use the slope of a displacement-time graph to find the velocity

SEE PHET SIM

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

g=acceleration of free fall

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

vV has a constant force acting so there is a constant acceleration

Parabolic in absence of air resistance

SEE PHET SIM

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

g=gravitational field strength

(d) define linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

REMEMBER: Acceleration is always in the direction of the resultant force

(g) state the principle of conservation of momentum

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

(h) apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

(j) show an understanding that, while momentum of a system is always conserved in

Inelastic Collisions are the normal situation

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

Particles are constantly colliding with the sides of the container or

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

SEE PHET SIM

(d) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

(e) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces that tends to

(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no

(i) apply the principle of moments.

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

6. Work, energy, power [AS]__________________

Moving objects (Car)

Principles of Conservation of Energy:

Overall the total energy of any closed system must be constant

DIPONT Educational Resource - Science

A-Level Course Notes: PHYSICS

Energy is neither created or destroyed, it just changes form

This formula is given on the test paper