Suggested Citation: Haznedar, B. & Uysal, H. H. (2010).

Introduction:
Embracing theory and practice in teaching languages to young learners. In B.
Haznedar & H. H. Uysal (Eds.). Handbook for teaching foreign languages to young
learners in primary schools (pp. 1-20). Ankara: An Publications.

Introduction: Embracing Theory and Practice in

Teaching Languages to Young Learners

Belma HAZNEDAR
Hacer Hande UYSAL

Changing perspectives in teaching foreign languages to young

learners
In recent years, with the influence of globalization and the increasing
importance of English as an international language in world
communication, many European (Germany, Italy, UK, Greece, Spain) and
Asian countries (e.g. Korea, Japan, Thailand) have taken steps to introduce
the teaching of English to children at an earlier age (for a detailed
discussion of the issue see Nikolova, 2008; Nikilov & Curtain, 2000; Paul,
2003; Nunan, 2003; and also Krkgzs chapter in this volume). For instance,
European Union countries introduced English to their primary curriculum
and the age of beginning instruction became 6 in 2002. Similarly, foreign
language policy has undergone changes in Turkey as well. Under the new
law that took effect in 1997, and in a way renewed in 2005, it became

obligatory for primary school students to start studying a foreign language1

as part of the core primary curriculum from Grade 4.
This new reform in Turkey necessitated a new foreign language
education curriculum at primary level based on the constructivist and the
communicative perspectives. Accordingly, a new course in pre-service ELT
programs at universities teaching English to young learners was
introduced and a series of in-service education seminars were organized by
the Ministry of National Education to familiarize the English language
teachers with the new curriculum goals and the constructivist and
communicative teaching philosophies, and to equip them with special skills
to be able to teach young learners (Krkgz, 2007; Mirici, 2006).
Nevertheless, these teacher preparation efforts fell short of the desired
goals in curriculum planning and policy, regarding teaching English to
young learners due to the rapidity of the changes without establishing the
necessary infrastructure. Several studies have reported that English
language teachers (henceforth ELT) are still unaware of the special needs of
young learners, thus teaching through traditional teaching methods
involving teacher-centered instruction, explicit grammar instruction, and
translation of forms into first language even in primary schools (Hinkel &
Fotos, 2002; Krkgz, 2008a,b). This situation indicates that the long lasting
problems with regard to foreign language teaching in Turkey are still going
on, and the knowledge base of teachers with regard to teaching young
learners is seriously deficient.
Given this situation, the main objective of this volume is to contribute to
EFL teachers' both pre-service and in-service professional development by
providing them with the necessary theoretical knowledge base as well as
practical suggestions and classroom activities concerning young learners.
This volume especially emphasizes and illustrates theoretical aspects of
foreign/second language (L2) learning in children as prerequisite for
practical applications because we believe that being aware of the studies
investigating variables affecting the nature of young learners classrooms
has a strong merit in informing our pedagogical decisions.
Not to mention that many learners begin learning English even before this
age, in particular in private schools in Turkey.
1

For that reason, we aim to expand the picture which research on young
learners has built up since the mid 1990s and to bring together researchers
and teachers working with young language learners for an exchange of the
most recent views in this crucial area in Turkey. This is a very important
feature of this volume because while the issues of age effects, language
transfer, theme/task-based methodology, story use, computer technology
etc. have long been the topic of intense research over the past ten years in
the field of foreign language education, to the best of our knowledge, no
special volume, which integrates theory and practice in an accessible way,
exists on teaching foreign languages to young learners in Turkey. The
majority of the available books and references primarily focus on various
types of activities and tasks that can be used in young learners classrooms
(e.g. Phillips, 1993; Lewis & Bedson, 1994; Ersz, 2007; Karagz-nce, 2007).
However, as the activities in these books are not grounded in a sound
theoretical base, it is not clear whether such individual activities would
work in real classroom settings or not. To this end, this volume differs from
other works in its emphasis on connecting theory with practice, filling a
gap between theoretical books and resource books.
In this regard, this handbook is an attempt to provide a comprehensive
overview of some crucial issues surrounding the teaching of young
learners. As can be seen in each chapter, it covers a wide spectrum of
theoretical issues in young learner classrooms and paves way for
discussion on the implications of these issues for classroom practice. The
volume emphasizes on primary level language policies, curriculum and
syllabus types, and special classroom techniques and appropriate
methodology. It also provides practical advice and guidance for teachers
through sample lesson plans and activities on integrated language skills,
vocabulary and grammar teaching, materials development, use of
technology and stories, as well as ways of assessment and evaluation for
young learners.
In what follows, we first briefly discuss some crucial issues in regard to
young learner classrooms and then summarize each chapter of the volume
with a focus on their special contribution to this volume.
Who are young learners?

On standard assumptions, young learners, also known as child second

language (L2) learners, refer to children whose first exposure to another
language occurs after their first language has been established for at least 35 years (McLaughlin, 1978; Schwartz, 2003a,b; Meisel, 2008). While the
lower-bound differentiating child L2 from first language (L1) is considered
to be around age 3 (McLaughlin, 1978), as pointed out correctly by
Lakshmanan (1995), not all aspects of the first language are acquired
around age 3. Despite lack of agreement among researchers and
practitioners, the upper-bound differentiating child L2 learners from adult
L2 learners, on the other hand, is considered to be 7-10 years old, which is
in fact an issue relating to the critical period debate discussed in the
following section (e.g. Johnson & Newport, 1989; Meisel, 2008; Schwartz,
2003; also see DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005 for a recent overview of the
critical period hypothesis). As in known, in EFL contexts young learners
are generally referred to children aged six to twelve. Given the scope and
the objectives of the this handbook, our major focus in this study concerns
children aged 6-12.
Age of acquisition
If there is anything about second language acquisition that has attracted
so much attention and has led to much controversy all over the world, it is
probably the debate about the age of acquisition, perhaps mainly because
many child L2 learners generally perform better than adult language
learners (e.g. Oyama, 1976, 1978; Patkowski, 1980; Krashen, Scarcella, &
Long, 1982; Felix, 1985, 1991; Singleton, 1989; Long, & Larsen-Freeman,
1991; Johnson & Newport, 1989; Bley-Vroman, 1990; Johnson, 1992; Slavoff,
G.R. & Johnson, 1995). According to many research findings, the younger
the child is when L2 acquisition starts, the better proficiency the child
arrives at. In his long review on L2 development, Long (1990) reports a
number of studies showing that starting after age 6 appears to make it
impossible for many learners to achieve native-like proficiency in
phonology, and starting later than the early teens seems to create similar
problems in morphology and syntax. Long notes that studies showing an
initial rate advantage for adults over children and for older children over
young children should be interpreted as only a short-term rate advantage.
What he suggests is that both initial rate of acquisition and ultimate
attainment depend on the age at which learning begins. It is suggested that
4

there are sensitive periods governing language development during which

the acquisition of specific language abilities is more successful and after
which language acquisition is somewhat incomplete. Long emphasizes that
the age-related loss of language learning ability is cumulative rather than a
one-shot event affecting several linguistic domains successively and this
loss is not limited to phonology. Loss of language learning ability is
claimed to begin as early as 6. Overall, Long argues that even though there
is no single critical age, the ability to learn a second language weakens by
time and the possibility of reaching the native-like ultimate attainment
descreases. It should be noted, however, that recent classroom-based
research presents evidence for better performance of older learners, as well
(e.g. Cenoz, 2003; Muoz, 2006). Indeed, older learners have been reported
to make faster initial progress in the acquisition of grammatical and lexical
components of an L2, due to their higher levels of cognitive maturity and
analytical skills (e.g. Harley & Wang, 1997).
As can be seen, reaching a consensus among researchers and providing
an explanation for the phenomenon appear to be far from conclusive. In
the last ten years, some researchers have shown renewed interest in age
effects (e.g. Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2001), others have been mainly
critical in the way they have approached L2 learning in childhood (e.g.
Singleton, 2001).
The reason why age of acquisition has received so much attention in the
literature is mainly due to its practical and theoretical potentials. For the
proponents of the the younger the better approach, early introduction of
another language requires special treatment for maximum pedagogical
benefits (Marinova-Todd et al., 2000; Scovel, 1988). From a theoretical
perspective it has far-reaching interpretations in cognitive and neurological
aspects of language acquisition (e.g. Newport, 1991; Pulvermller &
Schumann, 1994).
Overall, one can argue that normally developing children can learn
another language at an early age, given sufficient exposure and interaction.
Our focus in this handbook is restricted to young children who start
learning a foreign/second language in the early years of schooling (mainly
4th and 5th graders), because this is the age range most teachers in Turkey
need support in their teaching practice, due to the relatively recent
5

introduction of foreign languages in Turkish primary schools. Obviously, it

is important to keep in mind at this point that exposure to the
second/foreign language in Turkey is mostly limited to class settings.
Primary foreign language teaching in Turkey
Under the new legislation of the Turkish educational system,
compulsory education lasts for 8 years, until the age of 15 years. It is
provided by state schools and private schools and is divided into three
cycles: The first cycle of primary education caters for children between the
ages of 7 and 11, and the second cycle of primary education comprises
grades 6, 7, and 8, children between 12, 13, and 14. High school education
starts after the 8th year of schooling, consisting of four years of education,
either in general education that provides access to higher education, or in
vocational education which is mainly characterized by a dual system in
which education is provided by the workplace and the school. Since 1997,
primary schools have been charged with introducing children in Grade 4 to
a foreign language. English is by far the most common and most
intensively taught foreign language in Turkey, followed by French and
German in some private schools (Ekmeki, 2003; Gen, 2004).2 For
languages taught as compulsory subject, the number of periods per year
and week is prescribed in the national curriculum. The time allocated to
each language depends on students grade and the type of the school,
ranging from 2 hours to 8 hours per week. On average students aged 11-15
receive 2-4 hours of instruction in English per week. For students aged 1517, the average amount of time allocated to English is 3 hours per week.
Methodology in young learners classrooms
A number of resource books on teaching English to young learners
emphasize the following principles, all of which derive from recent
theorizing in the field with a focus on classroom practice (e.g. Cameron,
2001; Halliwell, 1992; House, 1997; Moon, 2000; Phillips, 1993; Pinter, 2006;
Rixon, 1999; Scott & Ytreberg, 1990; and Slattery & Willis, 2001).

Listening and speaking should be taught first.

One should note that the majority of the private schools that offer French and
German usually begin in the upper secondary schools.
2

The primary focus should be on meaning rather than form.

Activities should be fun and enjoyable.

Activities should involve "doing" or performing tasks.

Activities should create a need or a desire to communicate.

Young learners should feel relaxed in the classroom.

Language use should be illustrated by use of objects, pictures,

actions or gesture.

Suitable activities include use of rhymes, songs, stories, poems,

drama, project/theme-based approaches and TPR activities.

The use of 'chunks' of language should be promoted.

Lessons should be conducted in the L2 as much as possible.

There should be a variety of activities.

Classroom routines should be established.

Activities should use children's sense of imagination.

Tasks should be simple enough for children to understand what

they are expected to do.

Activities should be demanding, but not too demanding, and must

be achievable.

While we do not question the importance of these principles in teaching

to young learners in class settings, we would like to take a step further and
argue that these principles should be supported with research findings in
the field and that teachers should see the relevance of their classroom
practice. In most cases, teachers are provided copies of photocopiable
materials which are not necessarily linked to young learners
developmental stages or catering individual differences among students. It
is, therefore, not clear to what extent young learners can benefit from such
teaching materials, an important issue which is addressed in various
portions of this volume.
Integrated language skills
In order to be able to present and discuss in detail the theoretical
background behind the teaching of language skills, the skills were
7

presented in a distinct and separate manner in this volume. However, we

would like to caution readers not to interpret this organization in style
which introduced skills separately as an indicator that we support a
segregated-skill approach. In contrast, we strongly concur with the recent
approaches supporting integrated-skill approaches in language classes, and
especially with young learners. Although learning a language and using it
at the same time may be difficult (Hyland, 2003) resulting in challenges in
implementation of an integrated skill approach with low proficiency
elementary school learners, every effort should be made to integrate all
language skills into our teaching. Instead of waiting for students to learn
the language rules, listen, read and then start to speak and write in the
target language, we should work all skills together. Studies have revealed
that language acquisition and production can occur simultaneously along
with some sort of attention taking to form (Swain, 2000). Research also
suggests that functional listening and reading as well as speaking and
writing should be esential in designing classroom activities because all
these skills interact with and support one another (Freeman & Freeman,
1998, p. 182). Therefore, if we first focus on some skills, but delay others,
that means we are limiting choices and ways to support our students
learning (Freeman & Freeman, 1998, p. 183). For that reason, we should
integrate all skills in classroom tasks as much as possible such as
encouraging our students to take notes after listening, to write after
speaking and discussing, and then to speak again on what was written and
listen to each other at the same time.

1. Features of this volume

It is important to highlight at this point that while almost all of the
chapters of this volume deal with English language teaching, we argue that
the views and perspectives articulated in the contributions of the present
handbook for English can be applied to other languages, as changing
perspectives in language learning and teaching occur no matter which
language is under discussion. With special emphasis on English, Krkgzs
chapter examines macro level and micro level language policies adopted in
the Turkish educational system. Noone can deny that similar views on
decision making processes at macro level are applicable to teaching
8

languages other than English. Similarly, Akcans chapter examines how

young learners classrooms can be enriched based on modern language
teaching methodologies. Besides, Bayyurts chapter investigates the crucial
property of task/theme-based teaching, many different activities being
linked together by their content, which we believe, is important for
teaching foreign languages in general, not just teaching English to young
children. On similar grounds, in contrast to common concerns on grammar
teaching in the young learner classroom, recent studies suggest that focuson-form instruction has a positive effect on the second language proficiency
of young learners (Mitchell, 2000; Norris & Ortega, 2000; Williams, 2005;
Ellis, 2006). For Widdowson (1990), for example, when learners are left to
their own resources, they do not very readily infer knowledge of the
language system from their communicative activities (p. 161). Therefore,
some form of focus on linguistic features are considered to be useful in
order to destabilize learners interlanguage (Ellis, 2006). Regarding this
hotly debated issue in foreign language teaching, Uysal in this volume
provides a substantive overview of recent trends which have implications
for both the implementation of focus-on-form instruction at primary school
level, and the manipulation and supplicance of feedback for errors
produced by young learners at this level. As is known, evaluation is an
essential component of any type of curriculum model and language
teaching methodology (Clark, 1987; Richards, 1984; Nunan, 1985; White,
1988). It is only through monitoring and systematic evaluation that we can
compare and take nesessary actions in terms of failure and deficits
observed in the system. In line with recent developments in the field
Saroban and Kntas chapter focusses on this highly neglected area in
the young learner classroom and presents recent perspectives on assesment
and evaluation.
With its emphasis on both theory and practice, this book is highly likely
to have a strong impact on future work with young learners. Overall, a
volume such as this is intended to help teachers and student teachers have
access to theoretical and practical perspectives, offering opportunities for
critical engagement with recent ideas and findings.
In addition, in grouping together in a single volume the most recent
developments, this book provides a unique opportunity for readers to
9

review the changing perspectives and tendencies in foreign language

teaching.
Who is this book for?
This book is primarily addressed to undergraduate students of foreign
language education departments in education faculties. It can be used at
the senior undergraduate level as a reference book for a seminar on topics
such as second/foreign language learning in childhood, language policy
and curriculum development, methodology for young learners, with
special reference to story-based and task/theme-based teaching,
intercultural communication and assessment and evaluation for young
learners. It could also be used as a supplemental reference for a more
general overview for graduate students who do not have much
background in language learning and teaching.
In addition, this volume could be useful for practising primary level
language teachers as a source for professional development in a field which
has made considerable advances in recent years. Finally, the book would be
informative to policy makers and curriculum developers interested in upto-date research developments in foreign language education both in
theoretical and practical terms.
Some chapters of the volume are intended to suggest ways that teaching
practices in young learners classrooms are efficiently designed, others focus
on how skill development proceeds in children in another grammatical
system, and some others highlight theoretical perspectives of
foreign/second language learning with a focus on how educators and
teachers could put theory into practice. In what follows, we briefly
summarize each chapter with a focus on the specifics of their contribution
to this volume.

2. The chapters of this volume

As has been emphasized, the contributions in this volume start with
theoretical background information followed by practical suggestions or
classroom implications and sample activities and examples related to
young learners, in particular with respect to recent perspectives in

10

language teaching. To this end, the volume is organized in terms of four

major themes:
(i) Language policy, language acquisition/learning, methodology
and syllabus are the primary concerns investigated in Krkgz,
Haznedar, Akcan, and Bayyurt;
(ii) Language skills are addressed in Yksel, Grbz, Gl-Peker,
and Yangn-Ersanl;
(iii) Contemporary approaches in teaching to young learners are
investigated in akr, Uysal, Haznedar, Akpnar, and Eretin;
(iv) Assessment and evaluation are addressed in Eki and Saroban
and Knta.
Language policy, language acquisition/learning, methodology, and
syllabus
In her contribution, Krkgz reports recent advances in foreign
language policy in Turkey, with special emphasis on the new curriculum
introduced for teaching English to young learners. Parallel to recent trends
in many countries that have lowered the age of exposure to English in
primary schools, following the Act of 3406 which was implemented in 1997,
Turkey has also introduced changes in the national curriculum as part of its
foreign language education policy in order to adapt its curriculum to the
European Union standards and to respond to the changing nature of the
globalized world at macro level. The early introduction of English has also
necessitated the need to revise the foreign language curriculum, and to
introduce innovative teaching methods. In this chapter, Krkgz discusses
two major curriculum innovations in Turkey, the first one in 1997, and the
second one in 2005, regarding English language teaching (ELT) in primary
education. She argues that the speed of the nationwide implementation of
the curriculum innovation presented various problems and challenges in
particular regarding teacher education, time frame and in-service teacher
training programs designed and implemented by the ministry of education.
Haznedars contribution focuses on moving from theory to practice in
language teaching in early childhood. Haznedar suggests that theoretical
work in child second language (L2) acquisition studies over the last several
decades can contribute significantly to a better understanding of language
teaching to young learners. Haznedar addresses three major phenomena in
11

child L2 acquisition, with special reference to (i) the role of the first
language in child L2 acquisition, (ii) gradual development in child L2
grammars, (iii) error types produced by young L2 learners, which all have
the potential to present crucial implications for classroom teaching.
In regard to methodology for young learners classrooms, Akcan reviews
language teaching methodologies with a focus on learning experiences that
surround young learners with meaningful and interactive literacy-based
activities in order to support second language development. She first
discusses some methodologies which focus on form and oral language, and
then proceeds with more communicative approaches which can help
young learners attend to language and content matter knowledge.
Compatible with recent theorizing on young learners, Akcan argues that
young children learn language as a medium of communication by using it
through purposeful, real, and here and now experiences.
Bayyurts work focuses primarily on task-based syllabus. Bayyurt first
presents information about different syllabus types and argues that a taskbased syllabus designed around familiar topics would be the most efficient
one for young learners. She supports her argument with a thorough
discussion of the theoretical basis of task-based language learning and
teaching. Then, after explaining in detail what a task involves and giving
information about different task types, Bayyurt suggests ways to develop a
task-based syllabus.
Language skills
Yksel discusses listening and the teaching of listening with regard to
young learners and argues that listening is a foundation skill for other
language skills. The chapter progresses around three main topics which are
the listening process, listening skills, and listening in the classroom. Yksel
first describes the listening process and then explains the purpose and
types of listening (one-way and two-way listening). In the second half of
her chapter, Yksel expands on the relation between listening and
pronunciation followed by practical suggestions regarding where to start
and how to design listening activities. The chapter ends with a variety of
classroom techniques and activities which can be used with young learners.
Grbz focusses on developing oral skills in the young learner
classroom. Grbz starts her chapter with a review of the theoretical issues
12

regarding the teaching of spoken language in the young learner classroom.

The first section of the chapter is mainly about how children acquire oral
communication skills in their first language and to what extent the first
language acquisition principles can be applied to an EFL classroom
atmosphere. Later, the challenges of teaching oral communication skills to
young learners in EFL contexts where opportunities for practice are
confined to classroom settings are noted. Grbz, then, discusses teaching
oral communication skills to young learners especially with reference to
teaching pronunciation, intelligibility and appropriateness. She also focuses
on motivation and error correction and presents a set of guiding principles
and a variety of sample activities to improve young learners speaking
skills.
Gl-Peker integrates the use of drama into pre- and post-reading tasks
for young learners. Peker argues that the use of dramatic activity is a
constructivist and communicative teaching tool to provide experiences that
allow students to construct their own understanding in communication
and interaction with the teacher and their peers. She discusses how drama,
being such an effective tool, enables active learning in meeting the aims of
the pre-reading and post-reading stages in a lesson. Then, Peker presents
examples of drama activities for classroom use.
Yangn-Ersanl discusses main tenets of developing writing skills in
another language. She first argues that writing in the target language
should be fostered as early as possible from the beginning of the instruction
as it contributes to students cognitive development and school
achievement. She suggests that a blend of process and genre approaches
should be utilized in classes with a primary focus on communicating the
ideas. Yangn-Ersanl introduces ways to guide learners through the
planning, organising, drafting, revising, and editing stages of writing. She
also discusses how to help learners to fulfil particular layout and schematic
structure of the discourse depending on the context of the communication.
Yangn-Ersanl, finally, provides sample tasks for writing to promote
fluency in writing and to help students see writing as one means of selfexpression.
Contemporary approaches

13

akr introduces an overview of teaching vocabulary in general and

then focuses on formulaic lexicon in particular. He summarizes the basic
concepts and models that are concerned with formulaic rather than creative
aspects of language. He investigates principles of the lexical approach with
special reference to formulaic vocabulary teaching, and then he addresses
what functions formulaic lexicon has in terms of fluency, effective
communication, and childrens acquisition of L1 and L2 lexicon. The
chapter also lists tips for teaching formulaic lexicon to young L2 learners,
and provides sample activities to teach L2 formulaic lexicon to young
learners through methods like Total Physical Response, spaced repetition,
lexical notebook, real recordings of young L1 users as models for young L2
learners, and constant integration of grammar and formulaic lexicon in L2
teaching.
Uysal emphasizes the importance of grammar instruction and error
correction with young learners. She advocates for a balanced approach
integrating both form and meaning in classes. She first discusses the pros
and cons of the three main approaches to grammar teaching focus-onformS, focus-on-meaning, and focus-on-form. Then, in light of the
empirical support for a focus-on-form approach with young learners, she
provides practical suggestions to move from focus-on-formS-- a
dominant approach in most EFL classrooms, to a more focus-on-form
approach blending form and meaning with one another. She also
introduces sample activities to implement focus-on-form grammar
instruction and appropriate ways of error correction during oral
communicative interaction, writing, reading, and listening activities.
Haznedar highlights the importance of a story-based methodology in
young learners classrooms, an issue which has not received much
attention neither in classroom practice nor in textbooks designed for young
learners in Turkish schools. She discusses how stories in language
classrooms provide a meaningful and motivating context for young L2
learners, implications on vocabulary development and reading as well as
understanding and speaking the other language. Haznedar first discusses
weaknesses involved in general practices of reading stories in EFL settings.
She then exemplifies how stories can be used with young L2 learners, in
particular with respect to language-related and curriculum-related
opportunities stories offer in the class.
14

Akpnar focuses on developing intercultural competence of young

learners building on communicative competence. Akpnar argues that
contrary to the popular belief, children are ready and capable of
developing intercultural competence. She, then, defines intercultural
competence in a young learners context and explains benefits of
developing intercultural competence in young learners. Finally, Akpnar
presents suggestions for the content of the cultural component, techniques,
and some sample activities for teaching culture as well as discussions of the
teachers role as a catalyst in this process.
Eretin argues that multimedia resources and tools should be integrated
in young learner classrooms. Following a short discussion of theoretical
issues in multimedia and hypermedia environments, Eretin provides
information regarding how multimedia and hypermedia facilitate language
learning by enhancing interaction, collaboration, authenticity, autonomy,
and multimodal learning. Eretin also presents suggestions for how to
select software for young learners, and how to use hypermedia authoring
tools, and she gives useful Internet links and resources.
Evaluation
Eki argues that language teachers are in a sense materials developers
as they need to select, evaluate, adapt and produce materials to ensure a
match between the given students and the materials they use. Therefore,
Eki first provides information about principled and systematic ways that
would help teachers learn about materials and language learning. Then,
after reviewing the approaches and criteria to be employed in the selection
and evaluation of instructional materials in ELT, Eki discusses the role and
function of coursebooks and their possible advantages and shortcomings.
Eki also describes procedures while adding, deleting, simplifying,
reordering and replacing the material and provides a helpful materials
evaluation checklist for the teachers. She also reviews the parts of a
coursebook as an example for this process and focuses on producing
materials of all kinds (visual, computer-based, auditory, etc.) in a more
learner-centered way.
Saroban and Knta approach assessment as a natural part of the
learning and teaching process. They explain the reasons why we need to
assess learners, how the assessment process works, and what should be
15

assessed and how in a suitable way for young learners. They suggest that
teachers are responsible for their learners progression; thus, they need to
gather evidence to turn the abstract learn a language aspect into a
concrete feedback. They argue that because young learners are different
than the other learners, teachers need to adopt methodologies appropriate
for young learners rather than traditional methods in order to meet their
special needs. They offer some child-friendly and motivating alternative
assessment techniques targeting not just the product of learning, but also
the process in which learners progress can be documented. Finally, they
introduce ways to design assessment instruments such as projects, portfolio
assessment, self-assessment, conventional tests, observation, take-homes
according to different assessment purposes.
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