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Chemistry
The central science
Chemistry is the study of
matter including their
chemical and physical properties
chemical and physical changes it
undergoes
energy changes that accompany
those processes

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Rowel P. Catchillar, MS Phar

Chemistry: the central science

Major Divisions

energy

Laws
Principles

General
Chemistry

Inorganic
Chemistry

Physical
Chemistry

Organic
Chemistry

changes

Study of matter
composition

properties

Matter

Major Divisions

Anything that occupies space

and has mass
Analytical
Chemistry

Biochemistry

Nuclear
Chemistry

Geological
Chemistry

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Mass & Weight

Mass vs Weight

Mass

refers to the amount of matter

present in the material
is a measure of how
much matter something contains

Weight

the measure of the earths

gravitational attraction of an object;
mass x gravitational attraction
is a measure of how strongly gravity
pulls downwards

Units of Measurement

States of Matter

Metric System or SI is a decimal system

of units for measurements of mass,
length, time and other physical
quantities
Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Amount of substance
Electric current
Luminous intensity

Name of Unit
Meter
Kilogram
Seconds
Kelvin
Mole
Ampere
Candela

Interconversion of Matter

STATE SHAPE

VOLUME

Solid
Definite Definite
Liquid Indefinite Definite
Gas
Indefinite Indefinite

COMPRESSION
Very slight
Slight
High

Symbol
m
kg
sec
K
mol
A
cd

IFA
Strongest
Strong
Weakest

MOLECULAR
MOTION
Vibration
Gliding
Constant
random
motion

Classification of Matter
Element
Simplest form of matter,1 kind of
material or atom

Compound
Substance composed of two or
more elements united chemically
in definite proportion

Mixture
Composed of 2 or more substances
that are not chemically combined

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Classification of Mixture

Classification of Mixture

Based on Nature of Particles

Based on Particle Size

HETEROGENEOUS
Consists of physically
distinct parts, each with
different properties

HOMOGENEOUS
Consists of uniform
properties throughout
given samples; two or
more substance but
single phase

Eg: Sand and water mixture NaCl dissolved in water

Solution uniform mixture,

composed of solute and solvent
Suspension aka Coarse mixture,
finely divided solid materials
distributed in a liquid
Colloid particles of solute are not
broken down to the size of the
molecules but are small enough to
remain suspended and evenly
dispersed throughout the medium

Separation of Mixture

Separation of Mixture

Decantation

Evaporation

Difference in specific gravity

Distillation
Distillation followed by
condensation

escape of molecules from the

liquid state to gaseous/vapor
state

Magnetic separation
metals

Separation of Mixture

Separation of Mixture

Filtration

Fractional crystallization

use of filter paper

Sorting
mechanical separation

Centrifugation
to increase settling of a
precipitate

lowering the temperature so that

the more insoluble component
crystallizes first
Based on the difference in
solubility

Chromatography
difference in solvent affinity

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Properties of Matter

Properties of Matter

Extrinsic or extensive
properties

Intrinsic or Intensive properties

qualities that are not

characteristic of the substance
itself; those that depend on the
amount or quantity of materials
present
Eg: weight, volume, pressure,
heat content

qualities that are characteristic of

any sample of a substance
regardless of the shape or size of
the sample; those that depend on
the quality or kind of material that:
Cannot be measured (taste, color and
odor)
Measurable (melting point, boiling
point, density, specific gravity)

Changes in matter

Evidences of chemical change

Physical change

Evolution of gas
Formation of a precipitate
Emission of light
Generation of electricity
Production of mechanical
energy
Absorption/liberation of heat

Change in phase, no new substance is

formed

Chemical change

Change in both intrinsic and extrinsic

properties; new substance is formed

Nuclear Change

Change in the structure, properties,

composition of the nucleus of an atom
resulting in the transmutation of the
element into another element.

Nuclear fission - splitting of a heavy atom

Nuclear fusion- union of 2 light atoms to form
a bigger molecule

Processes involved in chemical change

Processes involved in chemical change

Oxidation

Neutralization

LEORA
Oxidation (+) Oxygen
Dehydogenation (-) Hydrogen

Reduction
GEROA
Hydrogenation (+) Hydrogen
Reduction (-) Oxygen

Salt formation

Hydrolysis
Breakdown of molecule in the
presence of water

Saponification
Soap formation

Fermentation
Alcohol + CO2

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Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Law of mass action

Law of Mass Action

the rate of the reaction is proportional

to the product of the concentrate of
the reactants to the power of its
coefficient in a balanced equation

aA + bB cC + dD

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Law of Mass Action

Law of Mass Action

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Result Analysis

Law of Conservation of Energy

energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, but it can be
transformed from one form to
another

K >> 1, products favored

K << 1, reactants favored

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Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Law of conservation of mass

Law of Constant Composition

no change is observed in the

total mass of the substances
involved in a chemical reaction

Laws Governing Matter & Energy

Law of Definite Proportion

Prousts Law
States that: in a pure
compound, the elements are
always present in the same
proportion by mass
Example: H2O

ATOMS, MOLECULES & IONS

Law of Multiple Proportion

atoms of two or more elements
may combine in different ratios to
produce more than one
compound

ATOMS
MOLECULES
IONS

ATOMS, MOLECULES & IONS

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

ATOMS

Democritus

smallest particle of an element

MOLECULE
smallest unit of a compound

ION
positively or negatively charged atom
Positive ion: cation
Negative ion: anion

Matter is made up of
indivisible particles
he pounded up
materials in his
pestle and mortar
until he had reduced
them to smaller and
smaller particles
which he called
ATOMOS
(indivisible)

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Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

John Dalton

Dalton proposed a modern atomic

model based on experimentation not
on pure reason
All matter is made of atoms.
Atoms of an element are identical.
Each element has different atoms.
Atoms of different elements combine in
constant ratios to form compounds.
Atoms are rearranged in reactions.

His ideas account for the law of conservation

of mass and the law of constant composition.

Model: Billiard Ball Model

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

J.J. Thomson
Raisin Bread / Plum
Pudding Model
(Negative electrons in
a positive framework)
found that atoms could
sometimes eject a far
smaller negative
particle which he called
an electron

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

Ernest Rutherford

Gold Film
Experiment

Gold film experiment (99%

passed; <1% deflected)
Proposal:
Atom is mostly an empty
space (99% passed)
Most of its and (+) particles
are concentrated in the
nucleus (<1% deflected)

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

Most particles
passed through. So,
atoms are mostly
empty.
Some positive particles deflected or
bounced back!
Thus, a nucleus is
positive & holds most
of an atoms mass

Planetary Model

Neil Bohr
Refined Rutherfords idea by
adding that the electrons were in
orbits (like planets orbiting the
sun)
Model: Planetary Model

electrons in orbits

nucleus

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Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

Discovery of Atoms & Atomic Models

James Chadwick

Erwin
Schrodinger

Neutron
discovery

Quantum
Mechanical
Model

Atomic Structure

Nuclide Writing

Composition

A nuclide is an atom
characterized by a definite
atomic number and mass
number

Nucleus & electron cloud

Atomic Particles
Proton
Neutron
Electron
1,836 lighter than proton, thus
negligible

Remember Me!

Exercises

If neutral

Determine the

Atomic # = Proton = Electron

If charged (cation or anion):

Atomic # = Proton (but not equal
to electron)

Proton
Atomic #
Neutron
Electron
Mass Number
Nucleon #

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Exercises

Exercises

Determine the

Determine the

Proton
Atomic #
Neutron
Electron
Mass Number
Nucleon #

Proton
Atomic #
Neutron
Electron
Mass Number
Nucleon #

Essential Terms

Identify whether the following pairs

are: isotopes, isobars or isotones

Isotopes
Isobars
Isotones

Identify whether the following pairs

are: isotopes, isobars or isotones

Identify whether the following pairs

are: isotopes, isobars or isotones

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Identify whether the following pairs

are: isotopes, isobars or isotones

Allotropism
phenomenon of an element
existing in two or more physical
forms
Same elemental constituent,
different form

Electron Configuration
representation of the
arrangement of electrons that
are distributed among the
orbitals.

Long-hand Method
Diagonal rule
Madelungs rule
Klechkowskis rule
An empirical rule for determining the
order in which atomic orbitals are
filled

Short-hand notation
Nobel gas method

Orbital Notation

Electronic Principles

Quantum Mechanics

Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Theory
Paulis Exclusion Theory
Aufbau Principle Diagonal
rule
Hunds Rule

Principal quantum number

Determines the main energy
level and the size
Symbol: n
Values: positive integer
(1,2,3,4)

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Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics

Azimuthal QN / Angular
Momentum Number

Magnetic QN

Determines the shape and

subshell/sublevel
Shapes:
s = spherical
p = dumbbell-shaped
d = cloverleaf
f = too complex

Describes the spatial orientation

Symbol: m or ml
values: -l to +l

Symbol: l
Values: 0 to (n-1)

Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Number Determination

Spin QN

3p4
4s2
3d10

Determines the spin/rotation

Values: +1/2 (clockwise) or -1/2
(counterclockwise)

The Periodic Table of Elements

The Periodic Table of Elements

Antoine Lavoisier

Johann Dobereiner

wrote the first extensive list of

elements - containing 33
elements

Triads; According to physical

properties
middle element of a triad was nearly
equal to the arithmetic mean
of atomic masses of other
two elements
Element
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium

Atomic mass
7
23
39

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The Periodic Table of Elements

The Periodic Table of Elements

John Alexander Newland

Octaves
"every eighth element had
properties similar to the first
element

Li
Be
(6.9) (9.0)
Na
Mg
(23.0) (24.3)
K
Ca

B
C
(10.8) (12.0)
Al
Si
(27.0) (28.1)

N
(14.0)
P
(31.0)

O
(16.0)
S
(32.1)

F
(19.0)
Cl
(35.5)

(39.1) (40.1)

The Periodic Table of Elements

The Periodic Table of Elements

Meyer and Mendeleev

Henry Moseley

Physical and chemical properties

are periodic function of their
atomic weights

Elements are arranged based on

atomic numbers
Modern periodic table

Parts of Periodic Table

Parts of Periodic Table

Period

Groups

1st shortest period

2nd and 3rd short period, 8
elements
4th and 5th long periods, 18
elements each
6th period: Lanthanide series (rare
earth elements), 14 elements
7th period: Actinide series, 14
elements

There are 18 groups in a

periodic table
The groups are divided into A
and B groups
Group IA to VIIIA has all the
normal (representative elements)
Group IB to VIIIB holds all the
transition metal elements

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The Periodic Table

The modern periodic table is
approximately divided into metals
and non-metals

Metallic elements left-hand side

Nonmetals right-hand side
Inert gas extreme right hand side
Transition metals bridged between
highly metallic alkali elements and the
non-metals lie on the center of the
table
Lanthanide and actinide series kept
separately

Metals vs Nonmetals
METALS
Good conductors of heat
and electricity
Form BASIC oxides
Lustrous, Ductile,
Malleable
High Density
High Melting point
Tends to lose e-

Metalloids

Periodic Trends

Intermediate between metals

& non-metals
Si, Ge, Po, Sb, As, Te, B

Atomic Radius

NON-METALS
Poor conductors
Form ACIDIC oxides
Dull & Brittle if Solid
Low Density
Low Melting point
Tends to accept e-

the distance between 2 nuclei

Electron affinity

amount of energy released when an

atom gains an electron ; property to
accept an electron

Electronegativity

Ability to attract electrons in itself

Ionization energy or potential

energy required to remove an electron

from a neutral atom

Periodic Trends

Types of Chemical Bonding

ATOMIC SIZE / METALLIC

PROPERTY / ATOMIC RADIUS

Intramolecular Force of
Attraction

Right Left :: INCREASE

Top Bottom :: INCREASE

ELECTRONEGATIVITY / IE / EA

From Left to Right INCREASE

From Bottom to Top INCREASE

For, ION SIZE:

Covalent Bond
Polar Covalent Bond
Non-polar

Ionic Bond

Atom to CATION :: decrease in ion

size
Atom to ANION :: INCREASE in ion
size

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Covalent or Ionic Bond?

Basis: electronegativity
differences
>1.7 ionic
0.5-1.7 polar covalent
<0.5 non-polar covalent

Based on elemental attribute

Metal + Nonmetal ionic
2 Nonmetals covalent

Memorize me!
Element
Fluorine
Oxygen
Chlorine
Nitrogen
Bromine
Carbon
Sulfur
Hydrogen
Sodium
Potassium

Electronegativity
4.0
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.8
2.5
2.5
2.1
0.9
0.8

Force of attraction: Ionic or covalent?

Chemical Bonding

Based on Electronegativity
Difference

The Lewis Dot Diagrams

SrCl2
PCl3
NH3
RbBr
LiCl

Ionic
Covalent
Covalent
Ionic
Ionic

Get the sum of valence electron

present in a formula.
Draw trial structure (single bonds only)
Get the difference of valence
electrons & electrons of single bonds
Incorporate the missing electrons in
the structure. Be sure to satisfy octet
rule!
Last resort: if octet rule is not satisfied,
indicate double or triple bonds

Chemical Bonding

SOLUTIONS

Write the Lewis Diagram of

the following:

Solution is a homogeneous (or

uniform) mixture of two or more
substances.
Composition:

Water
CH3F
Br2
NH3
CH2O
C 2H 2

The solute is a compound of a

solution that is present in lesser
quantity than the solvent
The solvent is the solution
component present in the largest
quantity.

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Types of Solutions

Factors affecting solubility

Based on the solubility of the

solution

The magnitude of difference

between polarity of solute
and solvent

Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated

The greater the difference, the

less soluble is the solute.

Nature of solute and solvent

Like dissolves like

Factors affecting solubility

Factors affecting solubility

Temperature

Pressure affects gases only

increase in temperature usually

increases solubility
Exothermic
Solubility decreases with increase
in temp.

Endothermic
solubility increases with increases
in temperature

Factors affecting solubility

Presence of Salts
Salting-out presence of salt
decreases solubility
Salting-in Presence of salt
increases solubility

Henrys Law - the solubility of a

gas increases as pressure
increases

Particle size & Surface area

Decreases particle size
increase solubility
Increased SA increased
solubility

Concentration-Dependent Solution
Properties
Raoults law
when a solute is added to a
solvent, the vapor pressure of
the solvent decreases in
proportion to the concentration of
the solute

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Colligative Properties

Colligative Properties

Colligative properties are

solution properties that
depend on the concentration
of the solute particles, rather
than the identity of the solute.

Vapor pressure lowering

Colligative Properties

Colligative Properties

Freezing point depression

Boiling point elevation

presence of salt/non-volatile
solid will cause lowering of
freezing point
Application: Manufacture of ice
cream

addition of non-volatile solute

lowers the vapour pressure of
the liquid

BP is the equilibrium between

the liquid and the gas
VP=AP

Colligative Properties

Gas Laws

Osmotic pressure

Kinetic molecular theory of

gases

Osmosis is the movement of solvent

from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution through a
semipermeable membrane.
osmotic pressure applied pressure
to stop the movement of solvent

Clinical Correlation:
Isotonicity
Hypertonic
Hypotonic

Gases are made up of small

atoms or molecules that are in
constant, random motion
The distance of separation
among these atoms or molecules
is very large in comparison to
the size of the individual atoms
or molecules.

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Gas Laws
Kinetic molecular theory of gases

All of the atoms and molecules behave

independently. No attractive or repulsive
forces exist between atoms or molecules
in a gas.
Atoms and molecules collide with each
other and with the walls of the container
without losing energy. The energy is
transferred from one atom or molecule to
another.
The average kinetic energy of the atoms
or molecules increases or decreases in
proportion to absolute temperature.

Gas Laws
Boyles Law
Sometimes: Mariotte
law
Relationship of
pressure and volume
at constant
temperature
Inversely proportional
P1V1 = P2V2 (show
derivation)
P 1/V

Gas Laws

Gas Laws

Boyles Law

Charles Law
Relationship of
volume and
temperature at
constant
pressure
Directly
proportional
V T
Formula:

Gas Laws

Gas Laws

Charles Law

Gay-Lussacs Law
Relationship of temperature and
pressure at constant volume
Directly proportional (
temperature, pressure)
Formula:

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Gas Laws
Combined Gas Law
Provides convenient expression
for performing gas law
calculations involving the most
common variables: pressure,
volume, and temperature.
Formula:

Gas Laws
Ideal Gas Law (Ideal Gas
Equation)
Formula: PV = nRT
Where:
R = gas constant (R = 0.08206 L-atm / molK)
T = (Kelvin instead of degrees Celsius)
n = moles

STP:
T = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
V = 22.4 L

Gas Laws

Gas Laws

Real Gas Equation

Daltons Law of Partial

Pressure

Van der Waals Equation

Formula:
Where:

accounts for the intermolecular

attractive forces;

accounts for the incompressibility

of the molecules.

Total pressure is equal to the

sum of partial pressure of each
gas
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 +
If each gas obeys the ideal-gas
equation, then:

Gas Laws

Gas Laws

Grahams Law

Avogadros Law

States that the rate of diffusion of

the gas and the speed of the gas
molecules are inversely
proportional to the square root of
their density

Gases of equal volumes at the

same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of
molecules.
volume of a gas maintained at
constant temperature and pressure
is directly proportional to the
number of moles of the gas
Formula:

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Acids & Bases

Acids & Bases

Dissociation

Electrolytes: substances whose

aqueous solution conduct
electricity such as acids, bases
and salts

separation of salt ions

Ionization

Strong electrolytes

strong acids and bases, most salts;

complete dissolution

formation of ions

Weak electrolytes

**These terms are often used

interchangeably to describe the
processes taking place in water.

Acid-Base Theories
THEORY
Arrhenius
Theory
BronstedLowry Theory
Lewis Theory
Pearsons
HSAB

ACID
Substance that yields
H+ or H3O+ in H2O
Proton donor

weak acid/ weak bases; incomplete

dissolution; slight dissociation

Non-electrolytes: do not conduct

electricity

General Properties of Acids

BASE
Substance that
yields OH- in H2O
Proton acceptor

Electron-acceptor
Electron donor
Hard acids are electron acceptor with high
positive charges and relatively small sizes
while soft acids have positive charges and
relatively large sizes

Taste: SOUR
Litmus : blue red
Aqueous solutions conduct electricity
Reacts with metal to liberate hydrogen
gas
Reacts with carbonate and bicarbonate
to produce carbon dioxide
Turns colorless with phenolphthalein
Turns red with methyl orange indicator
Most common strong acids: HCl, HBr,
HI, HNO3, HCIO3, HCIO4, H2SO4

General Properties of Bases

pH

Taste: BITTER
Litmus: red blue
Aqueous solutions conduct
electricity
Slippery to touch
Pink color with phenolphthalein
Yellow with methyl orange
Most common strong bases
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

measure of acidity or basicity

of a substance
range: Sorensen scale (0-14)
pH = 7; pH < 7; pH > 7
alkalinity, increase in
number
acidity, in number

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Dissociation Constant

Dissociation Constants

measures the propensity of a

larger object to separate
(dissociate) reversibly into
smaller components

Acid Dissociation Constant

(Ka)
Formula: pKa = -log Ka

Base Dissociation Constant

(Kb)
Formula: pKb = -log Kb

Dissociation contant of water

Fomula: pKw = pH + pOH

Essential Formula

Salts

SA: pH = -log
WA: pH = -log ( . )
SB: pH = pkw [(-log (OH-)]
WB: pH = pkw [(-log . )
(H+)

Note
Ka or Kb > 10O is strong acid/base
Ka or Kb <10O is weak acid/base

SA + SB neutral salt (pH =

7)
SA+ WB acidic salt (pH < 7)
WA + SB basic salt (pH >7)
Weak acid + Weak base
pH =

Buffer Equation

Nomenclature & Formula Writing

Henderson-Hasselbalch
Equation

Rule of Inorganic Compound

an inorganic compound is
produced by simple attraction of
(+) & (-) particles

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Nomenclature & Formula Writing

Binary ionic : metal + nonmetal (formation of one, two
or more cations)
Binary ionic with one type of
cation formed
Common metals; monovalent
metal + nonmetal
Name the metal. Add stem (-ide)

Binary Ionic
Binary ionic
with two or
more types
of cations

Binary Ionic
FORMULA
AlCl3

NAME

Al2O3

FORMULA

NAME
Barium
sulfide

LiI
MgBr2

Calcium
carbide
HCl

Sodium
hydride

HI

Na2O

Binary Ionic
FORMULA

Cu+1
Cu+2
Hg+1;
(Hg2)+2
Hg+2
Fe+2
Fe+3
Sn+2
Sn+4
Pb+2
Pb+4
As+3
As+5
Ti+3
Ti+4

STOCK
SYSTEM
NAME
Copper (I)
Copper (II)
Mercury (I)

CLASSICAL
NAME

Mercury (II)
Iron (II)
Iron (III)
Tin (II)
Tin (IV)
Lead (II)
Lead (IV)
Arsenic (III)
Arsenic (V)
Titanium (III)
Titanium (IV)

Nomenclature & Formula Writing

FORMULA
SnF4
Fe2O3
PBI2
CuO

NAME

FORMULA

NAME
Iron (II) sulfide
Cuprous oxide
Stannous chloride
Titanic bromide

Binary Molecular

Binary molecular: non-metal +

non-metal
Name the first element using a prefix
if more than one atom of this element.
If atom is one, DO NOT USE mono
prefix (just name the element)
Write stem name + (-ide). USE
PREFIX TO INDICATE NUMBER OF
ATOMS
Prefixes: -mono; -di; -tri; -tetra; -penta;
-hexa; -hepta; -octa; -nona; -deca

FORMULA
CO
CO2
PCl3
CCl4
N2O

NAME

FORMULA
H2O
N2O4
NO
S2Cl2
Cl2O

NAME

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Nomenclature & Formula Writing

Ternary ionic: metal +
polyatomic ion
Naming: Write the name of the
cation and anion

Ternary Ionic: Memorize me!

NAME
Borate
Bromate
Carbonate
Perchlorate
Chlorate
Chlorite
Hypochlorite

FORMULA CHARGE
BO33-3
BrO3-1
CO32-2
ClO4ClO3-1
ClO2ClO

Ternary Ionic: Memorize me!

NAME
Oxalate
Permanganate
Phosphate
Sulfate
Sulfite

FORMULA CHARGE
C2O42-2
MnO4-1
PO43-3
SO42-2
SO32-2

Ternary Ionic: Memorize me!

NAME
Acetate
Ammonium
Arsenate
Hydrogen carbonate
or bicarbonate
Hydrogen sulfate or
bisulfate

FORMULA CHARGE
C2H2O2-1
NH4+
+1
AsO4 3-3
HCO3-1
HSO4-

-1

Ternary Ionic: Memorize me!

NAME
Chromate
Cyanide
Dichromate
Hydroxide
Nitrate
Nitrite

FORMULA CHARGE
CrO42-2
CN-1
Cr2O72-2
OH-1
NO3-1
NO2-1

Ternary Ionic
NAME

FORMULA
NaNO3

Calcium phosphate
Lithium carbonate
NaClO3
Potassium permanganate
Sodium bicarbonate

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Nomenclature & Formula Writing

Binary Acids

Binary acid
H + non-metal
Hydro + <non-metal stem> -ic +
acid

NAME
Hydrochloric acid

FORMULA
HI

Hydrosulfuric acid
HF
Hydrophosphoric
acid

Nomenclature & Formula Writing

Ternary acid
H + polyatomic anions
Rules:
If anion ends with ate or ide:
<root word of polyatomic> -ic + acid
If it ends with ite: <root word of
polyatomic> -ous + acid

NAME

FORMULA
H2SO4

Sulfurous acid
Nitric acid
HNO2
H2CO3
Boric acid

Chemical Reaction & Balancing of

Equation

Ternary Acid
NAME

Ternary Acid

FORMULA
H3PO4
HIO3

Acetic acid
H2C2O4
HBrO3

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Direct Union or combination or

Synthesis
Combination of two or more
elements
A + B AB
Hydrogen + Oxygen
Sodium metal + Chlorine
Magnesium ribbon burning

Decomposition
Opposite of synthesis
reaction
AB B + A
Electrolysis of water

Single Displacement

Double displacement

A + BC AC + B

Formation of two entirely

different compounds
Anions and cations switch
together

Depends on activity series

Mg + H2O

Lead (II) Nitrate + Potassium iodide

Special kind: Neutralization

reaction
Strong acid + strong base
HCl + NaOH

Combustion

Balancing of Equation

Reaction with oxygen to form

water and carbon dioxide
C10H8 + 12O2 10CO2 + 4H2O

By Inspection
Algebraic Method
By Redox-Reaction

NOTE: In performing
chemical reactions, it is
required to balance the
equations, if applicable.

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Figuring Out Oxidation Numbers

Rules in assigning ON

Oxidation number

In elemental form, ON = zero

Hydrogen is always +1 (except
in hydrides, where it is -1)
Oxygen is always -2 (except in
peroxides where its -1)
Other atoms get the charge they
prefer, as long as the SUM of all
atoms ON is the charge on the
particle

charge on an atom in a
compound
Rule: Assign a number (charge)
to every atom

Determine the charge of each element

Balancing of Equation: Redox Reaction

S8
H2O
H2O2
HCOOH
LiH

Acidic Solution
Basic Solution

AlH3
KMnO4
NaH2PO4
ClO4-

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics

study of energy, work, and

heat and their inter-relation to
one another

Thermodynamic System- part

of the universe isolated from
the rest by a boundary
Surrounding = Everything
outside

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Types of System
TYPE OF SYSTEM
Open (Nonconservative)
Closed (Conservative)
Isolated (Adiabatic)

Important Terms
ALLOWS EXCHANGE
OF
Matter & Energy

TERM
Heat
Work

Energy ONLY
No matter, No energy

SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Q
Energy transfer due to
temperature difference
w
A form of energy transfer between
and its surroundings in the form of
compression or expansion of the
gas

Important Terms

Important Terms

TERM
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Enthalpy H
Represents heat; energy of a
reaction
Entropy S
Determines the degree of
randomness or disorderliness.

TERM
Free
energy

SYMBOL
G

DESCRIPTION
Represents the combined
contribution of the enthalpy and
entropy values for a chemical
reaction.

Heat
capacity

the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of an
object or substance by one
degree

A random, or disordered, system

is characterized by high entropy;
a well-organized system has low
entropy.
Gases > liquid > solid : entropy

Laws of Thermodynamics

Laws of Thermodynamics

1st Law of Thermodynamics

2nd Law of
Thermodynamics

Heat and work are forms of energy

transfer.
Energy is invariably conserved,
however the internal energy of a
closed system may change as heat
is transferred into or out of the
system or work is done on or by the
system

An isolated system, if not already

in its state of thermodynamic
equilibrium, spontaneously
evolves towards it.
Thermodynamic equilibrium has
the greatest entropy among the
states accessible to the system.

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Laws of Thermodynamics

What you need to remember?

3rd Law of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

The entropy of a system

approaches a constant value as the
temperature approaches zero
The entropy of a system at absolute
zero is typically zero, and in all
cases is determined only by the
number of different ground states it
has.
Specifically, the entropy of a pure
crystalline substance at absolute
zero temperature is zero

conservation of energy
Energy of the universe is
constant

What you need to remember?

What you need to remember?

Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Third Law of
Thermodynamics

Entropy
Gibbs Free Energy

entropy of a pure crystalline is

equal to zero

(expendable amount of energy)

G(-) = SPONTANEOUS
G(+) = NON-SPONTANEOUS
G(0) = Equilibrium

Chemical Kinetics

Question

the study of the rate (or speed)

of chemical reactions
Exothermic reaction

An ice cube is dropped into a

glass of water at room
temperature. The ice cube
melts. Is the melting of the
ice exothermic or
endothermic?

releases energy to the surroundings

surroundings become warmer

Endothermic reaction
absorbs energy from the
surroundings
surroundings become colder

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Factors Affecting Reaction Rate

Chemical Equilibrium

structure of the reacting species

molecular shape and orientation
concentration of reactants
temperature of reactants

LE CHATELIERS PRINCIPLE

The rate of a reaction increases as the

temperature increases physical state
of reactants

if a stress is placed on an
equilibrium system, the system
will respond by altering the
equilibrium in such a way as to
minimize the stress

presence of a catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that
increases the reaction rate.

Factors Causing Equilibrium Shift

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Pressure
Temperature/Heat
Concentration
Catalyst??? no shift of
equilibrium

Radioactivity:

Types of Radiation

decomposition
process of unstable nuclei to
more stable ones
Radiation: energy and particles
released during the
decomposition process

Units of Reactivity
Non-SI

Curie (Ci) : 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010

decays/sec

SI

Bequerel (Bq) : 1Bq = 1 decay/sec

Unit of RADIATION DAMAGE:

R.E.M.

Unit of AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE

to radiation
rad or gray

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END

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