2005 Radio Report Eng

Prospects for promoting equality, development and social justice through FM radio
Contents
Foreword
This is possibly the first study since the establishment and operation of F.M. radio in Nepal to
make an evaluation of F.M. stations from the point of view of the listeners. I am grateful to MS
Nepal Director Nina Ellinger, Information Officer Binay Dhital and the MS Nepal family for the
opportunity to make this study. As this is the first effort of this kind, it may not be complete in
itself. However, I feel that many of the things that were raised in the study or were left out from
it can become subject matter for future inquiry and research.
I did the work of writing up this report, but much of the field study was carried out by Toya
Ghimire. All that I actually did was to include in the report the facts, thoughts and opinions which
were gathered in the course of the field study. Thus the views expressed in it constitute but a
brief analysis of the experiences and views of F.M. radio listeners, operators, program producers
and presenters, analysts and subject experts.
This report should have been made public almost six months ago. But the royal demarche of
February 1 and all manner of difficulties thrown up by it forced it to be shelved for some time.
For various reasons delays kept occurring in the preparation of the report and in giving it final
shape. The situation has greatly changed between the time the study was carried out and now.
But the thoughts expressed in it, its conclusions and suggestions have not touched upon the
changing times and context. This changed context calls for a still more extensive study.
Station manager at Radio Madanpokhara Gunakar Aryal and Radio Lumbini station manager
Mohan Chapagain extended outstanding cooperation and counsel in the organized conduct of
this study. We are immensely obliged to Milan Timilsina for his help in analysing the facts that
went into it. Nor can we forget the efforts put in by Pawan Prakash Upreti in coordinating the
report. Furthermore, the managing directors of the stations covered by the study, the directors
and station managers, all extended highly valuable suggestions for overcoming the report's
shortcomings and weaknesses after studying it attentively. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to
them all.
Gopal Guragain
June - 2005
Report Summary
1. Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Radio in Nepal: before and after democracy

Objectives of the study
Methods of study and its area
Limits to the study
2. Radio waves in the hands of the people

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Broadcast area, broadcasters and FM craze

Law, regulations, license and monitoring
Government and broadcasters: Present situation and tendency
Investment, manpower and technology
3. Classification of radio
3.1 Lack of classification and confusion
3.2 Community and commercial: similarities and differences
4. The power of radio and social mobilization

4.1 Listeners' views on FM radio programming
4.2 Programming aimed at the poor and indigent & its effect
4.3 Listeners' suggestions to FM stations
5. Areas for social mobilization and additional possibilities

5.1 Mobilization of external resources for FM in Nepal
5.2 Mobilization of social resources
5.3 Mobilization of cultural heritage
6. Radio, audience relations and participation

6.1 Radio and audience: Threads of relationship
6.2 Formation and role of listener groups
7. Conclusions and suggestions
Report Summary
Annexes
1.
List of FM stations in Nepal
100
2.
FM coverage in Nepal
104
3.
Program times according to target groups

and topics of public interest
104
4.
Short description of radio stations studied
106
5.
List of participants in interviews and group discussions
125
Some controversy still surrounds the question of when and on wha

radio was first established and operated in Nepal. But everyone is a
that the establishment of radio is linked with the democratic movement
the establishing of Radio Nepal is linked with the democratic revolu
2007, the opening and operation of FM stations is the contribution
democratic atmosphere that came about in the country following the p
movement of 2046. It was as a result of this that on Jestha 9, 2054,
Sagarmatha, the first private sector radio station in Nepal, could com
broadcasting.
Within a short period of time FM radio has established itself as a po
and effective medium of communications in the towns and villages of
It has established itself as a mirror reflecting the thinking of society
ways and for changing its conduct. At the same time FM has also pla
increasing role in bringing about change in such thinking, such condu
ways. The growing influence of FM stations in Nepalese society has to
people of all castes, classes, ages and genders. After the commenc
of FM radio in Nepal a very large portion of society has found access to
communications media.
That is why it is necessary to analyze the role and responsibility of FM
from the view point of the listeners. With this in mind this study ha
undertaken to analyze the role that FM radio plays and can play w
active participation of the citizen in the promotion of equality, develo
and social justice The needs and wishes of listeners of all classes, c
ages and genders are equally important for radio.
Designed, formatted and printed by :- Creative Press P. Ltd.
MS Nepal
Danish Association for International Co-operation
In carrying out this study, a qualitative method has been used. The
has been prepared after holding direct meetings with and on the b
talks with more than three hundred people individually and in groups
period of two months in 48 different locations. The facts and opinions men
MS Nepal
Danish Association for International Co- op
and analyzed in this study are mostly based on group discussions, interviews
and exchange of views that took place in the course of on site study.
During the past nine years the private sector in Nepal has acquired permission
for running 56 FM stations throughout the country. Of these, 47 have
commenced broadcasting as of now (end of Paush 2061). (While this report
was being prepared Rupandehi FM in Bhairahawa commenced trial
broadcasting.) The FM stations operating in Nepal range from 50 watt to
10,000 watt in capacity. A look at the distribution of the FM stations in operation
shows that the Central Region has 19 of them, which is the largest number,
with the least in the Far Western Region which has only 2, and 14 in the
Western Region, 7 in the Eastern and 5 in the Mid-Western Region.
Along with the increase in the number of FM stations, there has been
noticeable increase in the areas in Nepal in which the FM signal can be
captured. According to one estimate, FM radio waves now reach 40 percent
of the country's geographical spread and, in terms of population, at least 65
percent of total population and as much as 70 percent. The entry into Nepalse
society of cheap radio sets from Tibet and the commencement at the same
time of FM broadcasting in this country have led to a noticeable increase in
the reach of FM within a short period.
In families which are ordinary or poor and which used to look upon radio as
a social status symbol, people now tend to listen to FM radio individually in
separate rooms in the home. On the basis of a natural rate of increase in
radio set ownership, the commencement of broadcasting by about four dozen
FM stations, the availability of cheap radio sets for about a hundred rupees
in towns and villages, the attraction towards radio seen among all age groups
from children to the elderly and the growing tendency to keep two or more
radio sets in a single home, it can be estimated that 75 percent of households
in Nepal now have radio.
The development and expansion of FM in Nepal took place spontaneously.
While many organizations seeking to operate FM radio have not received
MS Nepal
their license even after waiting for five or six years, those FM radio s
that are already operating face all manner of difficulties, all because
lack of follow-up bodies and clear policies and planning, and the narro
d ifficu lt p r ovision s u nd er th e e xi stin g la w an d r eg ula
The organizations that operate radio, the area in which it is establish
operate, the purpose with which radio is set up, the kind of service
provide, the market, the employment generated and technology us
matters of no mean significance for radio broadcasting. But the entiti
issue broadcast licenses are not found to be giving serious considera
these aspects while issuing the licenses. Difficulties and problem
further increased as the broadcast law and regulations have not ta
scientific approach for deter mining fees and renewing lice
The broadcast regulations provide for license renewal. But it is no
specified that renewal has to take place every year. Yet FM stations lic
to broadcast in Nepal have to renew their license every year, and eve
they have to pay a hefty renewal fee. Listening to FM radio in Nep
easy to conclude that there is no frequency management or any plan
the issuing of licenses. As FM frequencies have been crowded toget
empty portions of the frequency spectrum, and given the government ten
to regard frequencies as nothing more than a source of revenue, t
overlapping of signals between different FM stations.
Going by the stipulation made at the time of issuing license to FM
stations that these should focus their programming on health, edu
agriculture, forestry, the environment and the like, it seems the gover
is trying to develop FM broadcasting as an integral part of local develo
But no effort has been made from any quarter to have this stipulation a
to, to create an atmosphere conducive to that end or to see to it tha
is follow up. Constitution of an organized body or system for carryi
regular monitoring or evaluation of material broadcast by radio has ye
initiated.
MS Nepal
Danish Association for Inter national Co-oper
Voices raised to the effect that the radio waves, which are under government
ownership and control, are the common property of the people just like the
air, water and all nature, are stronger today than they were yesterday. But
even seven years into the commencement of FM radio the government has
no clear plan about how to utilize the radio waves for the good of the people.
Rather, the FM stations themselves have through their own effort and
intelligence sought to work out a common approach here.
With few exceptions, the FM stations operating in Nepal have no long term
or short term policy, no declared principles to which they subscribe, or values,
or programming or advertising policy, code of conduct or style set out in
writing. Most of them either go by a rule of thumb of doing whatever others
do or are guided by the specific interests of the investors, as in other kinds
of business.
The competition for advertising has impacted badly on the image and the
earnings of many FM stations. The main reasons for unhealthy competition
among FM stations are lack of a clear policy on programming and advertising,
lack of market research and working policy, and a lackadaisical make do
approach on the part of government. All the stations have to pay the same
rates of revenue to the government, the same renewal fees and levels of tax
whether they are small stations or big, commercial or community, rural or
urban. This lacuna in government policy has led to competition among FM
stations that is cut throat and unhealthy.
A language that is a mixture of half English and half Nepali, subject matter
concerning sex and love and programming targeted at the young and youths!
Listening to such programming, one gets the impression that these are the
three elements that go to make the common identity of many commercial
FM stations in Nepal. By contrast the identity of community FM stations is
mostly defined by a language that is chaste and very formal, subject matter
that is serious and of a social nature and programming targeted at people
who are mature and educated. While the FM stations may have their respective
MS Nepal
Danish Association for International Co-oper ation
styles it is the identities mentioned above that register by the time they
the listeners.
An increase in the number of broadcasters is a good thing in itself. Bu
is more significant is whether or not FM radio has helped guarant
people's freedom of information and expression and enhanced the a
of civil society, of various groups in society and the masses to the radio
for their own good. Not all FM stations operating in Nepal are found t
initiated efforts to ensure access to radio waves by the masses, gua
the citizen's freedom of information and expression and use this med
the good of the public. This process has yet to start in all the FM statio
become institutionalized.
The average cost of setting up an FM station, big or small, works ou
7 million. Taking this rough figure as a basis, it can be seen that the
sector has invested more than 300 million in equipment and inputs al
setting up the FM stations. Apart from this the stations have also m
very big investment in program production and in preparing the technic
professional manpower. Huge investments have been made every
such human development work by journalism and mass communicatio
organizations associated with broadcasting. Although accounts pertai
the investment in equipment and inputs can be found, finding similar ac
for investment made in human development is a different matter. Bu
well be surmised that the investment in human development is of the
order as has been spent for setting up the radio stations.
On average 50 employees are involved in program production and te
and market management at every operating FM station. On the basis
figure more than 2,200 people are currently employed by the 47 FM s
in Nepal. People who had no idea what a radio station was like befo
restoration of democracy have learnt after the commencement
broadcasting how to speak on radio and make the listeners laugh or cry
with themselves. Before the opening of FM radio, the number of skilled
MS Nepal
Danish Association for Inter national Co-opera
working for radio in Nepal did not exceed 300. This figure has now reached
around one thousand.
The technology now in use by FM radio in Nepal has come a long way since
the time FM first started here. During this time the technology used for
recording and transmitting sound and for managing that sound has made
immense strides in the world as a whole. With these strides many tasks
have become easy and simple. The place of cassette and tape recorders
has been taken by the mini disc of digital technology. Development of
technology has closed the gap between producers and technicians working
in radio. Recording, which used to require many hands can now be done by
just one individual. The quality of sound has improved all of a sudden. The
time and trouble needed for preparing radio programming has been reduced
many fold.
In general, radio is classified in many countries as commercial or community
on the basis of ownership, programming, the participation of the community
and the listening audience in policy making, technical capability and the like.
Low capacity transmitter and equipment which the community itself can
operate technically, the control of the community over policy making and
community ownership of investment are the special features of community
radio. But classification of radio in Nepal has become a challenging task
because the services provided by community and commercial radio, the
nature of programming, the predominance of the rural listening audience and
technology used are all of the same type. Only the ownership varies.
With few exceptions, the format of the programming carried by all FM stations,
the topics and subject matter they choose, program presentation style and
the manner of "packaging" the subject are of the same type. Community or
commercial, the technology they use, the equipment and the working
atmosphere in the station are all of the same type. Though ownership is of
two kinds, community and commercial, their target audience and markets
are the same. When it comes to advertising also they all broadcast practically
MS Nepal
the same kind of fare. On top of that, the law and regulations do not
to classify radio. That is why the challenges of classification have b
more and more difficult by the day.
Social subject matter and information oriented programming, though bro
for only limited amounts of time, have had an impact on the listen
particular, FM in Nepal has come out openly in support of movements a
social malpractices, untouchability and discrimination. Whether it is c
public opinion for the movement to allow widows to wear red or the mov
for ending social discrimination against the dalits, FM radio has pla
outstanding role in spreading awareness in favour of such move
mobilizing public opinion and boosting the morale of the economicall
and communities that are looked down upon. Radio has been aro
champion their rights. They have been motivated to win those righ
over this period even the listeners have come to know of the weakn
the choice of subject matter, their coordination and in presentation
Because of ignorance or lack of attention on the part of program pro
and presenters about the target groups or their levels (of receptivity), pro
about many good and useful subjects have not been effective. Given t
between the vocabulary used by experts and their field of knowledge
hand and the capacity of the general listenership to understand on the
it has not been possible to close the gap between radio and its listen
the same time program producers and presenters at FM stations outs
valley have a problem getting hold of experts at all.
Many of the FM stations lack a declared program policy and a strate
making their programming people-oriented. At many stations with clear
the policy makers and managers have not taken the trouble to prope
analytically explain the policy to the program presenters and producers
of the FM stations lack a studio or field recording equipment. Beca
time and resources constraints, a single producer has to run progr
diverse nature. Program producers and presenters are forced to run
MS Nepal
Danish Association for International Co-opera
three programs in a single day. Although so many FM stations are running

in the country, the program producers and presenters have to rely on basic
training to produce their programming.
Many of the FM stations operating in our country do their broadcasting from
the district headquarters or urban areas. But many of the listeners of all radio
stations live in the villages. That is why no FM station, commercial or
community, is free of the compulsions of broadcasting programs that respond
to the preferences, needs and wishes of listeners who live in the countryside.
There is no likelihood of any FM station becoming free of this pressure from
the rural listener any time soon.
If one looks at the program schedules, the number of programs targeted at
classes that have lagged behind in society or become marginalized is very
meager at both commercial and community stations. The time set aside by
many commercial and community FM stations for such classes is also about
the same.
Although many in the listening audience for FM radio in Nepal are farmers,
programming relating to agriculture is very meager. FM radio stations have
been adding to their broadcast time, but the time allocated for programs
concerning skills, employment, technology and the like which directly benefit
the community has not kept up in proportion to the broadcast time. While FM
radio has established itself as the main means for information and entertainment
for the economically weak, the landless and squatters in Nepal, the number
of programs targeted at the landless, laborers and farmers can still be counted
on one's finger tips.
While some radio programs carried by FM are targeted at the poor, only a
few stations raise poverty as a topic. A few stations take up now and then
topics concerning the community's skills and income. They have yet to initiate
efforts at production of programming that addresses issues like how to define
economically weak communities, why they are poor and how they can be
lifted out of their poverty.
MS Nepal
A system for evaluation of the impact of programs by station manage

policy makers and for feeding comments, reactions and suggesti
program producers and presenters is not to be found at many FM st
So a scientific and organized evaluation of the positive and negative
of programs is yet to take place, be it programs produced with a pa
group of listeners in mind or programs made in response to the social, p
and financial concerns of the listenership.
All the community radio stations that have come into operation so fa
been helped by some donor agency or NGO or the other in setting them
up. The way community radio has developed and expanded in Nep
donor agencies and NGOs' have made an outstanding contribution
When helping with program production and transmission, internation
government organizations and donor agencies have given priority to
like community development, women's rights, untouchability and
discrimination, human rights, good governance and community empowe
Once they are established, radio stations are not found to have paid s
attention to seeking cooperation in areas like development of their instit
structure and capacity, training for enhancing the skills and capa
technicians and managers, skill and capacity development for pr
producers and programs centered on behavior change. Similarly many s
have not been able to mobilize external assistance in areas like develo
of the skills and capacity of producers. The donors and INGO's too ha
taken seriously those seeking cooperation in these particular
While practically all FM stations derive their income from national an
level advertising, another source of income is NGO's operating at intern
national and local level and local government bodies. Whether th
companies that advertise or NGO's or government bodies that help in p
production and transmission, these entities have of course left a clear
on FM radio programming. Not only that they also directly or indirectly in
the program policy and strategy of many FM stations.
MS Nepal
Danish Association for International Co-opera
The scope for mutual cooperation between organizations involved in areas

like poverty alleviation, ethnic communities, women, children, untouchability
and development on one hand and radio stations in their work for social
change on the other is immense. Organizations that have been carrying out
various activities can make ample use of radio's influence for fostering
community awareness, incomes, skills and employment. But such entities
have made scant use of the power of radio and their access to radio is also
weak.
Nepal is replete with a multiplicity of religions, languages, communities and
cultures and this cultural diversity is clearly to be seen in the people's way
of living, their work and daily routine, rituals, religion, beliefs, faith, etc.. These
facets of culture constitute a great capital resource for FM radio. There are
endless ways in which radio can tap this capital for selecting program subject
matter, the format to be used and for presentation that does justice to their
glory. But FM stations make little use of culture as a capital resource or a
heritage.
Introduction
1.1 Radio in Nepal: Before and after democracy
The most important information, education and entertainment m
in Asian countries comes through public radio service not on
emergency occasions but also in daily life.i On top of that in a co
like Nepal with difficult geography, lack of transport services an
literacy, radio is cheaper and more reliable than newspapers or tv. Be
Nepalese tradition, which considers word of mouth the most re
means of communication, has accepted radio as still more signi
and distinguished among mass media.
Radio broadcasting in Nepal is directly or indirectly linked wi
democratic movement and the establishment of democracy. It is tru
radio broadcasting "in Nepal started on Magh 14, 2003 from th
electricity office (now Nepal Electricity Authority)" ii. In those
hymns to Hanuman would be broadcast over the radio along with rel
songs, market prices, poetry, news published in the Gorkhapatra
(For extensive information consult The Social History of Radio N
The radio broadcast for a few months. But how many days it was
and why it closed down are still matter s for investig
But the establishment of Radio Nepal and the story of presen
broadcasting in this country are organically linked with the demo
movement and the establishment of democracy. During the po
revolution of 2007, the revolutionaries ran radio broadcasts dema
democracy, first from Bhojpur and then from Biratnagar. Aft
10
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati
establishment of democracy the same broadcasting equipment was

brought to Kathmandu and broadcasting by Radio Nepal formally started
on Chaitra 20, 2007 (April 2, 1950).
Radio Nepal, which was established, with the aim of providing news,
information and entertainment, first started broadcasting with a 250 watt
transmitter. Thereafter Radio Nepal's technical capability increased
steadily in 2010, 2013 and 2016. In 1968 (2025) Radio Nepal started
broadcasting on 100 kw shortwave and 10 kw medium wave and this
resulted in a noticeable expansion in its reach. In 2040 it started
broadcasting from all five development regions. (For detailed information
see Krishna Adhikari's article on The Process of Institutional Development
at Radio Nepal in "The Social History of Radio Nepal".) Radio Nepal
started formally broadcasting on FM in 2053 (1996). Informally however
(without taking permission) Radio Nepal started FM broadcasts in 2052.
The involvement of the private sector in radio broadcasting in Nepal
became possible only about 45 years after radio broadcasts first started
here. Efforts at FM broadcasting in Nepal were initiated by the private
sector. But the credit for it was taken by Radio Nepal, the government
owned entity which started broadcasting without permission. On Jestha
9, 2054 the first private sector radio station to broadcast in Nepal crackled
legitimately over the skies of Kathmandu from the shed of a small two
storey house at Kaldhara: "This is Radio Sagarmatha." iv Radio
Sagarmatha was started by Nepal Environmental Journalists Group,
Nepal Press Institute, Himal Association and Worldview Nepal. After
the start of Sagarmatha Radio the private sector in Nepal became active
in the development and expansion of FM. As a consequence many FM
stations opened up. Nepal became an example for South Asia in this
activity. According to a report submitted to the Ministry of Information
and Communications, "During the past nine years 56 licenses were issued
throughout the kingdom and by Marga, 2061, 38 FM stations had come
into operation. Other outfits are in various stages of operating their
service." v By the time this report was prepared (Paush 15, 2001) 47 FM
stations had started broadcasting in the country. The latest to do so were
12
MS Nepal
Muktinath FM in Palpa and Rupandehi FM in Bhairahawa

commenced trail broadcasting in Paush.
The expansion of FM radio in Nepal within a short span of nine
is remarkable in itself. During this period big and small FM st
opened from Jhapa and Solukhumbu in the east to Kailali, Bajhan
Jumla in the far west. A large number of applications for setting u
radio are still pending at the Ministry of Information and Communic
Decisions have yet to be taken on 61 of the applications.
Private sector involvement in FM radio opened up after the Na
Communications Policy 2049 came into force in the wake of the resto
of democracy. According to one study submitted to the communic
ministry, "During the nearly 12 years that participation by the p
sector has been open (in Nepal) stations ranging in capacity f
comparatively small 50 watt to big FM stations of 10,000 watt are
found operating." vi These stations have yet to be defined clearly
government. However they are on the whole classified into comm
and community radio. The radio stations have been classified as comm
or commercial on the basis of ownership, management and program
While the government has classified FM as commercial or comm
"the audience has generally benefited from the informatio
entertainment carried by the FM stations, they have been kept inf
and have had fun while at times they have also reacted to say th
choice of material they broadcast and their unrestrained air have no
easy to digest." vii
Nine years is not a long time for any society or country. Within this
period FM radio has established itself as a powerful communic
medium in town and village alike in Nepal. Now a days FM
undoubtedly established itself as a mirror that brings one to unde
the thinking, conduct and ways of society. It has also worked to c
such thinking and ways. The growing influence of FM has touched
class and age group and of both sexes. A large portion of societ
had access to mass communications media. FM has also been an attr
MS Nepal
for the various government and non-governmental organizations which

are active in improving the socio-economic lot of the lowest rungs of
society. INGO's have been working in tandem with the private sector in
Nepal in setting up, running and developing the capacity of FM radio.
MS Nepal is one of those INGO's.
MS Nepal's priority areas are dialogue for development and cultural
exchange and cross cultural understanding and cooperation. Popular
advocacy for this has remained the main policy of MS Nepal. The main
thrust of its work has been people-centered development based on
international solidarity and understanding. It accords high importance
to information and communications when working with poor and
backward communities for sustainable development. Since the past few
years MS Nepal has been working in partnership with Radio
Madanpokhara, the community radio of Palpa, and Rupandehi's
community radio, Radio Lumbini, with the aim of increasing the reach
of the poor and backward classes. With this kind of partnership there is
ample possibility for greater participation in mass media by poor and
helpless communities. So this study is focused on research and analysis
concerning use of FM radio in bringing about development, social justice
and equality for the poorer communities.
of its development and expansion has been on the side of the demo
process, has helped local development and has also sided with h
rights, good governance and the rights of the people.
But some questions about FM radio remain unanswered. How do
define its own role and responsibilities? Does FM make an eff
address the needs of poor Nepalese for information and knowled
so, how fruitful have such efforts been? Has it brought before the g
public the voice of those from the lower rungs of society? Has i
to the involvement and participation of lower classes of society
policy formulation and production of programming? If it has, the
has community participation been managed? Has this radio hel
informing the marginalized and indigent communities about their r
Do these radio stations show sensitivity towards local culture and
as a heritage? And while assaying these things what kinds of pro
have been encountered? Is government policy conducive to
unhindered operation of FM? What kind of role does FM play in
of public concern through coordination between civil society and
government bodies? What is the attitude of local government bodi
civil society towards the role of radio in social transformation?
kind of effort is FM radio making to turn itself into community
Many such questions have arisen along with the developmen
expansion of FM radio.
1.2 Objectives of the Study

Within a short lapse of time FM radio has established itself as Nepal's
popular and effective medium of mass communications. FM radio has
proved to be effective among all manner of people, be they children,
youths or elderly in terms of age, the poor, middle class or rich, or in
catering to tastes ranging from debates about grave topics, discussions
and talks to light hearted fare. All classes, levels and ages in society have
started taking FM as an effective mass communications media in Nepal.
That is why FM radio has become established today as a reflection of
what Nepalese society is thinking, what it is experiencing, where it is
headed. The experience of Nepalese society is that FM radio in the course
14
MS Nepal
The answers to these questions differ from person to person. It is extr

significant for many such questions to be answered by the listen
the basis of their own point of view and experience. This is becau
popularity and effectiveness of FM stations depend on the need
desires of the listeners and their involvement and participation in
Besides, as FM is mass media of a local nature the listeners are n
listeners but also a source of information. It is only through the partn
and involvement of listeners in both giving and taking of inform
that FM stations can establish their special identity in the comm
As the needs and wishes of an audience of various castes, genders, c
and ages are equally significant for both community and comm
MS Nepal
radio, the role and responsibility of FM radio should be analyzed from

the point of view of the listeners themselves. Although many of the radio
stations in Nepal, both commercial and community, broadcast from
district headquarters or urban areas, most of the listeners for all radio
are to be found in the villages. That is why no radio station, whether
commercial or community, can afford to ignore the needs and wishes of
listeners in the villages or their participation. This study has been
undertaken to analyze the role that FM plays and can play in promoting
equality, development and social justice through the active participation
of citizens.
for study. Included under the study were two stations each of dif
tendencies in Kathmandu, Pokhara and Rupandehi. The station
included were Radio Sagarmatha and Hits FM in Kathmandu,
Lumbini and Butwal FM in Rupandehi and Annapurna FM and Hima
FM in Pokhara. Hits, Butwal and Annapurna FM are run for comm
purposes while Radio Sagarmatha, Radio Lumbini and Himalchu
community radio. Similarly, Saptakosi FM broadcasting from S
and Manakamana FM from Makwanpur, which are also included
study, are run for commercial purposes while Radio Madanpokh
Palpa and Swargadwari FM in Dang are community radio. Five
s tations s tudied are community radio and five comme
The aims of the study are:
collecting information about the wishes and needs of radio

listeners, and their opinion about r adio progr amming,
analysis of the overall picture of FM radio operating in Nepal,

and the tendency at such radio, and analysis of the work being
done by them,
analysis of the participation and involvement of listeners in

making the programs carried by FM radio,
analysis of outside cooperation in FM radio so as to come up

with suggestions.
1.3 Methods of study and its area

In carrying out this study an effort has been made to cover as much of
the geographical area of the country as possible, FM stations of different
kinds of ownership and stations that carry many kinds of programming.
The study was carried out at ten radio stations and it took two months.
In the course of two months' field study discussions were held individually
and in groups with people of various levels and classes and facts gathered
16
MS Nepal
While selecting these FM stations for study special attention was

to representing the diversity existing even among the many kin
ownership and programming. While Hits FM selected from Kathm
gives priority to pure entertainment, Radio Sagarmatha gives p
mostly to policy oriented and serious programming in a discu
format. Of the stations studied, Radio Sagarmatha and Swargadwa
are run under the ownership of NGO's. Radio Lumbini and Hima
FM are under cooperative ownership. Similarly, Radio Madanpo
is run by a local body, the VDC. The commercial FM radios studi
under the ownership of private companies.
The study has included the opinion of 303 people in Sunsari, M
Makwanpur, Rupandehi, Dang, Palpa, Kaski and Lalitpur, Bhak
and Kathmandu in the Kathmandu Valley gathered between A
2004 and May 31, 2004 to cover the broadcast areas of the radio st
and the immediate neighborhoods of broadcast centers. Interview
group discussions were held in 48 different places. Included in
discussions and interviews were youths, adults, the elderly as w
people of various callings and groups, town and country dwellers.
callings and ages are given below.
MS Nepal
On the basis of age

10 - 19 Yrs.
62 21percent
20 - 40 Yrs.
170 56percent
40 - 60 Yrs.
64 21.33percent
above 60 Yrs.
5 1.67percent
On the basis of calling

Radio employees students laborers businessmen farmers housewives political teachers others
workers
workers
30
25
70
25
20
55
15
40
14
In the course of field study talks and group-wise discussions were held
with various listeners' groups comprising students, employees, teachers,
farmers, program producers, station operators, government officials,
representatives of non-government organizations, outstanding members
of society, and people from the ethnic communities.
Thirty-one group-wise discussions were held in various places while in
17 other places group and individual talks and interviews were held.
About a hundred women and double that number of men openly discussed
the FM stations broadcasting in their respective areas. At the same time,
the existing communications policy, broadcast law and regulations, the
reports of committees constituted at various times, the audience surveys
that have been carried out so far and works dealing with radio were
studied and analyzed. Material for this study was gathered from these
sources also. A list of works used in this study (see page 67 of resource
materials) and individuals participating in the interviews and group
discussions is included at the end of the study. (See annex 5.)
facts, preparing a list of questions for group discussions and interv

giving this a final shape and in making this study participation-ori
The facts and ideas mentioned in this study and analyzed are m
based on the group discussions, interviews and exchanges of view
took place in the course of the field study. Many of the facts and op
referred to as subjects of controversy and discussion concernin
radio have been taken from the resource material. Many things
from resource material have been used only for purposes of evid
They have not been elaborated upon as they have already been sub
to ample comment and discussion and because of a need to r
focused. The resource materials have been mentioned at the end
report.
1.4 Limits to the study
Although the scope of this study is wide, the report is mostly ce
on the prospects for social justice, equality and development th
FM radio, the participation in radio of people from the lower c
and the responsibility of FM radio towards that class. That is why
aspects pertaining to FM radio have not been included in the study
significant aspects (radio set ownership, listening habits, broadcas
etc.) have however been analyzed on the basis of available fac
published material. Similarly, the social subjects interspersed
entertainment programs have also not been covered by the study.
cursory information has been provide on the listeners' groups cons
for entertainment programming, this study has analyzed li
par ticipation only within a c ontext of social res pons ib
The study has used a qualitative method. In order to make this study
properly organized, assistance and advice were provided by a task force
that included MS Nepal director Nina Alinger, MS Nepal information
section head Binaya Dhital, and one representative each from SM Nepal's
partner radio stations Radio Madanpokhara and Radio Lumbini. Before
the field study started the task force provided meaningful help in gathering
18
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
Radio waves in the

hands of the people
P
A
R
T
II
2.1 Broadcast area, broadcasters and FM craze

The National Communications Policy 2049 enforced after the restoration
of democracy in 2046 Bikram Era provided for "allowing organized
entities in the private sector also to set up frequency modulation (FM)
broadcasting and air programming that is educational and entertaining
while remaining within the broadcast law".viii Close on the heels of
this policy announcement the private sector took the initiative to open
FM radio in Nepal. "Four days after the announcement of the policy on
Kartik 7, 2049, the Nepal Forum for Environmental Journalists submitted
a license application." ix The Ministry of Information and Communications
was designated as the body for implementing the policy, but while it
was stated that the private sector would be allowed participation at policy
level, the bureaucracy and the then political leadership were for a long
time in two minds whether or
not to allow the private sector
to operate FM. Nepal Forum for
Environmental Journalists and
Madanpokhara VDC in Palpa
had to launch a ser ies of
movements for securing license.
These entities lobbied f or
permission to run community
radio either through parliament
20
MS Nepal
or the district council or by sending delegations to the ministry. B

four years the private sector was unable to secure any FM license d
much campaigning and repeated registration of license applica
Rather, "Radio Nepal, without any license or approval starte
transmissions on 100 megahertz from 7.15 AM on Kartik 30, 20
It was a matter of great astonishment that Radio Nepal should
commenced FM broadcasting at a time when no decision was tak
applications for permission submitted by dozens of organizations d
enforcement of the National Communications Policy and the Na
Broadcast Act 2049 which allow for the running of FM by orga
entities in the private sector. The starting of FM broadcasti
government controlled Radio Nepal without any license being g
only confirms that the then government was not keen to let the p
sector run FM radio. On top of that the Nepal Forum for Environm
Journalists, which was the first applicant for FM license, had to wa
years for its permit. It was only after issuing a public defiance that l
or not it would commence its radio operations from Jestha 9, 205
it was finally given permission on Jestha 5, 2054 to operate
Sagarmatha, Nepal's first FM station in the private sector. Nepal F
for Environment Journalists and Madanpokhara VDC were at the for
of the campaign to unlock the iron door to FM licensing. Notabl
was extended to their campaign by Nepal Press Institute, Worl
Nepal and Himal Association. Fifty-six organizations have rec
permits for running radio over the past nine years after Radio Sagar
forced open the way to private sector participation in runing FM
Of these, 47 FM stations had come into operation at the time of pre
this report while the others are also making preparations for comme
their operations. Looking at the distribution of FM stations tha
come on air, one finds that the central region has the greatest numb
while the far western development region has only two, the l
number. After the central region, the western region has the gr
number at 14, followed by the eastern region with 7 and the mid-w
region with 5 FM stations in operation. (The list of FM stations n
operation or that have been given permission is given in ann
MS Nepal
A look at the ownership of FM stations in the private sector shows that

many kinds of organizations are involved in this activity. FM stations
currently in operation in Nepal are under the ownership of individuals
of various classes and organizations including purely business enterprises,
social service organizations, municipalities, VDC's, cooperative groups
and journalists groups". The National Broadcasting Act 2049, the
Broadcast Regulations 2052 or policies relating to broadcasting have
not classified FM stations on the basis of ownership or any other basis.
However, there is a general practice in Nepal of looking at radio stations
as belonging to two kinds, community and commercial. Radio stations
under the ownership of NGO's, cooperatives, VDCs and municipalities
in Nepal are considered to be community radio, while FM stations owned
by private companies are taken as commercial radio. Going by this
general usage, 17 of the 47 stations now in operation are community
and the remaining 30 are commercial entities. Looked at in this way, all
kinds of organizations in Nepal (non-governmental, cooperatives, vdcs,
municipalities and business firms) are involved in FM broadcasting. The
enthusiasm for setting up and operating FM seen among many different
kinds of organizations functioning in Nepal indicates the increasing
popularity of FM. The way FM has been able to attract people of all
levels and classes of society including the old, the young and children
into its circle of listeners attests clearly to the growing effectiveness of
FM radio.
Along with the growth in the number of stations, the area over which
FM broadcasts can be captured has also increased noticeably in the past
nine years. Except for Dhanusa in the central region and parts of Mahottari
in the Nepal Terai, FM radio waves have spread from Jhapa in the east
to Kanchanpur in the west. FM has opened even in the remote hilly
districts of Bajhang, Jumla and Solukhumbu. According to one estimate,
FM radio can be captured now in more than 40 percent of the geographical
spread of the country and FM broadcasting can be heard by 65 to 70
percent of the total population. (The estimated area covered by FM radio
waves is given in appendix 2).
The development and expansion of FM stations have been matched by
22
MS Nepal
a noticeable increase in the number of listeners. The opening o

stations in Nepal and the flood of cheap radio sets occurred at abo
same time. The penetration of FM in Nepalese society was also faci
in no mean degree by the entry of cheap radio sets from Tibet a
commencement of FM broadcasting in the country both at the same
The availability of cheap radios, equally cheap batteries, the trust re
by Nepalese society in word of mouth communication, and the c
and resonance of the FM sound motivated many Nepalese to buy
sets that can capture FM. In dozens of places where radio broadc
opened locally, thousands of radio sets changed hands every day.
not take long for the FM sound to spread to every house, shop, rick
push cart, everywhere. Even in ordinary and poor families which
at one time have looked upon radio as a social status symbol, the
has now taken hold of listening to FM in room after room and individ
This is a clear pointer to the number of radio sets in Nepal and the n
of listeners. But so far since the commencement of FM broadcast
credible and reliable study has been done on the habits of radio list
the pr ogr amming, the broadcast areas, and radio owne
In 1996 (2053) before the private sector started FM radio, 51 perc
homes in Nepal had radio sets. xii But it is nowhere stated how
of these sets had the FM band. Studies done in the past show that
set ownership in Nepal has grown by 2 percent annually. xiii Ov
past nine years this figure on ownership has grown as a matter of c
but going by the increasing popularity of FM stations, the easy avail
of radio sets and the way people carry sets in their pockets and se
sets for listening at home, it is clear that hundreds of thousands o
have been added to Nepalese homes. "Within one week of the comm
radio station Madanpokhara starting to broadcast, more than a tho
radio sets were sold in Damak and Madanpokhara village alone
But such phenomenon was seen not just at Radio Madanpokhar
in all places where new radio has opened up. In localities wher
stations opened the sale of FM radio sets increased in extraord
fashion for months, and in some places businessmen even sold th
at inflated prices.
MS Nepal
Although radio stations and government bodies have paid no attention

to carrying out any factual and scientific research into the sale and
distribution of radio, some significant facts can be easily surmised on
the basis of field studies, the broadcast reach claimed by the stations,
listening audience, program producers, listeners' clubs and the limited
studies that have been done on the reach and impact of FM. Again on
the basis of the natural increase in radio ownership in Nepalese society,
the commencement of broadcasting by some four dozen radio stations
during this period, the availability of cheap radios at about Rs 100 in
towns and villages, the way all age groups from children to the elderly
are attracted to radio and the growing tendency for a single home to have
two or more radio sets, it is estimated that at present 75 percent of
Nepalese homes have radio. After television came to Nepal it was said
that radio's days were numbered. But the preference for FM shown by
Nepalese society even some years after the advent of TV indicates that
the effectiveness of radio continues. The way things are, it can be guessed
that this hold is going to remain for a long time.
In spite of all this there are still people in localities with FM radio who
do not listen to any radio at all. One of the main reasons for this is that
radio sets and batteries, cheap as they are, remain unaffordable for some
while the other reasons are failure of the program content, language and
presentation to attract an audience and ignorance of the fact that radio
is being operated locally.
2.2 Law, regulations, license and monitoring

The development and expansion of FM in a short period of time through
the participation and investment of the private sector have made Nepal
an example for other countries in South Asia. But this development and
expansion of FM in Nepal has taken place not in any panned fashion but
rather spontaneously. According to a report submitted to the ministry of
communications, "no real effort was made to organize the development
and expansion of electronic media and to further open up this freedom
24
MS Nepal
through the law and

regulations. This led to
u n c er t ai nt y,
mis conceptions and
problems. Controversies
emerged in the field of
e l e c tr o n i c m e d ia .
Problems emerged. The
press council, which
was constituted with the
print media in mind,
c o u ld n o t h a n d le
electronic media. That
left the Ministry of Information and Communications as the only
for settling disputes and problems arising in electronic media
responsibility for such media fell on the discretion of civil servants
led to a disorganized state of affairs and decisions came to be
through the will of a single individual." viii On top of that it was n
for a business motive to figure along with the participation of the p
sector in FM radio. When political, financial and many individual m
began to figure in the distribution of FM licenses, the problems b
more intractable. As a result, the development and expansion o
radio came to be determined not by government planning, polic
rules as by the market.
This influence of FM radio grew more and more with the increase
number of FM stations. But nobody paid any attention to the formu
of a minimum code of conduct for FM. Many entities therefore s
to run FM like a trade in mass produced goods. The government
part paid no real attention to properly regulating broadcasting ac
According to the latest report submitted to the ministry of communic
"a national policy has yet to be worked out on tapping such a pow
broadcast medium for the greater good of the country, and market
have been the only determining factor in the setting up of broa
organizations". xvi
MS Nepal
It was natural for the National Broadcasting Act 2049 and the National
Broadcasting Regulations 2052 along with a democratic atmosphere to
popularize the concept of plurality in mass communications media. But
the government should have worked out a plan on organizing the FM
stations even before attracting the private sector towards the development
and expansion of FM radio. However, it's attention could not be drawn
towards this on time. The development and expansion of pluralistic mass
communications media was not accorded any importance in planning
before the start of FM radio, nor after it came into operation. Even after
the ministry of communications issued the licenses the ninth five year
plan remained silent about the development, expansion and monitoring
of FM radio. The tenth plan has come up with an action plan "for setting
up a broadcast authority for the coordinated and competitive development
and monitoring of the broadcast sector and the fostering of an atmosphere
conducive to maximum reach by private sector services with a view to
making electronic mass media competitive and credible and disseminating
healthy entertainment, knowledge and information." xvii But nothing
has really been done towards implementation of the action policy even
now. Although the tenth plan is nearing its end a broadcast authority has
not yet been set up. Because of the lack of a monitoring body, clear cut
policy and planning and restrictive and problematical clauses in the law
and regulations, many organizations trying to run FM station have yet
to receive their licenses even after waiting for five or six years while
FM stations already in operation are facing all kinds of difficulties
because of the lack of clear cut planning and its implementation.
I Even now more than 60 applications for FM license are pending at the
ministry of communications. Of these many were registered more than
five years ago while some others have received license within a month
of application.
Although FM stations have classified themselves as community or
commercial stations, no such classification has been done in the broadcast
act and regulations. The regulations have furthermore specified the
transmitter (broadcasting capacity) as the main criteria for setting the
26
MS Nepal
fee for issuing or renewing licenses. The organization running the

station, its aims, the kind of service to be provided by it, its m
employment provided and technical aspects are very significant a
in radio transmission. But these aspects are neither considered ser
when issuing license nor have the law and regulations made the
basis for determining the fees and renewing license. Determinin
fees on the basis of transmission capacity cannot be considered sci
either because the same fee is charged for all stations with a transm
capacity higher than 1,000 watt. A station with 1,000 capacity and a
of 10,000 watt cannot be the same in terms of the area covered
broadcast waves, the services they provide, the investment made in
transactions, markets and listeners. But the license fees and fe
license renewal paid by them are the same. The fee specified fo
is the same (500,000). The Ministry of Information and Communic
has not made clear the scientific basis for this nor have the la
regulations made matters any clearer.
The law and regulation have on the contrary only created confusio
the matter of fees and renewal of license. The National Broadcastin
2049 and Regulations 2052 require that licenses be renewed, tho
is not specified that renewal should take place every year. Howev
Ministry of Information and Communications has made prov
requiring FM stations to renew their licenses annually and pay th
year after year. In many countries it is enough to renew licenses
every five or six years. Examples of this are Indonesia, Canada a
USA. In Indonesia, where FM broadcasts started in the sixties, lic
need to be renewed every five years while the renewal period is
years in Canada and eight years in the US. But in Nepal no atten
paid to how FM licenses are renewed in other countries nor are
provisions taken as any basis. While the broadcast regulations sa
licenses have to be renewed they do not specify that renewal has t
place every year.xviii But the FM stations which have acquired lic
for broadcasting in Nepal have to renew their licenses every ye
pay a high renewal fee every year. The Ministry of Informatio
Communications has been issuing licenses to FM broadcasters on
MS Nepal
the condition that licenses are renewed every year. It has been doing this
without any basis at all. On top of that, there is a difficult provision
under which fines have to be incurred month after month if renewal
cannot take place on time.
But the problem is not limited to this. When listening to FM radio in
Nepal it becomes clear that there is a lack of frequency management and
of any planning in the issuing of licenses. Biratnagar, Kathmandu and
Pokhara are examples of this management lacuna. Four FM radio stations
are broadcasting in Pokhara. All four broadcast on frequencies between
91 and 95 megahertz. With the frequencies so crowded together the
broadcast signal of one station gets mixed up with that of another if one
is using an ordinary radio set, and one station interferes with another.
However, all frequencies below 91 megahertz and above 95 megahertz
remain empty. There is apparently no scientific reason for distribution
of frequencies to four radio stations in such close proximity while
leaving empty 15 out of the 20 frequencies between 88 to 108 megahertz.
This only shows that there is no frequency planning by the government
or that frequency distribution has been taking place negligently.
More than a dozen stations in Kathmandu have to broadcast on frequencies
in extreme proximity to each other. But in Biratnagar, the second largest
city in Nepal, licenses have been issued so far to only four stations. It
can easily be surmised that this situation has arisen because there is no
planning as to how many stations are to be allowed in which city.
Practically all committees constituted so far to study FM broadcasting
have suggested that frequencies be distributed only after a plan has been
worked out. A committee constituted under the convenorship of Bharat
Dutta Koirala to suggest ways to develop and streamline the electronic
media suggested two years ago that "it has become necessary to work
out a clear plan to ensure that frequencies are diverse and utilized to the
maximum while issuing licenses and to that end a plan should be
formulated encompassing all the frequencies that can be used for
broadcasting." xix But the process of implementing this suggestions has
yet to start.
28
MS Nepal
W hile iss uing lice nse s the

information and communications
ministry directs the FM stations to
f ocus on topic s like health,
education, agriculture, forests and
environment. The directives and
stipulations accompanying the
licenses show that the government
is trying to develop FM radio as
a n in te gr a l pa r t of loc a l
development. But it is not yet clear
who should see to it that such
dir ectives are adher ed to, an
atmosphere conducive to this is
created or monitoring and follow
u p tak e place. The re is an
a rr angement under wh ich a
representative of the information and communications ministry s
the programming selection committee of every FM station in or
see whether the directives and stipulations are adhered to or not
carry out follow up and monitoring. But the functions of
representatives is limited to participation in the meetings of this com
which are held from time to time. There is a requirement that
issuing licenses records should be kept on material broadcast o
least seven days. Going by this one gets an impression that the gover
is trying to carry out monitoring and follow up. But except when a
station airs controversial material the ministry is not seen lookin
whether or not the stipulation is followed. There is a press coun
look over the print media. But there is no organized entity or proc
place for monitoring and evaluation of material that is broadcast by
Yet, in spite of all the problems, the interest shown by the private
nine years ago in the development and expansion of FM radio is
existence. In Nepal, tens of millions have been invested by the po
middle class and business houses in FM radio. And there is still eag
to invest further.
MS Nepal
2.3 Government and broadcasters: Present situation and tendency

In February 1995 the Indian supreme court said in a ruling that "radio
waves are the property of the people and their use should be for the good
of the people, and not just for the sake of profit." xx Voices raised to the
effect that radio waves, which are under ownership of the government,
are the common property of the people just like the air, water and nature
are a little stronger today than they were yesterday. The number of
organizations working to see to it that ratio waves are used to the utmost
in the interest of the people is on the increase world wide? Specific
principles and values have been established for such organizations, the
government, broadcasters and monitoring bodies so that radio waves are
used to the maximum for the benefit of the people. But seven years after
the opening of FM radio the government has not worked out a clear plan
for using radio for the good of the people. Rather, the FM stations
the ms elves h ave tried to wor k o ut a common appr oa ch
Every entity seeking license for FM radio has to submit a technical and
a business proposal. It is on the basis of these proposals that the
communications ministry issues a license along with specific conditions
and directives. But there is neither any body to follow up on whether
these conditions and directives are adhered to nor do the FM stations
themselves implement the technical and business proposals they submit
for license procurement. In practical terms the usefulness of such proposals
end as soon as the license is acquired?
With a few exceptions, the FM stations operating in Nepal have no
written long term and short term policies, no declared principles, values
or programming and advertising policy, no code of conduct or style. FM
stations in our country either go by the rule of thumb of doing what
others do or are directed by the specific interests of the investors. Many
of the FM stations started off without doing the research or planning that
should have preceded the opening of a radio station. As a result, as stated
by Arvin Signal and Robert M. Regard in their article "Revolution in
Public Broadcasting", in Nepal also "the focus in the expansion of
30
MS Nepal
broadcast organization has been on installation of equipment and ext

of the area in which broadcast signals can be picked up" xxi. Exte
of the area of reach for the broadcast signal and increase in the nu
of FM radio stations are good in themselves, but expansion of bro
reach is not everything. Along with the expansion of transmission c
the quality level of programming that radio should give the pub
topicality and the effect that such programs aim to have on listene
important considerations. Even years after commencement of oper
many FM stations in our country have yet to give their attention
and the government also has not tried to encourage stations i
direction. Apart from a few stations their attention is centered eve
on meeting their operating costs.
With few exceptions the FM stations mostly broadcast the same k
programming and the broadcast time for such programming i
roughly the same. For example, in the morning every FM station broa
religious and spiritual programs followed by news, and in the afte
they all carry songs. Imitation of one FM by another in an attem
please the advertisers, the market and listeners all in the na
competition is to be seen not only between commercial stations bu
between community and commercial stations, big and small ones,
and rural. The scramble for advertising has had an ill effect on bo
image and the earnings of many FM stations.
The main reasons behind the unhealthy competition in FM radio ar
of clear policy on programming and advertising, market researc
plan of action as well as a make do approach and apathy on the p
government. Competition in itself is not a bad thing, but compe
without any objective will benefit no one. Competition for adver
and the market alone will not only not brighten the image of th
stations but also erode the responsibility of the stations towar
listeners. This tendency has been growing continuously amon
stations in our country. But the government is more responsible f
than the FM stations themselves. All stations have to pay the gover
the same rate and amount of revenue, license renewal fee and
MS Nepal
whether they are big or small, community or commercial, rural or urban.

Given this uniformity of policy towards all stations and of tax, fee and
revenue liabilities, it is natural for competition to be severe. As it is, the
advertising market in Nepal is a small one and businesses have not
developed the habit of advertising on radio. Until there is scientific
evaluation of the impact of FM, businesses will hesitate to advertise to
promote their market. And one cannot run a radio station without access
to the market.
True, all radio stations in the world bring their audiences the basic
elements of song, voice and sound. But just as speech, behavior and
mannerisms give each individual human being a clear identity that makes
him distinct from others, so also every radio station has its own identity,
nature and style. In Nepal, with few exceptions, the radio stations have
not established clear individual identities. All the stations feel like the
same except when the call signs and the frequency information are given.
as any increase in the number of broadcasters is whether radio guar

the people's freedom of information and expression and whethe
society, various groups in society and the masses have greater acc
the radio waves. But only a few FM stations in Nepal have initi
process to give access to radio waves to the masses, guarantee the c
freedom of information and expression and utilize this medium f
good of the masses. This process has yet to take hold at all th
stations and become institutionalized. It is the government that s
initiate serious effort at an organized and institutionalized appro
is a sad and serious matter that the government has done nothing
though efforts to this end have been initiated by the broadca
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------2 Unesco, Article 19 and Amark are among various organization
are involved in this campaign.
2.4 Investment, manpower and technology

A language that is a mix of English and Nepali, topics and subject matter
that are mostly about sex and love and programming targeted at youth
and the young! One gets the impression from listening to the programs
broadcast that these three elements comprise the common identity of
most FM stations in Nepal. On the other hand community radio has
established its own identity in terms of language that is chaste and very
formal, subject matter of a serious social nature and programming aimed
at people who are mature in age and thinking. Only some stations have
worked to encourage listeners' maturity and enhance their knowledge,
skills and analytical ability. Thus, on the whole the number of FM stations
in Nepal and the area covered by their signal may have seen noticeable
increase, but when it comes to style, nature and identity, development
of many "types" of radio has yet to take place in our country.
The increase in the number of FM stations and expansion of the area in
which broadcast signals can be picked up are notable. But as pointed
out in the Indian supreme court verdict in 1995 concerning radio
frequencies, growth in the number of broadcasters does not mean for
certain that radio is operating for the good of the people. As important
32
MS Nepal
The private sector has invested tens of millions in setting up and ope
FM stations over the past nine years. But adequate data is still la
to enable one to say just how much has been invested. Most inv
have not kept their investment and its sources transparent. Of the
stations now in operation, some small community stations have be
up at an investment of at least 800,000 rupees (Radio Lumbini w
up at a cost of around 800,000, but such investment now has re
around 7,200,000) while big, commercial stations have involved inve
of up to 20 million. The average cost of setting up an FM station
out at around seven million rupees taking into account both big and
stations. Using this rough estimate as a basis, the private sect
invested more than 300 million in equipment and other inputs i
industry. The source of this investment is mostly of two kinds. So
the stations owned by NGO's, cooperatives, VDCs and municip
have been set up with limited levels of external assistance and gra
well as local capital. Radio stations run by private companies have
set up with the investment of business houses, local middle
MS Nepal
businessmen, social workers, political workers and people of various

callings and classes who have mobilized small capital amounts for the
purpose.
In setting up FM stations a great deal of investment has been made in
program production and training the technical and professional manpower,
quite apart from the visible works such as studios, equipment, electric
power and towers. Organizations concerned with journalism, mass
communications and broadcasting have also been investing a great deal
every year in such human development work. The assistance and grants
received for training in program production and presentation held regularly
or from time to time in Katmandu Valley and places where radio stations
have opened and the fees paid by training participants also constitute
direct or indirect investment in FM radio. Such investment takes place
year after year and it is on the increase. Although accounts pertaining
to investment in equipment and inputs are available, it is not easy to
come by accounts concerning investment in human development. If one
looks at the quality level and presentation of programming carried by
FM and the impact of the market promotion, it is apparent that during
this period a great deal of manpower has been developed for radio.
To go by one report submitted to the communications ministry, the FM
stations "have each of them 30 employees". Using this figure of 30
employees per station as a basis, the number of people working for FM
stations at present exceeds 1,400. In practical terms, this is a very big
number. Almost all the stations running have about 50 employees in
program production, technical and market management. On the basis of
this one finds that the 47 FM radio stations running in Nepal at present
employ over 2,200 people. Though the manpower at the radio stations
is not highly skilled nor has expertise, most radio workers have had some
training or the other relating to broadcasting.
Many people who did not even know what a radio station would be like
before the restoration of democracy have learnt to speak on the air, hold
talks, and make listeners laugh along with themselves and share one's
34
MS Nepal
joys and sorrows after FM

broadcasting came along.
Together with the expansion
of FM radio the population
of radio workers has grown
in Nepal. Any given day a
large group of them is
a bsor bed in ef for ts to
enhance their skills and
talent. Before the advent of
FM the number of skilled
r adio manpower in the
country was not more than 300. Today the number of skilled
workers has reached an estimated 1,000 roughly. During this peri
number of skilled program producers, technicians and marketing ma
has also increased noticeably. Another notable and positive aspect
a growth in the numbers of creative and practical manpower in mark
programming and technical fields has been seen along wit
development and expansion of FM radio.
This same positive tendency can be seen in radio technology and a
the technicians. There is a tremendous gap between the technol
the time FM radio was first set up in Nepal about eight years ag
the technology in use at present. During this period of time voice rec
technology, broadcasting and voice management technology have
strides in the world as a whole. When Nepal's first private sector
station, Radio Sagarmatha, started broadcasting, program produce
technicians had to rely on cassette players, tape recorders and reel
recording for producing their programming. Vocabulary such as
MP-3 and WMA had not yet entered the country. It was somethin
even for radio workers. It was a time when people would be aston
to hear that the human voice could be recorded on computer. It
take hours for program producers, technicians and assistants
traditional equipment to make half an hour of programming. M
programs for radio by one person acting alone could be imagine
it was not easy.
MS Nepal
The great strides made during this period by transmission technology

meant that many things became easy and simple. The place of the cassette
and tape recorder has today been taken by the minidisc of digital
technology. The march of technology has erased the distance between
program producers in radio and technicians. Many program producers
today have started doing the work of technicians while technicians who
have good voices and are knowledgeable have taken to addressing the
listeners through the microphone themselves. Technology has made it
possible for one person to do recording work that used to require many
hands. The quality of voice and sound has grown to the full. With the
growing skill of manpower in radio, half an hour of programming is
prepared within about the same amount of time after entering the studio.
Also during this period the use of the computer has increased to the
maximum. Radio stations not only in the urban areas but also in Bajhang,
Jumla and Solukhumbu have started doing program recording, voice
editing and transmissions through digital technology which is based on
the computer. Sundry FM stations have started recording and transmitting
though v-sat technology programming prepared in Katmandu while the
number of production houses turning out and distributing programming
for radio stations has been growing. These entities have begun to distribute
radio programming produced in Nepal throughout the world and all this
in a matter of a few moments, through v-sat, the internet and the FTP
network.
Classification of radio
3.1 Lack of classification and confusion
Radio stations currently broadcasting in the world are mostly clas
by analysts in four classes on the basis of programming and owne
These are "commercial radio, public radio, community radio and p
radio. Pirated radio is mostly operated by those who are again
government or by rebels." xxiii Private sector radio operated in
with government permission is regarded as commercial, pub
community radio. Radio operated under government ownership ha
defined as public radio. For the past few years Maoists rebels hav
been operating radio in Nepal. Radio operated by the Maoists f
the pirated radio category. Thus all flour categories of radio are
seen operating in Nepal. But despite the fact that all the categor
radio recognized as such internationally are in operation in the co
there is still confusion here when it comes to classifying the radio st
There are also differences of opinion among radio stations abo
basis for categorization. The National Broadcasting Act 2049 and Na
Broadcasting Regulations 2052 which constitute the law under
broadcast license for radio and TV is issued have lumped togeth
kinds of FM radio into one group. There is no provision in the regul
law or policy for classification.
All types of radio have come into use in Nepal, but a universally ac
classification has yet to be worked out. However, there is ge
acceptance that government owned Radio Nepal is public radi
stations owned by private companies are commercial radio and F
by NGO's, cooperatives, VDCs and municipalities are community
36
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
No one has so far tried to define FM radio operated by the rebels against
the government. Throughout the world however such radio is considered
to be pirated radio. Compared to public and pirated radio, commercial
and community radio in Nepal are more effective and popular. But it is
not easy to shift though the similarities between community and
commercial radio in Nepal. All radio run by the private sector is of the
same type in terms of the service provided, the nature of programming,
the dominance of rural audience and the technical aspects. Because of
this uniformity classification is a challenge. Lack of uniformity in the
definitions in use to describe community radio is a problem among the
community radio operators themselves. "Radio stations that consider
broadcasting to be a community service and communications a sovereign
right are community radio, which look upon broadcasting as a form of
service, not a profit making business". xxiv This is the definition issued
by the community radio organizations in Argentina, the Latin American
nation where community radio has seen development and growth. But
it is difficult to include in this definition all radio stations considered
community radio in Nepal.
The Philippines is the country in Asia with long experience of both
community and commercial FM radio. In the Philippines commercial
and community radio are distinguished on the basis of various P's, namely
profit, propaganda, power politics, privilege and people. FM radio run
for profit, propaganda, power politics or privilege are considered
commercial FM. Only radio run by the people in accordance with the
needs of the people and under ownership of the people is considered
community radio. Community radio in the Philippines defines P as
People and considers it supreme. Radio run for profit, propaganda,
power politics and privilege come under the commercial category. This
notion has spr ead from the Philippines to other countries.
According to AMARC, the organization of community radio stations in
the world, "community radio is not just radio doing something for the
community. But rather the main characteristic of community radio is the
community running communications media under its won ownership
and control". xxv But with regard to community radio in Nepal, there
38
MS Nepal
is still no uniformity in
t h e d e f i n i t io n o f
community. While VDC
and municipality are in
the main representative
bodies, NGO's in Nepal
are run more under group
o wn ers h ip
th an
community ownership.
Similarly, cooperative
organizations are allowed
to dis tribute a small
proportion of profit to shareholders. It cannot be said categorical
these entities have been able to truly represent the community
though they do have a community spirit and essence. While dealin
radio all those referred to in a mass are called community, but th
no unanimity among these entities on the definition of community
the basis for distinguishing commercial from community broadc
along with the definitions, policy, regulations and plans have co
be established world wide. But in our own country debate still ra
to which FM are genuinely community radio and which are public
Listeners themselves have however started to differentiate be
community and commercial radio on the basis of the programmin
hear. This evaluation of commercial and community radio is
interesting.
Three Nepal's Maoist rebels have been operating FM radio from dif
places since the past few years. The government owned Radio
was a lso fir st sta rted by rebe ls a gains t the establish
With the advent of this radio it has seemed to me that social development c
place in the country only through community local radio.
This radi o has giv en us a voi ce, it has tak en up t he promot ion
language, our art, culture, literature, etc..
Shambhu Dahal, Principal, FW Taylor
Dillibazar speaking about Radio Saga
MS Nepal
Is a radio station that broadcasts programming like Your Wish, Mayos Greetings,
Wai Wai Magic, A Song of Colgate Preference, Hotline Golden Pathway and such
names that sound purely commercial to be called community radio? Going by much
programming carried by it, it is a commercial station.
Sirian Adhikary, class 12, age 18,
speaking about Swargadwari FM.
Now the municipality is paying for the programming it runs. The DDC also pays,
and similarly Abhiyan Nepal pays for the ''Common Courtyard" program. When
has the radio station produced and broadcast such programming at its own expense?
Pusparaj Parajuli, I.A. 21 years of age,
speaking about Saptakosi FM.
The radio station has tried through its programs to touch at least to some extent
people of all ages, callings, classes and ethnic communities residing in Rupandehi
district and because of this it can be said that the radio is targeted at the community.
B ut none of us h as been able to say, 'wow ! t he radio talked about me'.
Tulasal Sharma, teacher Devdaha-5
speaking about Radio L umbini
Even a cow does not give as much milk as one would wish. We are satisfied with
whatever the radio is doing. If we have to say so, we are 75 percent satisfied.
A member of Mandabya radio friends group
Damak evaluating Radio Madanpokhara
3.2 Community and commercial: similarities and differences

Although the commercial stations running in Nepal can be attributed
all the P's, some commercial stations have been giving as much importance
to people-oriented programs as done by community radio. Time will tell
what motivates commercial radio to carry programs of interest or concern
to the public. FM radio with commercial objective can also be run with
programs of a community nature. It remains to be seen whether commercial
radio runs community type programming out of commercial motive or
actually for the development of the community. But whatever the motive
there is no dispute over the fact that broadcasting of programs about the
40
MS Nepal
rights of the community, development etc. is a good thing in itsel

when the subject matter and target group of both commercia
community radio programming appear to be the same it becomes di
to differentiate between the conduct and nature of such radio sta
That is because programming is also one of the main bases for class
radio. There is similarity up to a point between community and comm
FM stations in Nepal in the nature of programming, target group a
issues and topics raised by them. To a large extent the time slots, pro
and presentation used by community and commercial radio tally
it comes to matters of public concern. This becomes clearer if one
at the weekly time schedule at ratio stations and the topics spon
and presented (see schedules 1 and 2 in part 4 of this repo
annex 3).
The schedules show that there is good competition at local level be
community and commercial FM for winning the favour of listener
stations give priority to the preference of listeners when including
aimed at poor and marginalized communities and are of public co
which is a good thing in itself. Examples of this are the FM stati
operation in Pokhara and Butwal. The amount of time slott
community radio in Butwal and Pokhara for programming aim
marginalized groups seems to be matched by the time set asi
commercial FM for the same groups. Another interesting thing
Annapurna FM gives less attention to topics ignored by Himalchu
Similarly, Butwal FM has set aside roughly the same amount of tim
programs on topics of popular concern as Lumbini FM which gives
time to such topics. It is interesting to note that both communit
commercial radio stations allocate about the same amount of tim
any specific class or group. The amount of time set aside by Manaka
FM, which is also covered by the study, for listeners in the margin
communities and for issues of public concern is greater than at
community radio stations. This is another interesting fact for those
to diff erentiate between community and commercial r
Generally, commercial and community stations are classifieds o
basis of ownership of the station, participation by the communi
MS Nepal
listeners in policy
making
and
program production,
technical capability
and the like. Low
c a p a c i t y
transmitters, control
over policy making
by the community,
a nd c ommu nity
ownership in terms
of investment are
the
specia l
characteristics of community radio. Community radio gives priority to
technology that is easy and low cost so that the community can exercise
control not only over ownership and programming but also over policy
making and technology. But in Nepal one finds that not all community
radio has been giving equal attention to these considerations. Of the
community radios in operation here some are transmitting with 50 or
100 watt transmiters while some others are using over 1000 watt capacity.
In stark opposition to this trend, some commercial radio are broadcasting
with equipment of lower capacity (100 and 250 watt) than community
radio.
There are ample theoretical grounds for hair splitting between community
and commercial radio in Nepal. (For greater details see The Establishment
and Operation of Community Radio, author: Binaya Kumar Kasaju, and
Community Radio Broadcasting Manual, author: Raghu Mainali.) But
a study of the way the stations are run shows that in practice such
differences are to be found only in one or two stations, and even that
only if the study involves in-depth analysis. Community or commercial,
all FM with a few exceptions use the same kind of "packaging" for
programming format, the topics chosen, style of program presentation
and subject matter. There is also no real difference between commercial
and community stations when it comes to the technology used, the
42
MS Nepal
e quipme nt a nd the wor king a tmo sph er e at th e sta t

Although community and commercial stations are under two ki
ownership their target audience and markets are the same. The adve
messages they broadcast are also mostly of the same type. The unifo
seen in all these matters makes classification of FM operating in
more difficult than elsewhere.
Going by the programming carried by FM radio in our country,
stations can be classified into three types. The programming at
stations, whether commercial or community, is based on a talk fo
Others have made song and music alone the basis of their program
But most of them use an equal mix of talks and song-music. So the
kinds of radio that have developed in Nepal are those with program
based on talks, those based on music and those using a mixture. A
the community FM stations some have given priority to program
based on talks while most others have tried to project a mixed id
Similarly, while some commercial FM stations have given prio
programming based on music most of them have tried to project a
identity. That is why an FM station cannot be classified as comm
or commercial solely on the basis of the nature of the program
Among community radio there seems to be a greater sense of
responsibility than in commercial radio in terms of the way they
been established and are being run, the policy on advertising and ope
strategy, code of conduct. This must be due to some extent to discu
and interactions. But some commercial FM stations have also inc
social issues in their policy and strategy just as with community
Despite all this some differences can be detected between comm
and community radio stations when it comes to technical capabili
continuous reform, choice of program topics and their present
quality of the signal, marketing and the like. The following differ
can be detected in practice between commercial and community
stations operating in Nepal
MS Nepal
S.No.
Points of Difference
Community Station
Commercial station
1.
Quality of signal
Most are weak
Mostly all are good
2.
Topics in programming
Clear policy, style,

society-oriented and
factual in many of them
Most of them have

superficial style, lack
policy and topics
are light
3.
Program presentation
Preceptory and touches

the intellect
Entertaining and
touching the heart
4.
Choice of music
Lacking in diversity
Diverse
5.
Research and feedback
Weak and a tendency to

give little importance to
what is done by others
Weak but eager to

know about good
work done by others
6.
Listener participation
Some highly enthusiastic Practically all eager

and some others give it
about participation
no real importance
but no organizing
7.
Organizational structure
of radio
Organized but everyone's Prompt, little

responsibility not clearly hierarchy and
spelled out
responsibilities
clearly spelled out
8.
Broadcasting capacity
Almost all are weak
Almost all strong
9.
Market management
Almost all weak, little

attention paid to market
Almost all strong,

market recognized
in every way
10.
Mobilization of human
and technical resources
Few facilities, low pay

and developed as a
place for training
Good pay, facilities

and considered a
place to show what
one can do
11.
Financial situation and

sustainability of
resources
More reliant on donors

than on market, most
of them weak in this
Dependent on market
and comparatively
strong
12.
Working environment
Independent,
interference in policy
matters
Independent,
interference only in
matters concerning
market
13.
Organizational structure
and viewpoint
Mostly clear viewpoint

and strong commitment
No real importance
attacked, make do
approach
14.
Advertising and
programming policy
Some have clear policy,

many carry all kinds of
advertising
Most have declared

policy of carrying
whatever advertising
they get
44
MS Nepal
In general the programming carried by a radio station forms the ba

which listeners recognize and evaluate that station. But in the c
FM radio other elements also have a decisive role in the way that s
establishes its identity and maintains it. As FM stations are local in
many of the listeners know the station operators, program prod
presenters and other staff. Listeners are familiar with their
mannerisms, speech and many other things. Thus listeners also r
the deportment, ways and mannerisms of the FM station oper
program producers, presenters, technicians and market manage
way they get along with the community, their participation and dyna
when it comes to the FM station's image or its evaluation. Compa
short wave and medium wave radio the audiences of FM radio hav
access. That is why one does not have to rely on programming alo
an evaluation of such stations.
Such access leads to an increase in the participation of listeners
radio station and at the same time also increases the responsibility
station towards its audience. For the FM station this is both a cha
and an opportunity. Close ties to the audience gives the station f
opportunities to understand the ways, culture and customs
community. But any lack of sensibility in using these opportuniti
make the station's image still more negative. Closeness between lis
and station yields opportunities for producing programs compatibl
local culture, developing a station style on strong cultural founda
and also developing and expanding the local culture. But FM st
in Nepal, both community and commercial, are apparently not a
organizing and managing the participation of the listeners, using
culture as a source for programming and taping this culture as c
for the radio station.
MS Nepal
The power of radio and

social mobilization
P
A
R
T
IV
FM radio is the youngest medium of mass communications in Nepalese

society. But within a short time FM has found its own special place at
all levels and in all classes of society. It is needless to say that the main
element that has established FM radio in Nepalese society comprises the
programming broadcast by this medium. With the establishment of FM
radio the voices of the lowest rungs of Nepalese society began to reach
the mass media. Be it small or big, negative or positive, incidents
occurring in society are made public speedily. Be it bad social practices
or successes realized by individuals in the community, be it rookie
singers, musicians or poets, or minor festivals or fairs in the village,
births, deaths, religious hymn singing, FM radio programming has
brought before the masses many things of interest or concern and many
kinds of social problems or achievements. But a look at the evaluation
of FM programming by its listeners makes it clear that program producers
an d pres enters have a gr eat d eal mor e wor k to do s till.
Yes, we listen to entertainment programming carried by Saptakosi FM. But it is
not what we seek. The main reasons for this are a lack of skilled presenters and
poor preparation on their part.
Saptakosi listeners' forum.
The great thing that Radio Lumbini did for society was the emphatic voice it raised
against dowry and over the question of widow marriage. Apart from that, the radio
speaks about our rights, but is has not said anything about what those rights are,
46
MS Nepal
Sita Giri, 20, West Amawa, Ru
I listen to Mankamana FM to at least find out if there is a bandh in Hetauda

if any game was played here and who won. As to any change in behavior t
radio listening, I don't think that has happened with me.while listening t
programsI feel that something should be done. But later I feel why shou
my headache.
Suresh Shrestha, BBS, 21,
4.1 Listeners' views on FM radio programming
from whom we are to acquire them, how, and how to safeguard them if anyone
them.
Nepali listeners, who for

years had been forced to
listen to nothing but Radio
N e pa l , ha d n o g r e a t
expectations when they first
turned to FM. But with the
lapse of time their wishes,
desires and concerns also
changed. It is natural that they
wish to see this change
reflected
in
FM
programming. Most FM radio in Nepal produce and carry pro
based on social issues and informative programming. But the time a
to this is very meager compared to song and music. (This has been
with earlier.)
But programs dealing with social issues of an informative nature
made an impression on the audience within a short period even t
they are given only a limited amount of air time. In particular, th
stations have come out openly supporting movements against
aberrations, untouchability and discrimination. The support and coope
extended by FM radio to social movements and campaigns have to
many people. Be it in creating public opinion in favour of widows w
red or in the movement to end social discrimination against dalit
stations have made all these social issues an integral part of
programming. Many dalits, who listen to Saptakosi FM's 'Sajha
MS Nepal
(homestead) program, have been motivated to inquire about the village

budget and to take out their citizenship certificates. They have raised
their own voice against discrimination in government offices. Swargadwari
FM has inspired women to wear red. As this social movement made
strides society's negative attitude towards widow marriage has receded.
Swargadwari in Dang and Rupandehi's Radio Lumbini did outstanding
work in creating public opinion in favour of the rights of widows. These
efforts are still fresh in the minds of society even after so many years.
Radio Madanpokhara carried to the nooks and cranies of the district a
campaign to employ dalits as cooks for preparing feasts and parties.
Many in Palpa still recall the positive campaign launched by Radio
Madanpokhara against untouchability. Many people were encouraged
by the support extended by Radio Lumbini to the anti-dowry campaign
in Rupandehi and its advocacy in favour of widows wearing red. Compared
to the programs based on song and music which are broadcast day after
day, programs dealing with such issues are embedded in the listener's
mind even if there are aired only once or twice. These programs on radio
are considered not a little positively by the poor communities. However,
impactful as such programming is, the choice of subjects and the
production and presentation have not been in keeping with the needs
and wishes of the listeners. After the restoration of democracy in Nepal
local level movements against social evil practices such as untouchability
and discrimination and in favour of the citizens' basic rights have been
active. FM radio has extended support and company to such movements,
and these have become widespread because of such support. At the same
time FM radio has dug up many a social problem that had lapsed into
neglect and prepared the ground for social movements. Examples of this
are movements dealing with the rights of dalits, women's education, the
right of women and children and the mistreatment meted out to them.
FM radio has spread awareness in favor of such movements, generated
public opinion and enhanced the morale of the poor and downtrodden.
It has awakened them to press for their rights and motivated them to
secure those rights. But complaints abound among listeners about the
choice of such issues, their coordination and the style of their presentation.
48
MS Nepal
Programming aimed at dalits aired by Himalchuli FM has not given proper trea
to a serious subject and this can give society a negative message. For inst
nothing is included on what the dalits themselves can do to raise their overall s
standing, or what other stakeholders can do. Rather, they limit themselv
instigating dalits against higher castes, hurling abuse at the higher caste
portraying them as criminals. In dealing with the subject of dalits radio never
beyond saying that people do not eat what dalits have touched, they are not all
to fill their pots at public water taps. Too much harping on don't despise the d
they have rights too, this is how the nation has treated them and such stereo
portrayal can give rise to a feeling among listeners that they should be prep
to do anything for the sake of their rights. That can make them aggres
Anandaraj M
ex-chairman, F
The listeners of almost all stations have such complaints. Althou

listeners do not have the same capacity for evaluation, the num
FM listeners among the intelligentsia is growing by the day. M
them take a profound interest in the choice of material, its coordin
and presentation. That is why many listeners still complain that th
not find the kind of programming they expect on FM radio. The aff
felt by listeners for program producers and presenters is matched
level of their complaints. And the complaints are not unreasonable
In many programs produced and presented at FM radio stations in
not enough study and research goes into the subjects handled. The
reason is the lack of an atmosphere for study and research. An
problem is the need to do programs even on topics of which they
no knowledge. There is also poor sensitivity on the part of many prod
and presenters towards the nature and effect of radio an
comprehension level and interests of listeners. At first this was excu
because listeners had little knowledge of program productio
presentation. But such weaknesses can no longer be hidden give
proximity to radio stations, association with producers and pres
and growing awareness level of the listeners. Many listeners have s
of such shortcomings on the part of producers and presenters d
group discussions and interactions. The complaint aired by a journ
MS Nepal
student about a topic included in the program "Ajaka Kura" (today's

topic) aired by Radio Sagarmatha, which is listened to by many in
Kathmandu, tells us many things.
Some political personalities including Pradeep Nepal were once invited to speak on
sustainable development on Radio Sagarmatha's "Ajaka Kura". I listened to the
program carefully but still I could not understand anything. In a way my questions
remained unanswered. Listening to the program I got the feeling that it would not
be understood by anyone who did not understand sustainable development and its
link with politics. The programs carried by the radio station are of quality but they
are good only for those who already know, not for those who want to learn. Where
is the place for someone like me in "Ajaka Kura".
Kamala Gautam,
23, RR Campus
Programs on many good and useful subjects are not effective because
of ignorance of or carelessness about the target group and their levels
on the part of program producers and presenters. On top of that the
distance between radio and its listeners is widened by the gulf between
the vocabulary used by experts and their sphere of knowledge on one
hand and listeners' low capacity for comprehension and knowledge level
on the other. The main task of narrowing the gap between listeners and
experts is that of the program presenters. But there is a tendency for
many presenters to take such matters very lightly when presenting the
programs. Moreover there is the problem of program producers and
presenters at FM stations outside Kathmandu Valley being able to get
hold of experts on given topics. Repetition of experts and topics, talking
to experts without making adequate preparations, use of big words and
generally inclusion in programs only of material that many listeners
already know render the programming dry and sterile. Broadcasting
material that everyone already knows means that there is no freshness
and novelty in the programming. Failure of program presenters to present
effectively the topics raised in a program means that the listeners feel
dispirited even when listening to interesting material. Many listeners
find that the presenters are reluctant to use local language and ways
while some presenters try to make their voice artificial and heavy instead
of using clear pronunciation, all in the name of good and effective
50
MS Nepal
presentation. Generally these are failings on the part of produce

presenters, but they alone cannot be blamed. The problem has
because the managers of the radio station and policy makers have s
no real interest in program policy, the style of the station, its prio
etc.
Many of the FM stations studied
lack a declared program policy
and a strategy to make programs
people oriented. At stations with
a clear policy the station's policy
makers and managers have not
explained the policy to program
producers and presenters with
proper analysis. Many stations
have not determined what the
standard (choice of material,
analysis, coordination, presentation,
technology) of their broadcast is. Where such a standard has
determined the stations have not developed a clear system f
implementation, follow up and evaluation. Apart from that man
stations lack a studio for recording programs or field recording equip
Because of the lack of time and resources one producer has
programs of different nature and run two or three programs in a
day. Quite a few stations have volunteers who produce the program
and they are imparted skills. But a tendency to make do withou
standards, keep many volunteers and depend on them for runni
p rog rams has also aff ec te d the quality of pro gra mm
Although it looks easy and natural when hearing and watchin
programs being produced and presented, this work is not so facile w
special skills and training. But in Nepal even after the setting up
many FM stations producers and presenters have to function sol
the basis of their basic training. Another reason programming stan
have not matched audience expectations is that the radio stations
not paid enough attention towards training and the imparting of
MS Nepal
4.2 Programming aimed at the poor and indigent and its effect
The 36 canals irrigation project in Rupandehi had not been repaired on time. This
had caused great difficulties to the farmers. But after a talk with the users' committee
chairman on a radio program one day, the canal was built overnight. Because of
this, other users' committee chairmen and others holding public posts became very
responsible towards their work.
Madhav Nepal, Butwa

station manager
Radio outside Kathmandu simply cannot be purely commercial. If people th

to have radio there is no choice but to tell them about poverty, their problem
buffalos, standing paddy getting eaten by other's oxen). Similarly they sh
t old abou t what causes d iarrhoeal ai lmen ts an d what shou ld be
Sameer Nepal, managing d
Manakamana FM, H
Devdaha listeners club members

about Radio Lumbini
An armed robbery took place at my house on Asar 17, 2060. All my property was
stolen. I submitted requests to the police station and the VDC time and again, but
nobody even came for a calling of witnesses. I got a chance when a sir came from
the radio and I spoke to him weeping. A few days after radio broadcast my voice
police came of their own asking where the robbery had occurred and making
inquiries.
Bina Bishwakarma about Saptakosi FM
Community or commercial radio, one can see and hear in every village
today the positive impact that both kinds of radio have on Nepalese
society. In point of fact, a look at the programming schedules shows that
all FM stations in Nepal give a significant amount of time in their
programming to song and music. But going by population distribution
and their settlements the audience of both community and commercial
radio is the same. Many radio stations broadcast from the district
headquarters or urban areas. Yet most of the listeners of all stations live
in the villages. That is why no FM station, commercial or community,
is free from the compulsion of carrying programming that responds to
the preferences, needs and interests of listeners in the villages. It is clear
from what the radio station operators and managers say that they
understand clearly what the preferences of listeners are and the pressure
they exert.
Radio outside Kathmandu Valley cannot purport to be commercial and survive. We

have to ask ourselves to people of which place we are broadcasting. Playing song
and music to those suffering the pangs of hunger in their homes is to mock their
poverty. Our aim is also to foster an environment in which they are able to listen
to song and music.
52
MS Nepal
Butwal and Manakamana both come under the definition of comm

radio. But these opinions make clear how much pressure radio st
come under from the poor and helpless communities. That is w
radio, whether community or commercial, target their programm
greater or lesser extend, at women, children, dalits, ethnic commu
the disabled, landless squatters, laborers, farmers and other margin
and indigent communities. Commercial stations with a profit motiv
carry programming aimed at the economically weak classes and d
with subjects of interest and concern to them. Commercial rad
been working shoulder to shoulder with community radio in prod
and presenting programs dealing with matters of common conce
interest such as education, health, agriculture, developmen
construction, financial and social issues, human rights, conflict and
culture, forests and environment and good governance. This is som
accepted openly by the listeners also.
This radio has done me a great favor. It once broadcast a program concernin
On that program a taxi driver spoke about how they cheat with the taxi mete
girl who was presenting the program asked how and where complaints can
against taxi drivers who doctor the meters. After hearing that, I saw to it tha
was taken against some five or seven taxis that had been cheating. Now
as I get into a taxi I save myself from being cheated by keeping an eye on h
brakes are used, how the horn is used, the playing of the cassette player and w
or not the driver puts his arm out the window.
Manoj Subba, 35, Kathmand
Radio Sagarmatha progra
A look at the progam schedules of both community and commerci

shows that they have set aside roughly the same amount of tim
MS Nepal
programs targeted at classes which have lagged behind and have become
marginalized. (Extensive details are provided in tables 1 and 2 and in
annex 3.) But the difference between community and commercial radio
is that community radio looks upon the production and broadcasting of
such programming as its first responsibility. It has also started developing
the manpower for programming of this nature. Commercial stations with
a few exceptions give first priority to light hearted and entertainment
type programming. Programs aimed at the economically weak get second
priority. The manpower they produce is quite capable of turning out
entertainment programming. But much of the manpower at commercial
stations will find it difficult to produce programming on serious social
topics that concern the public. Many commercial stations also attach
little importance to topics of public concern because of the need to
produce programming at low cost and save on time and expense.
I listen to the radio for roughly four hours a day. It talks about our joys and sorrows.
It calls in the doctor to provide us information about ailments that can occur
depending on the weather so that our children will be in good shape, so that we do
not come down with illness. It was after listening to this radio that I started washing
my hands with ash and water after going to the toilet. Now we Tharus also are
slowly becoming wise.
Bijaya Chaudhari-30, farmer, Dang,
about Swargadwari FM
There are many other examples showing that radio helps change people's
ways and habits. For that to happen a radio station does not have to allot
a lot of time either. Even programs lasting a short period of time can
inspire great change in people's lives. But such programs cost a lot of
money to produce and commercial stations do not appear eager to make
such investment. While many commercial FM stations give priority to
producing low budget programs, community radio has shown interest
in such programs even if only at a low cost. Among the FM stations run
as community radio, Sagarmatha FM has broadcast the most programs
aimed at marginalized and economically weak communities, while among
the stations run commercially Manakamana FM has shown more initiative
than others in carrying programming dealing with such subjects.
54
MS Nepal
It is not that there is no money in the production and broadcast

programming of a social nature. The sources of financing for pro
centered on public interest which are carried by both kinds of st
are the national and international NGO's. NGO's and civil socie
everywhere involved in such programs. And these are produce
presented in two ways. Programs targeted at the backward and margin
communities are either produced by such organizations themselv
broadcasting or the programs are produced by the radio station
program production houses through collaboration between NGO
social service organizations. Communications Corner and An
Foundation are production houses known for preparing progra
social subjects while Radio Sagarmatha, Radio Madanpokhara and
commercial FM stations have also acquired good skills in this fiel
program "Sajha Agan" carried by Saptakosi FM through the partici
of Action Aid Nepal and Abhiyan Nepal has had a very deep imp
dalit settlements in the Terai.
This program has awakened our self confidence, it records and broadca
speech and plays the songs we sing. After hearing myself speak on radio on
confident enough to speak openly in front of anyone. That is how I was ab
to the VDC and speak clearly with the secretary for securing my brother-i
citizenship certificate.
Shanta Bishwakarma, 30, la
evaluating Saptakosi radio.
Among the FM stations studied, none with the exception of

community stations were found to be producing and broadcasting
programs through their own investment, ownership and responsi
The main reason for this is the high production costs and lack of s
program producers. But whatever amount of programming has
produced centered on agriculture and skill development has had the
of enhancing people's skills and their self confidence. It has also enh
their income, and their capacity to seek a proper market price fo
goods has grown noticeably. As a result such programming h
farmers to improve upon their old farming ways.
MS Nepal
We had been growing and selling coffee from before. One day during the coffee
ripening season, I heard on the radio that the coffee should be picked before it
ripens fully or before it turns brown in color and it should be sold on the very day
it is picked. In this way the coffee will not dry up and lose weight for one thing
and also coffee picked in this fashion is considered to be of high quality. Upon
hearing this I did accordingly and sure enough I benefited much more than last
year from the same number of coffee plants.
Toyanath Khanal, teacher and farmer,
Madanpokhara
Although many of the listeners of FM radio in Nepal are farmers, the

number of programs dealing with agriculture are very few. FM stations
have been adding to their broadcast time. But the amount of time for
programming that directly benefits in terms of skill, employment,
technology and the like has not been increased. Analyzing the preferences
and needs of listeners is indispensable for continuous improvements in
programming. It is also comparatively more difficult and expensive to
do programming responsive to such needs and preferences. Investment
in physical and human resources and an enhanced capacity to mobilize
additional resources are called for. But identification and mobilization
of new resources is something that both community and commercial
stations have paid little attention to. In consequence, the radio stations
have not been able to touch upon the needs and wishes of many
communities. There are many subjects that they have not been able to
raise. Programming has not been responsive to local communities.
Apart from listeners in Kathmandu Valley, the largest number of listeners
are farmers by calling. On top of that FM radio has come to be established
as the sole means of information and entertainment for the economically
weak, landless and squatter communities. And yet the number of programs
carried by the FM stations studied for this report and targeted at the
landless, laborers and farmers can be counted on one's finger tips.
Of the 10 FM stations studied, Hits FM broadcasts only song and music.
Among the remaining nine stations community radio Madanpokhara is
on the air 10 hours a day while most of the stations broadcast for about
56
MS Nepal
18 hours daily. A total of all the hours broadcast by the 10 stations s

comes to 171 hours a day. But a comparison of the time set aside
the FM stations for the marginalized communities shows that no
20 hours is set aside for such communities. This gives the impr
that these communities have been neglected or forgotten by FM
in Nepal. Of the total broadcast time of 171 hours, the amount o
given by all the stations to the ethnic communities is only 3 ho
minutes a day. Besides, the songs, music and other programs
various languages are all lumped together. The population of da
areas in the vicinity of the stations is substantial and they depe
radio for information and entertainment. But the time set aside
nine stations for the dalits does not add up to half an hour a day. An
of the time schedule set aside daily by the FM stations under stu
programming targeting the ethnic communities, children, wome
disabled and dalits only leads to the conclusion that these commu
are neglected by radio. 4
The time set aside by
a stat ion for
programming targeted
at this class is one of
the main bases for
c ons ider ing the ir
social responsibility.
Another basis can be
p r o d u c t io n a n d
p r e s e n t a ti o n o f
programming that is
broadcast. Listeners
do have complaints
about the presentation
of programming, but these are not the same everywhere. The main
of radio listeners comprises the poor and economically weak commu
If the time set aside by FM radio for this community is looked up
the only basis serious questions may arise about the social respons
MS Nepal
of every radio station. The table given below makes it still more clear
how much time was made available in programming being broadcast by
the FM stations during the period of the study to backward communities,
the poor, women and communities that have been marginalized.
Table 1
Time given by nine stations to marginal and poor communities on the
basis of target groups
S. No.
Target group
Daily time minutes
Daily time hours
Ethnic communities
206 minutes
3 hours 26 minutes
Children
138 minutes
2 hours 18 minutes
Women
119 minutes
About 2 hours
Disabled
40 minutes
Dalits
25 minutes
4 The FM stations under study have not produced and broadcast

programming targeted at the landless, farmers and workers, nor have
they produced and carried programming in collaboration with organizations
working for these communities. But radio does raise issues concerning
the landless, farmers and workers under topics dealing with ethnic
communities, dalits, women and children. The program schedule is based
on programming at the time of the study and may have changed now.
from the point of view of subject matter only a few of them rai
subject of poverty, occasionally. Only some of the stations dea
subjects concerning the skills and income of the community sporad
A beginning has yet to be made in efforts to prepare programmi
the poor on issues such as how to define the economically
community, how they have become poor and how they can be
from poverty. Such communities are to be found included only
weekly program schedules of FM radio. They have not been inc
on a daily basis. In case topics are included for these communities
are determined more by the interest and needs of the sponsors th
those of the audience. But however limited, whenever programs d
with such subjects are broadcast they have had a very positive i
on the lives of the targeted community.
By calling I am a sweeper at the municipality. I always listen to Himalchu

"Dalit Awaj" (voice of the dalit) program. I don't drink alcoholic drinks, but I
do without tea. There is a tea shop that I pass by often and run by a bahun
from Batulechaur. He knows me also. But because of a feeling of hesitation
never get myself to go to that shop. I might well ask for a cup of tea but w
do if it is denied me, I used to think. That is why I used to go to another te
some ten minutes further away. I was listening to the radio one evening. The p
was about why untouchability should be done away with. All of a sudde
like having some tea. I don't know why but that day I plucked up the coura
decided to go to that bahun's shop. I paid a five rupees fare and went there
straight into the shop and asked for tea. He gave me the tea, without saying an
At that moment I felt like cursing myself for going to so much trouble for
courage. I now always listen to the radio, and also go to that shop for
The opinion of one dalit listener about Himalch
From the point of view of the target group, the commercial stations do
not appear in the least interested in subjects concerning agriculture and
in programs targeted at farmers. While practically all community radio
stations carry programming concerning agriculture, the commercial
stations with the exception of Manakamana FM and Annapurna FM do
not appear to have touched this subject. Almost all the FM stations
studied broadcast programs aimed at children, women, dalits, the disabled,
ethnic communities and the economically weaker communities once or
twice a week. Although FM radio programming is targeted at the poor,
58
MS Nepal
Such positive effects of programming carried by FM radio are

found everywhere. However, many program producers, presente
managers are still ignorant about such impact. Moreover, many
FM stations lack a system for evaluating the impact of program
offering producers and presenters reactions, comments and sugge
on a regular basis. So evaluation is yet to take place on the exte
impact, positive or negative, of programming, whether it be targe
a specific audience or has been produced in response to the list
MS Nepal
social, political and financial interests. The gains from whatever

programming on social subjects is now broadcast are noteworthy. But
the time allotted in their programming by the community and commercial
radio under study to subjects of popular interest and concern is discouraging
in itself. The time schedule allotted by FM radio to social subjects given
below indicates many things.
being made for peace, the growing concern for human rights, etc
programming has also accorded a proper place to issues of pubic in
and concern such as education, agriculture, forests and environmen
the time alloted to these subjects by 10 stations within the total o
hours they broadcast every day is not encouraging, but rather a m
for despair.
Time given to programs targeted at communities on the basis of subject

matter 5
4.3 Listeners' suggestions to FM stations
S. No.
Program subject
Daily time minutes
Health
638
Education
39
Agriculture
35
Development
construction
229
Economic activity&
analysis
Social development
Human rights
66
Peace and conflict
44
Culture
26
10
Forest & environment
31
11
Gsood governance
20
Daily time hours
We are unemployed. We need money. We want to learn skills to do someth

wish to make investment for self employment. If radio came up with such pr
perhaps others would also heed what we have to say.
Bishnu Prasad Poudel, 25, Lamachaur, P
Of the Gurungs living in Pokhara, 90 percent are ex-military. Their mi

monthly pension is Rs 15,000 to 20,000. But this money has either go
needless expenses or has made the next generation develop a habit of n
expenditure. Radio can take the initiative to have this money invested in th
place, but this has not happened.
Jeevan Kumar Chetry, 35, cha
Manko Chautari Listeners
We 'lahure' are accused of harming society. We have caused prices to rise, enco
corruption, harmed culture and tradition, it is said. Yes, we may have done
But nobody tries to understand the reasons behind this. When someone wh
abroad at the age of 16 or 17 returns 20 or 30 years later, he will not eve
about many of the things here. In those circumstances we have no altern
accepting whatever neighbours and people here tell us, and we accept that. B
for 30 years we leant a tradition of trusting people. At such times people ch
And others accuse us also. If mass media here were to run programs calcu
alert us against such things we would definitely be spared such accusatio
also would not get cheated.
10 hours 38 minutes
3 hours 49 minutes
32
131
2 hours 11 minutes
1 hour 6 minutes
5 This schedule does not include social topics raised in between programs
based on song and music. It covers only programs produced and broadcast
on the basis of the subjects mentioned above.
Looked at subject-wise, FM radio programming has given noticeable
amount of time and priority to the subjects of health and development
and construction. This table also shows clearly that radio stations are
increasingly interested in the ongoing conflict in the country, the efforts
60
MS Nepal
Lt. Madan Gurung, Cha

Himali Tamu Society, Po
In our society the 'lahure' are looked upon only as a mine for cash, slaves of
But we have all manner of useful knowledge that can be of help to socie
example one can take the cleanliness around a lahure home.) If such know
MS Nepal
was disseminated by radio others would also come to know of it and benefit. Radio
still does not do a good job of presenting material concerning the sexual mistreatment
of women, the gender discrimination within the family. How good it would be if
these matters were raised ?
Bam Bahadur Gurung,
Deep Tamu Society, Pardi
Sir, we have to face no mean difficulty in taking out a citizenship certificat

have undergone plenty of trouble. We are forced to offer bribes even to get
things done. Moreover, if the boss is from the hills he uses all kinds of abu
language. It would be a good thing if radio spoke out about such things so
government would hear about them.
Badri Chaudhari, 45, far
Khairiya, about Radio Lu
Everyone despises us as 'badis', boys look upon us in a bad light. We are not even
allowed to fetch water at springs like other people. It would be of help for us if
radio raised such matters and took the initiative to have those practicing unsociability
fined. If we were told how to take action against or get action taken against those
very boys who look at us with ill intention, to whom and how we should complain,
we would have been able to take care of such rascals.
Sarita Nepali "Badi", 16,
Social Awakening for Education, student
There is a radio program here targeted at youths. I suggested to that program once
that given the greater despair among youths today because of political conflict,
their will power has taken a beating. This should be dealt with by radio in its
programming. When I proposed that some people who are knowledgeable should
be brought in for a talk in this connection I was told plainly that they had been
running FM for four years. 'We know inside out what should be done and what
sh o ul d no t '. S u ch w or d s deal t a d eat h b lo w to o ur en th us iasm .
Damodar Adhikari, 22, Dang, graduate
Radio should take the initiative for securing us cheap but good quality fertilizers
and seed if it can. It should also take the initiative for irrigation. If radio cannot
raise the issue itself then give us the opportunity. We will be glad to say these
things through radio.
Managing the market is another of our needs. Let radio take the initiative for
ensuring proper arrangements for this also.
People would not be aping the same success story if it results from a wish that
others also do something novel rather than imitate this success achieved locally
by someone. Then there would be chances of security for everybody's undertaking.
The entry of cheap and low quality cauliflower, tomatoes and other agricultural
produce has deprived indigenous produce of a market. It would be good if radio
spoke out about this.
Radio should tell us what measures would be good for the youths, how they can
be ensured jobs.
Suggestions made at a group discussion among
listeners of Radio Lumbini and Butwal FM
62
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
Areas for social mobilization

and additional possibilities
P
A
R
T
V
5.1 Mobilization of external resources for FM in Nepal

Nepal's very first FM radio was established with a social objective and
it still operates with the same objective. At the same time it is far in
advance of other stations from the point of view of mobilizing financial,
social and cultural resources. Many social organizations have extended
their help openly in its establishment and operation. With the advent of
Radio Sagarmatha a new area of cooperation has opened up and expanded
for entities and organizations that have been aiding Nepal. As with
developmental activities, government entities and NGO's operating in
Nepal, international NGO's and donor agencies have invested huge sums
of money in setting up, developing and running FM radio. The investment
made by INGO's in FM radio comprises mostly two areas. These are
equipment, input and technical help on one hand and program production
and transmission on the other. While the assistance provided by some
donor agencies and NGO's is centered on the equipment necessary for
setting up and operating radio stations, others have focused their aid on
the programming.
Agencies which have assisted with equipment needed for setting up and
running FM radio and those which have helped in program production
and broadcasting have both also helped in providing training in various
subjects and enhancing of skills. Many agencies have directly provided
radio and audio equipment needed for setting up and running community
64
MS Nepal
radio. The assistance provided by some has been used for the procur
of equipment. So far assistance has been provided by Unesco, CF
Danida, Hugo and Dialogs with equipment for community FM st
set up in Nepal. The assistance from these agencies has been ce
on putting in place the infrastructure needed for setting up and ope
radio stations and studio construction, broadcasting and studio equip
Once the radio stations are set up and running, notable assistan
been provided by the Danish International Cooperation Agency
Nepal), the Media Development Loan Fund (MDLF), Panos South
Equal Access, Eco Himal, UNDP, etc. for enhancing their tec
capacity. There are many entities and individuals that have helpe
field and studio microphones, recorders and other minor assistan
increasing the technical capacity of FM radio in Nepal. But it is no
to compile an account of the assistance pr ovided by
Despite the difficulty in tallying the assistance provided, one th
clear enough. That is the wish of donors that assistance and
provided for setting up radio, running them and for their technical
and equipment should reach community radio. Donors wish th
assistance and help they render for FM radio should benef
communities to the maximum, and this is natural also. That is why
assistance has been drawn towards community radio. Almo
community radio stations that have come into operation so far hav
helped by some donor agency or NGO or other for setting them
up. So donor agencies and NGO's have extended notable assista
the way community radio in Nepal has now developed and expa
In sharp contrast it is big business and people from the upper m
class who have invested various resources in many of the FM st
established by business organizations. Of these stations some have
bank loans to set themselves up, procure the equipment and g
operation. Some of these commercial entities have been helped
interest payable grants for limited periods of time from the M
Development Fund under the Nepal Press Council in order to pay in
on the loans they have taken for procurement of some of the equip
MS Nepal
Similarly, Nepal Forum for Environmental Journalists has been mobilizing

through its community radio assistance centre very large amounts in
assistance.
INGO's and donor agencies operating in Nepal have provided assistance
to FM radio stations for program production and transmission once they
have established themselves. Assistance provided for this by Action Aid
Nepal, MS Nepal, European Union (EC), the Swiss Development
Corporation (SDC), DfID, the British Council, Panos South Asia, FHI,
Eco Himal and other organizations is notable. An organized tally of
foreign organizations and individuals that have made available minor
assistance on a one off basis is not to be found anywhere. That is why
it is not easy to say for certain what amount of money has come in from
the donor community for setting up FM radio, running it and producing
and broadcasting the programming.
Just as community radio has received priority when it comes to assistance
from NGO's for setting up and running radio stations, the agencies
providing help have given priority to program subject matter when
helping with program production and transmission. The INGO's and
donor agencies prefer areas like women's rights, communal discrimination
and untouchability, human rights, good governance and empowerment
of the community when funding program production and transmission.
Programming produced with the help of such entities have had a good
impact on the community. Although a comprehensive and organized
study is yet to he done on the role played by FM radio in the positive
changes seen in Nepalese society such as the liberalism apparent towards
widows, the awakening in the community, the interest in rights, the
liberal attitudes seen at all levels of society regarding discrimination,
these changes are the fruits of such programming. The assistance provided
by various organizations in program production on such subjects and
the role played by FM radio have proved effective. But an overall look
at the positive role of FM in efforts at reform and change in society and
the positive impact of programs carried by FM has already taken place
in earlier study.
66
MS Nepal
While donor agencies and NGO's have given their priority to comm
radio when it comes to establishing and operating radio stations
have given equal priority to both community and commercial ra
the production and transmission of programming. The main bas
choice of station when programs assisted by international organiz
are run is the reach of that station. The other bases are coverage
station, social impact and popularity.
Agencies which help in program production and transmission and
which provided assistance for equipment from the beginning of s
establishment and operation have both shown equal interest in deve
and enhancing the skills of program producers and presenters. Both
of agencies have also been extending noticeable help in training. How
once the radio stations have been established the attention of
operators and donors has not been drawn towards the developm
their institutional structure and capabilities, enhancing the skil
capabilities of technicians and management, the skills and capab
of prog ram prod ucer s cen ter ed on beh avior cha nge,
The grants and assistance provided on a regular basis by organiz
in terms of inputs, equipment, training and for program production n
at the time of setting up radio stations can be roughly tallied. Bu
not so easy to ascertain the assistance amounts that have come in
organizations and individual that have extended minor assistance
would have to scrutinize the aid amounts received from va
organizations over the past 10 years, for which the annual incom
expenditures reports of many different organizations would also h
be scrutinized, something which is not easy.
5.2 Mobilization of social resources
Management of broadcasting is a challenging task even for skilled
managers. Broadcasting management will not be effective w
adequate knowledge, understanding and skill concerning the nat
mass media, the effect of mass media on society, program produ
MS Nepal
convenorship, production, market analysis, changing technology,

organizational structure of mass communications media and many such
areas. But in Nepal FM broadcasting itself is a new area and because it
is new our society has no experience of how to manage such work. That
is why the lack of skilled broadcasters and broadcasting managers is
another big challenge for FM radio. Despite this challenge, many FM
stations have been somehow or other managing their operating costs.
FM stations in Nepal have for the most part mobilized two kinds of
financial resources. The main source of income for almost all stations
is national and local level advertising while advertising and programs
from NGO's operating at international, national and local levels and local
government bodies constitute the other source. Companies that advertise,
NGO's that help in program production and transmission and government
bodies of course have a clear impact on the programming, but they also
have direct or indirect influence on a station's programming policy and
strategy. In general, the influence of NGO's has helped associate FM
programming with social subjects and various movements while the
influence of business houses has likewise encouraged programming in
a lighter vein. Business houses and industrial groups wish to keep their
distance from the sponsorship of programming about serious subject
matter and controversial subjects or that is serious in presentation. The
reason is that while sponsoring such programming controversy might
be caused on account of something said during the program that is
controversial or that compromises someone. This might end up involving
the sponsor in controversy. Big business and industrial groups want to
use radio to air lighthearted fare and to advertise their products instead
of causing any controversy or casting of aspersions. When all is said and
done, almost all FM stations in Nepal have focused all their attention on
foodstuff, processing appliances, construction equipment, electrical
appliances and big business houses, groups and entities trading in such
products. In a bid to attract advertising, FM stations have gone in for
a veritable campaign of utmost flexibility in the advertising rates and
price cutting. Out of a belief that advertising from national level business
houses enhances the radio station's standing, many stations have been
68
MS Nepal
carrying advertising from established manufacturing compan

extremely low rates. Apart from such advertising, another reliab
easy income source for FM stations is advertising in the local ma
Local advertising is a very new market for FM radio. Local m
which are involved in small scale business enterprises and transa
are gradually taking up an outstanding share of the advertising
radio. With the expansion of FM, this market has also begun to unde
the importance of advertising and local radio. As a result, shops s
shoes, cloth, drugs, stationery, miscellaneous items and se
establishments have these days started to make a notable contrib
to the income of FM radio. In such transactions there is little dan
not being able to raise the dues and the income is also regular.
advertising also meets to some extent the information needs of
people. This is a new market created by the FM radio stations thems
It has more prospects still.
The work done by organizations involved in poverty alleviation,
concerning ethnic groups, women and children, untouchabilit
development and construction and the contribution that radio can
to this social work are immense. Organizations which have been en
in various kinds of activities for the enlistment of the communi
make ample use of the influence of radio for raising the lev
awareness, incomes, skills and employment in the community. FM
can work together with such organizations to play a proper role
development of the community and realize good earnings. But r
reach in this area of social development is very weak. Some radio st
have been able to mobilize to a limited extent these means and reso
in the social market.
Radio has in a way placed the line agencies of His Majesty's Government
government and NGO's in a situation of competition for development and constru
After we started a public awareness program against untouchability on rad
same kind of programs were also started by local government, line agencie
other NGO's. Things have gone so far as to setting aside a budget at the d
development committee for the social and economic development of the
Jitendra Jaiswal, coordinator,
Local Initiation Support Program,
MS Nepal
Many of the FM stations have not been able to bring within their market
the activities taking place in community development and mobilize them.
One main reason for this is a lack of good relations between radio
operators and organizations and individuals involved in social movements.
Many organizations involved in the social and economic development
of the community are not yet familiar with the contribution that radio
can make in social transformation. On the other hand, radio considers
investment in such programs as only a way of increasing the expenditures.
Only a few community radio stations have shown awareness of the fact
that it is their social responsibility to bring such activities within the
parameters of the material they broadcast. Not many FM stations have
been able to realize that there is financial gain to be made from this
social responsibility. As a result, the power of radio has not yet been
tapped for the task of social transformation, and there is still wide scope
for its proper utilization. Radio stations can tap this potential by educating
and trying to persuade local bodies, NGO's and the international
community and by showing their commitment in social programs. There
are some problems also in tapping this potential and they pertain to both
ra dio an d o rg an iz atio ns inv olve d in so cia l ca mpa ig ns .
Various NGO's look for the cooperation and company of radio in social
work, but they appear to feel that radio will have to bear all the cost of
producing and broadcasting programs on such subjects. Because of this,
many FM stations are not in a position to work openly with NGO's and
civil society. Quite a few NGO's and local government bodies seem
unaware of the contribution that radio can make in the social and
economic development of the community. FM radio should inform and
educate them. At organizations which are aware of the immense potential
role of radio in social mobilization there is a shortage of means and
resources. And at organizations which have the means and resources
and are aware of the impact of radio on the life of the community, there
is low sensitivity towards the broadcast law and regulations, code of
conduct and the station policy. They tend to run programs on subjects
of their choice.
70
MS Nepal
The knowledge and information in possession of organizations inv

in community development and such other activities are importa
the radio audience. Not only do such information and knowledge
the listeners properly informed and aware, they also provide the
station some income and give the broadcaster a socially respo
image. But this is one area where the reach of FM radio is very
and has been mobilize only to a very limited extend. If radio st
work out a clear strategy and program for mobilizing the skills, inform
knowhow and financial resources at the disposal of those invol
social movements it is clear that the utilization of these potentia
grow steadily.
5.3 Mobilization of cultural heritage

Without communications one cannot even imagine the developme
expansion of culture and without culture society will have nothin
to communicate. The thinking of the individual and society, their
and manners, food habits, costumes and life style are a mirror of so
It is mass communications media that directly or indirectly makes c
public, disseminates it, makes it popular. That is why the success o
communications, its effectiveness and popularity are organically
with the culture of the listening audience. The effectiveness of
communications can be gauged by the extent to which culture is emb
in the choice of subject matter in mass communications, in lang
presentation and format. The audience of mass communications
makes evaluations in its own ignorant fashion on the basis of w
or not the various elements of culture are included in program fo
subject matter and presentation.
"It is on the basis of how material is prepared for dissemination by
media, how it is presented, what is expected after presentation
culture exerts influence on the building of listeners' groups, their
and their reactions." xxvi
MS Nepal
On top of that Nepal is replete with a plurality of religions, languages,

communities and cultures. This cultural diversity can be seen clearly in
many areas such as people's food and clothing habits, life style, their
daily work and daily routine, their religious rites and rituals and faith.
The above mentioned aspects of culture constitute the largest capital for
mass media of a local nature such as FM. There are endless possibilities
for radio to tap this capital in the selection of subject matter for
programming and format and for reflecting our glory in its presentation.
But FM radio in Nepal has used culture only sparingly as a heritage or
resource. Some radio stations have used language, customs, food and
clothing habits and style of living as their program subject matter, but
many of them have hardly paid any attention to culture as a heritage
when it comes to program presentation and choice of format. As a result,
FM presents cultural subject matter in a dry and monotonous fashion.
Radio's inability to reflect the various aspects of local culture in its
program topics, format and presentation is beginning to be realized by
the listeners also. This is clear from the evaluations made by them.
Our society looks upon the 'lahure' solely as a source of money, veritable slaves
to money. But we have various kinds of useful knowledge that can benefit society
(for example the cleanliness surrounding lahure homes). Radio could disseminate
such knowledge so that society could share in it.
The opinion of Bam Bahadur Gurung of Deep Tamu Society,
Pardi concerning radio in Pokhara
Programs concerning culture come across as out and out superficial, that's all. All
that this radio says is these are the festivals of the Tharu, this is what they wear,
nothing more. We are starting to feel this is nonsensical.
Professor at Mahendra Multiple Campus,
Dang Dev Narayan Chaudhari about Radio Swargadwari
What we cannot understand is what use it is for us to play songs in the Tamang
language from the Makwanpur area? And our culture is not going to be preserved
by playing songs and saying what we eat, what we wear. What difference does it
make to us whether or not other communities know about these things? What we
have to put up with is poverty, injustice, ignorance.
Needless to say, poverty, ignorance and backwardness are organ

linked with culture. But listeners have also started to feel that as
culture is concerned attention is focused by many radio stations o
programs about the song and languages of the various ethnic gro
is definitely a good thing for radio to publicize through radio the lang
song and music and ways and manners of different communitie
radio has a greater influence than other mass media on Nepalese s
which is dependent on communication by word of mount. That i
FM radio has a bigger responsibility than other mass media
development and expansion of culture. FM radio also has a strong
for capitalizing on the culture of the community and its audien
great deal of cultural heritage such as the habit of the lahure in Po
of maintaining cleanliness around the house, Terai people's ha
bathing every day, the tradition among the Tharu commun
apportioning an equal share for children on par with the adults
cooking something special and then letting the mother eat, an
industriousness of the farmers in the eastern Terai and Chitwan c
used as a basis for the production and presentation of programmin
FM radio seems to be out to create another kind of culture tha
culture of the community through its programming and present
An analysis of the subject matter of programming carried by man
stations, the style of presentation and language leads to a conclusio
during this period a novel and problematical culture has been crea
Nepal. Subject matter chosen without analyzing the needs and prefe
of the audience or estimating the effect, or subject matter chosen
the priorities of the presenter, sponsor or investor, presentation tha
to give an impression of greater knowledge than is actually the c
language that is a mix of Nepali and English, faulty pronunciatio
sometimes use of pronunciation that makes nonsense out of sense
during this period created a different kind of FM culture. Program
carried by practically all commercial stations in Nepal has led
cr eation, development and expansion of suc h FM c u
Farmer Budha Tamang, 38,

a literate of Nagarkot-7l about Radio Sagarmatha
72
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
The main reasons why FM radio is accused of spoiling the language is

not just the half Nepali and half English vocabulary used by it. It is also
the out of place and undifferentiated pronunciation, choice of material
without social relevance and unnecessary and laughable pronunciation
than can be heard in many instances and many other things that go to
constitute the "total image" that reaches the ears of the audience. Apart
from showing of course that Nepali FM stations have low sensitivity
towards the cultural plurality and diversity of Nepalese society, one does
not find that they have been able tap the cultural heritage for brightening
up their own image, strengthening their access to the community and
enhancing their own sanding by enriching the community's culture. But
without doing this FM stations will not be able to tap and mobilize local
culture as a heritage. If program subject matter as well as format,
presentation and station style are to be informed by local culture, the
possibilities of tapping, developing and expanding this heritage will be
opened up still further.
Mass Communications and Culture: McQuail Theory/Dennis McQuail/
Sage Publications. Fourth Edition 200/.
Radio, audience relations

and participation
6.1 Radio and audience: Threads of the relationship
The participation of the radio audience and its involvement a
directed or activated solely by the wishes of the audience or that
mass communications media. There is a role here for many a
concerning the wishes and interests of both audience and media
elements that determine audience involvement and participatio
equally strong on the side of both radio and audience. And these ele
are to a large extent directed and activated on the basis of the program
carried by the mass media.
Various elements provide inspiration and direction to the audie
become involved in mass communications and show their particip
The radio listener's background is itself a significant aspect as
participation is concerned. The listener's social standing, educ
religion, culture, the area where be lives and family atmosphe
automatically linked with his background. His personal life is an
element that determines his participation and involvement. Partici
is also predicated on matters which are part of his personal life s
age, gender, income, family standing, level of education, st
employment, and in many instances, life style. Preferences and
likewise play an important role in willingness to participate in any
programme. Linked with such preferences are considerations su
special topics, special formats and special style. The time availa
74
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
the audience is another important aspect. Audience participation and

involvement are determined too by how much spare time there is and
whether or not a radio set is at hand. Yet another important aspect is
capability of selecting which programs and material should be listened
to. All these diverse elements influence and determine the listener's
participation or otherwise in a particular program. This is just one side
of the coin.
Audience participation is equally influenced and determined by the radio
itself. One element that determines participation is what other kinds of
mass media are available to the listener. The availability of many kinds
of mass communications media means that the listener has an opportunity
to choose and select. Naturally, a choice among many kinds of mass
media of communications means that the audience has a chance to decide
whether or not to listen to radio at all. Once the listener decides to turn
to radio rather than newspapers or tv, it becomes equally important
whether or not the radio waves are within reach. When the radio waves
are within reach, the question of what kind of image the radio station
has in the eyes of the audience creates occasion once again to decide
whether or not to listen to it. Whether or not the radio responds to the
expectations of society, whether or not it has on offer program topics
and a style of presentation sought by the listener whenever the latter
chooses to listen are equally important in determining if it will be tuned
in to. These questions concerning the listners' choice and wishes are
such that their answers are linked with a radio station's programming
policy, strategy on participation and the design, presentation and style
of program subject matter. Questions such as what kind of image does
a radio station have in society? Has the station carried out publicity on
the programming it carries? How has the subject matter been designed?
and many other such aspects determine and indicate listener participation
in radio. xxvii
Generally, it is only after the programming carried by radio has made
an impression on the listener that the latter starts to seek involvement
and participation. But it is up to the station itself to decide whether or
76
MS Nepal
not to make listener participation and involvement an organized

How does the radio station decide how it defines listener partici
when designing the programming, and what policy to adopt rega
listener participation in the programming, how clear is it for pro
producers to what extent listener participation should be accepted
clearly does the station brief producers on its policy and strategy
the station regard its listeners as capital or generally as just a
determining the market price for advertising, how liberal is the s
towards the needs and wishes of the listeners, what kind of practic
business ties does it want with the listeners. These are questions th
station has to decide for itself.
A look at radio in operation in Nepal shows that most stations ha
as a matter of policy defined listener participation. Although li
participation has not been defined, in practice however both comm
and community radio have attached a great deal of importance in
programming to such participation. There is listener participation
radio stations. But at most stations such participation is not orga
or properly managed. So it can be said that to a large extent the partici
of listeners in FM radio in Nepal is a spontaneous effort of the lis
themselves. Many of the radio stations have organized listeners' g
but they have not been organized by the radio station. Many st
have ignored the organized participation of listeners' groups while
have encouraged it.
It is not easy to specify the population of unorganized listeners
radio in Nepal, how many of them listen to programming and how
express their reactions to it. Unorganized or not or whatever, on
tell just by tuning in to the radio that they listen to the programmin
give their reactions to its subject matter. But in some places orga
listeners' groups try to function at one level higher than unorga
groups. While listener participation in radio programs is to be c
seen in our country, the stations have not organized the participatio
has taken place at the initiative of the listeners themselves. The
that the listeners have formed spontaneously after listening to v
MS Nepal
programs try to have the radio stations reflect listeners' group wishes
and organized preferences.
After listeners spontaneously organized themselves upon having heard
the programs, some community radio stations started to look for ways
to organize this response. In this connection separate kinds of exercises
have been taking place in various places. Apart from these efforts
directed towards lining up the listeners on one's side in an organized
fashion, some stations consider listener participation to be significant
for social transformation also and so have started to involve them even
in formulating the station's policy.
Since the past two or three years some community radio stations have
given listeners' participation an institutional role at the level of policy
formulation instead of just confining it to the making of comments on
and reacting to programming. Examples of this are the community radio
Radio Lumbini which broadcasts from Rupandehi and the community
station Radio Madanpokhara broadcasting from Palpa. Both these stations
have institutionalized listener participation at the level of influencing
program production and policy and regulations.
6.2 Formation and role of listener groups

Listeners' clubs are organized entities for showing participation by the
listeners in radio. Depending on the place, radio stations and listeners
give these entities different names.1 Whatever the names, such entities
are manifest in many places in Nepal where FM stations are operating.
Listeners' clubs are generally formed for listening to two kinds of
programming. Clubs are formed spontaneously for listening to
entertainment programming carried by FM. They are also formed for
listening to programming dealing with social issues. The clubs are formed
with friends, family members and peers.
78
MS Nepal
While some community

radio stations have formed
listeners' clubs on their own
in itia tiv e , lis te ne r
participation in commercial
radio takes place for two
reasons. Listeners have
themselves come forward to
form clubs in the case of
entertainment programming.
Many stations have formed
listeners' clubs as per the
needs and wishes of those who worked together in program prod
and transmission or those who provide the sponsorship, and a
accordance with stipulations laid down by them. Listeners' clubs
by commercial radio at its own initiative are very few in number.
radio stations covered by the study, Saptakosi FM has set up five lis
clubs and Annapurna FM one club at their own initiative. All the
clubs were set up at the initiative of the listeners themselves. The pu
of many clubs set up for listening to entertainment programmin
foster acquaintance and encounters among the listeners and to gen
have a good time and also to be in close proximity to the station a
program promoters. Such groups are generally constituted throu
spontaneous efforts of youths. They are mostly formed under the inf
of musical and entertainment programming. And most of the lis
associated with them are youths.
Two kinds of clubs have been formed to listen to programs on
subjects. While in some places the listeners themselves have fo
clubs spontaneously, in many other places mothers clubs, savings g
and the like which have been in existence since before are now
functioning as listeners clubs. Radio Madanpokhara and Radio Lu
have formed groups at their own initiative to bring before rad
problems, interests and concerns of the community and enhan
community's access to radio. Clubs formed at the radio stations them
MS Nepal
have been developed as an integral part of the radio station. But such
efforts have been limited to radio Madanpokhara and Radio Lumbini.
Listeners groups active elsewhere and affiliated to the radio stations
were also formed at the initiative of the listeners' groups themselves.
Listeners clubs formed with the active involvement of the radio station
have been mostly formed with the objective of listening to programming
aired by the station, carry out social work, mobilize the community in
favor of the radio station, reflect before radio the needs, interests and
wishes of the community and give continuity to community participation
at the radio station. Groups thus formed at the initiative of the radio
station and program producers are accepted as an integral part of the
radio. Such groups are formed to represent the age groups, genders,
classes and communities targeted by the programming. These clubs are
duly registered at the radio station. And their participation is clearly
defined at various levels in such a way that it will be reflected in program
production and transmission.
to the radio and being impressed by the program presenters, prod

and the subject matter of the programming. Such groups make k
their reactions by telephone, by writing in, meeting the program pres
and visiting the station. From the point of view of subject matter lis
groups in this category are found to have been formed with entertai
programming in mind. Their reactions are both oral and written. B
influence and pressure these clubs bring to bear on the radio sta
negligible. They are confined to the level of listeners. These club
neither been recognized by the radio station as organized entiti
have they been registered. It is not easy to find any records o
numbers of such clubs because they are not in association with the
station, and the stations have not kept proper records on
We participate in entertainment programming by phone or through letter w
We participate especially in programs in which we can win quizzes and prizes
out greetings. We participate because we are attracted by the notion that gr
our friends through radio adds to our standing and makes us known to all.
Student Prasidda Parajuli, 24,
about participation in Saptako
Whatever the process or system followed in the formation of such clubs,

they mostly fulfill three kinds of roles. The first role is to listen to the
programming carried by the radio station and give their reaction. The
second is to make available to the station information, thinking and
subject matter for programming, and the third is to produce and broadcast
programs themselves on topics of interest and concern to the community.
6 In many places organized listeners' groups are known as listeners'
clubs. The community radio Madanpokhara has designated its organized
listeners' clubs as friends of radio groups.
Radio stations have been using such clubs to be able to say 'we also
our clubs', while the listeners' groups are satisfied if they can sa
they too are club members. It is to be found that their ties wi
program producers and presenters are somewhat deeper than thos
the radio station itself. Members of such clubs talk to the pro
presenters on the phone, participate in phone-in programs so tha
voices will be heard by a great many people and are given to
praising of the presenters, and criticize them only occasio
The role of listening and reacting :
Role of suggesting subject matter for programming:
Both organized and unorganized listeners are to be found involved in

the role of listening and giving their reactions. The role of the unorganized
listeners has not been included in this study. So in dealing with the role
of the listeners we are confining ourselves to organized groups alone.
Many of the listeners clubs in Nepal have been formed after listening
Listeners groups of this type not only suggest subject matter for
programming but also play a lead role in the community in implem
in practice the things said in the radio broadcasts. They discuss in g
the subjects on which programs have been broadcast. Evaluatio
made of the good and bad aspects and the discussions they have a
80
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
themselves are taken out to

the community. They meet on
a re gula r basis with the
p r od u c e r s o f r a d i o
programming. They convey to
the producers the things they
are not happy about and make
suggestions on producing
programming on subject matter
that is concerned with the
needs, wishes and interests of
the community. They also send in their reactions and comments like
other listeners, but they are one step ahead of listeners in the earlier
category as they get to make suggestions about program subject matter
and also disseminate in the community the programming on the subject
matter suggested. As the radio stations themselves or entities involved
in program production have made listener participation compulsory,
listeners included in such groups have the opportunity to suggest program
subject matter, make choices and evaluate their effectiveness. That is
why to some extend their role is decisive and organized as far as
programming is concerned.
Groups formed by NGO's, civil society and organizations active in the
upliftment of their community for running their community oriented
programs are to be found playing an active part in many places. Groups
formed to implement such community programs or carry out publicity
are to be found associated with radio listener groups also. These
organizations have brought about the participation of the community in
radio programming also just as there is community participation in
programs which they run concerning skills, employment and the like.
Listeners' groups which have been formed to listen to radio programming
dealing with social subject matter, hold discussions on the programs they
hear, and disseminate in the community the things they know and learn
can be placed within this category. Listeners' groups that form
spontaneously to enhance the access of the mass community to mass
82
MS Nepal
media and those formed by social organizations and entities can a

place in this category. Listeners' groups in this category have regu
togethers with program producers or station representatives. Prod
and sponsors are committed to making programs on subject m
suggested by the listeners. The understanding reached with NG
writing or verbally is decisive for this. Many stations have att
significance to listeners' suggestions on subject matter out of consider
of social responsibility. If the understandings reached with NGO's s
that programming on subject matter suggested by listeners w
included, such provisions are duly adhered to. In many instance
programming is regularly evaluated by these organized groups. A
evaluations are often forwarded directly to the radio station or
organizations that have entered into agreement with the station on pr
production.
These groups are in a position to suggest subject matter for
programming and make choices, evaluate the impact of the program
convey to the program producers any dissatisfactions and create pr
for rectifying shortcomings and weaknesses. These groups get t
a decisive role in the choice of subject matter for programmin
inclusion of subjects as per the wishes of the listeners. Although th
not participate and are not involved in any way in policy formul
the participation of such groups can influence the subject mat
programming. So their participation can be considered organized
as program production is concerned though not with regard to
making itself.
Role in program production :
The role of many listeners' clubs which were opened in the begi
for giving reactions or showing participation in radio has now a
reached the level of program production. Listeners' clubs are ac
almost all the radio stations studied. But only two of the 10 st
covered have organized the listeners' participation and included it i
organizational structure. At the stations where listener participatio
MS Nepal
been included in their structure (Radio Madanpokhara, Palpa and Radio

Lumbini, Manigram) there is a greater sense of listener involvement and
ownership than elsewhere. And these listeners' clubs are to a large extend
in a position to reflect in the programming the concerns and preferences
of the community. Apart from listening to the programming, discussing
it, giving their reactions and forwarding their suggestions to program
producers and presenters, these listeners' clubs even produce the
programming themselves. Both these stations have made arrangements
under which they have to carry the programs produced by their listeners
clubs. At the community radio Madanpokhara every day the listeners'
groups prepare the programs turn by turn for their communities and the
radio station broadcasts these with due importance. Similarly, at Radio
Lumbini also, one listeners' group at Devdaha runs its own program
titled 'Afnai Kura'.
In 40 out of the 69 VDCs in Rupandehi district, Radio Lumbini has set
up listeners' clubs at its own initiative. These clubs hold meetings
regularly. Arrangement has been made for mandatory participation in
all the meetings by someone or another representing the radio station.
These meetings hold discussions on the subject matter for the
programming. Questions raised during the discussions by the listeners'
group are answered by the radio station representative. The groups
evaluate the programming that is broadcast. They also suggest the topics
for coming programs and make evaluations of the presenters. The radio
has made arrangement in its organizational structure itself for bringing
refinement to the programming on the basis of their suggestions.
This system is in place at Radio Madanpokhara also. One hundred and
twenty three radio groups are active in the 23 VDCs in Palpa district
where Radio Madanpokhara can be captured. These groups are called
friends of radio groups. The main work of the friends of radio groups
which are spread out in various wards of all the 23 VDCs is not limited
to listening to the radio and giving their reactions. Listening to programs
regularly, discussing them and giving their reactions to the station are
what they do regularly. But they also go a step further and mobilize
84
MS Nepal
sources of income for the radio. Their other function is to run comm
development activities using as their basis the material broadc
radio. They mobilize the community for doing the good things bro
by radio and they have also arranged for station representatives to
the activities of the community in the radio's transmissions. The
representative acts as a bridge between community activities an
radio station and forwards such activity to the station. Evaluat
programming, discussion with radio representatives and offer
suggestions on subject matter are part of the regular work of every f
of radio group. Radio Madanpokhara has developed the friends of
groups as part of its organizational structure. The formation and mob
of friends groups in the wards is given as much importance as pro
production and presentation.
Gatherings of the friends of radio groups in the VDC choose the
representative for the VDC. This is done in the presence of a represen
of the radio station. These representatives are answerable to the
station and the friends of radio groups. The radio representative a
a line of contact between the listeners and the radio station. The n
of radio representatives chosen by the friends of radio groups in
VDC is now 23. The radio representative not only forwards the act
of the community to the radio station but also runs programs hi
Radio representatives
turn by turn run the
program "paribesh
bolchha" (the circle
speaks)which
e nc omp as s es the
d eve lopme nt a nd
construction work in
their respective VDC,
the problems of the
c o m mu n i ty, th e
concerns and interests
of the listeners. The
MS Nepal
friends of radio groups are directly involved in the selection and collection
of subject matter for inclusion in paribesh bolchha which is broadcast
every day, and on the day of his turn the radio representative goes to the
station and records the program himself. The radio station makes available
field recorders, technicians, a studio and other necessary help for the
programming produced by the radio representative.
These groups are represented even on the radio council, the highest radio
body. A gathering of all friends of radio groups active in the district
selects these representatives, and these representatives represent the
listeners on the council.
Radio Madanpokhara and Radio Lumbini have organized listener
participation so as to increase the access of the poor, the illiterate and
economically weak listeners to policy making at the radio, program
production, and presentation. In constituting friends of radio groups and
clubs so as to involve each and every level and class of radio listener,
the emphasis has been on overall representation of the community.
Attention has been given to representing all classes, communities, age
groups and genders from among women, children, dalits and local
inhabitants in the clubs and friends of radio groups thus constituted.
Priority is given to local ethnic communities, dalits, women and children
when forming such groups. This is the best organized and most novel
effort that has been made to give shape to the listeners's ownership and
participation in FM radio in Nepal.
1 Audience Formation and Experiences/ McQual Theory of Mass
Communication/McQual, Sage Publications 2004
Conclusions and suggestions

Conclusions
It has not been many years since FM radio started in Nepal, but w
a short period of time FM has touched people of all communities, c
genders and ages in society. Within a short period of time FM rad
extended its reach to all levels of society. During this period great c
has come about in radio listening habits in Nepalese society. Th
gain in itself. But FM still faces many challenges to make its pre
in society sustainable in the same way it made its entry in Nep
society, and to play an effective role in social transformation
conclusions reached on the basis of the facts and figures and thi
encountered in the course of this study and those presented befor
are presented below in broad outline.
Lack of study and research :
It has been 10 years since FM radio started in Nepal. It has also
eight years since the private sector became involved in FM broadca
Within this period the area covered by FM broadcasts has gro
unprecedented fashion. Hundreds of thousands of radio sets have e
Nepal. The population of listeners has grown noticeably. But no sci
and organized study has been made of the area covered by FM
radio set ownership, people's listening habits, the main subject
prefer and their interests and concerns.
The investment made by the private sector in setting up FM st
apparently runs into tens of millions. The help extended by various
86
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
agencies and NGO's in setting up and operating community radio in

Nepal is also remarkable. But nobody has evaluated any clear cut facts
and data on the total investment made by the private sector and donor
agencies in FM radio, or how much social and financial resources FM
radio has mobilized annually, how much social and financial resources
are still to be mobilized, how much employment has been generated by
FM radio, what the skill levels of the manpower employed are, how
much more manpower is needed, etc..
Lack of clear policy, planning and implementation :
After the National Communications Policy 2049 came into force, the
Ministry of Information and Communications started issuing licenses
to the private sector for FM transmissions under the National Broadcasting
Act 2049 and National Transmission Regulations 2052. But as there is
no clear cut plan on whom to issue licenses to and whom not to, the
lic ensing power has bee n left to the minister's dis cretion.
The FM stations now established and operating in the country have
defined themselves as commercial and community stations. But the
broadcast act and regulations have not classified the stations. As a result
all FM stations established and operated as community radio have had
to pay renewal fees and royalties on par with commercial radio stations.
Although many kinds of FM radio are in operation in practice, a sort of
uncertainty still reigns among the government and many FM operators
because of the lack of a clear cut basis for determining which FM stations
are commercial and which are community stations. This has led to
problems from time to time between the government and radio stations.
Just as licenses are issued at the minister's discretion, frequency distribution
is subject to the bureaucrat's discretionary powers. The main reason for
this is lack of a clear frequency scheme. As a result frequencies are
distributed arbitrarily. Because frequencies are distributed in this fashion,
the frequencies in use are crowded together on some parts of the frequency
spectrum while there is a lot of empty space in other parts. Consequently,
88
MS Nepal
listeners have a hard time picking up the station of their choice e

localities where only a few FM stations operate. FM operators ha
been able to reach their broadcast signals clearly to their audiences
in turn ha s aggr avated tensions be tween the broad ca
While issuing FM licenses, the government stipulates what the s
matter for programming should be. But there is no monitoring or eval
whether programming is actually broadcast as per the stipulation. N
is the standard of technology nor of the programming specified. It
even clear what the authorized monitoring body is or how and on
basis it is to do the monitoring. So when a dispute arises betwe
government and the broadcaster, the latter is compelled to acce
government's interpretation, and has also to put up with unnece
hassles.
The National Broadcast Act and regulations have made arrange
for renewal of FM broadcasting licenses, but nowhere is it state
licenses have to be renewed every year. In other countries licens
renewed at intervals of five to 10 years. But such international us
totally ignored in Nepal. On top of that the renewal fee here is hig
failure to renew on time incurs frightful penalties. Because of
annual renewal fees and fines even an FM station that has been ru
for years is in danger of closing down any year it feels a financial c
Lack of policy, planning and clarity at the stations :
Many of the FM stations in the private sector have been estab
without market and resource mobilization, planning, a programmin
advertising policy, an identity for the station, the strategy to be ad
for it and other basic preparations. While some FM stations have
the necessary preparations beforehand they have not been a
implement them in practice. Some community FM stations have w
out an organization chart, a code of conduct and policy and
concerning programming before starting their operations. But thes
not been implemented in an effective manner.
MS Nepal
Many radio stations are swayed in their programming by donors and

advertisers as they lack clear planning, evaluation of the possibilities for
market and resource mobilization and a programming and advertising
policy. A look at the time allotted by FM stations in Nepal to social issues
and the economically weak, backward classes and communities and the
weaker sex shows that these stations have a low sense of social
accountability. They have set aside very little time for women, the poor,
dalits, and backward communities and groups.
The gains of social programming and challenges :
While the time set aside for the backward communities and classes and
the poor by FM radio is meager, such programming has nevertheless
met with notable success in enhancing the social and economic position
of the listeners and encouraging feelings of self respect among them.
Many have felt greater self respect after listening to FM radio. Many of
them have spoken out against injustice and oppression. Many have learnt
new skills and found new employment. Others have made improvements
to their traditional callings and enhanced their incomes. A large part of
society has become aware of its rights and more alert than before.
With the establishment and operation of FM radio, the voice of the poor,
the helpless and the backward has been heard through the mass media,
albeit just a little. Radio coverage of minor events taking place in the
community has commenced. Broadcasting of programs like discussions,
debates and talks on the problems and concerns of the community has
helped bring a democratic culture down to the grass roots. FM has revived
debate on many social issues which had remained neglected.
Although FM stations have helped greatly in bringing forward social
issues the listeners expect a great deal more from station managers, the
program producers and presenters in matters relating to their wishes,
interests and concerns. In particular, much remains to be done on the
part of the stations and their program producers and presenters in terms
of skill development, income generation, empowerment, living standard,
90
MS Nepal
preservation of culture and other subjects wished for and of inte

the listening audience.
Although the social accountability of FM stations and the objecti
social organizations active in the upliftment of the community a
large extent the same, so far little joint effort has taken place be
such organizations and stations for the attainment of these objec
There is still great scope for social resources mobilization by
Similarly, a full tally of the investments made in and cooperation ext
to FM radio by various organizations has not yet taken place. Cu
heritage and cultural plurality are all important for FM radio. But
have not yet been worked into FM programming, format and presen
because of the lack of skill.
Side by side with the establishment and operation of FM stati
Nepal, listeners in every place where FM has been set up have orga
themselves to listen to various programs, give their reactions, and art
the voices of the community. These groups have helped take the pro
of FM stations down to the lower levels and make them popular
organized participation of listeners is more pronounced in the c
programming concerning social subject matter while in entertai
programming the listeners are more preoccupied with making them
known, seeking popularity and displaying their capabilities and
The role of listeners' groups for FM radio in Nepal has been mos
three kinds. While some groups confine themselves to listenin
giving their reactions, some other groups go a step further and su
the subject matter for programming and are in a position to co
inclusion of specific subject matter. At Radio Lumbini and comm
radio Madanpokhara, the role of the listeners is one level above t
listening, giving their reactions and suggesting the subject matt
includes something of the role of program producers. They ar
represented at the level of policy formulation because they are inc
in the organizational structure. They can play a role in the policy m
MS Nepal
Some stations have given organized shape to these efforts initiated by

the listeners and tried to give them access to the policy making level.
But many FM stations have limited listener participation to the level of
taking and giving reactions. They have listener participation but their
role in programming is weak and limited.
Suggestions:
The gains seen in the course of this study on FM stations operating in
Nepal are to an extent the result of planned action while some of the
gains were realized in the process of learning. Similarly, many of the
problems and challenges facing FM radio have arisen from a lack of
clear planning, policy and implementation while many others have arisen
because of lack of clarity in government policy, lack of follow up and
lack of planned effort. That is why tackling the problems and challenges
confronting FM radio today calls for effort from many sides. However
these problems and challenges originate, they are tied up with one another.
They cannot be resolved through lone effort. The government and the
private sector should carry out certain measures on a long term basis
and some other measures should be taken immediately. Similarly, there
is equally a need for the INGO's and donor agencies which have
contributed so far or are contributing still to the development and
expansion of FM to give continuity to their cooperation and help. The
suggestions have been presented in two categories, long term and
immediate. The attention of the government, the donor agencies and FM
station operators is needed equally for the implementation of these
suggestions.
What the Government should do :
Prepare a basis for issuing license
Although the number of FM stations in the private sector has reached

47, matters such as how many FM stations can be operated in which
places, what kind of FM stations are needed, what kinds of
92
MS Nepal
organizations should be given permission to operate FM, and

is the basis for issuing the licenses are being decided witho
kind of planning. So a clear cut plan should be formulate
distribution of FM licenses and then implemented in a trans
fashion. In making such a plan the following points should be inc
Make a frequency plan
It has become accepted world wide that radio frequencies are a l

resource and should be used for the good of the public. That i
there should be a clear policy in Nepal regarding how man
stations can be operated without difficulty, in which cities in
and in which villages FM station operation is possible, what s
be the technical standards for FM stations in towns and those
villages, etc.. Such a plan should be implemented in a trans
manner.
Classification of radio
Although FM radio stations operating in Nepal are generally d

as community and commercial, there is no clear basis for classifi
and in terms of the law there is no classification at all. So
become necessary to classify FM stations from a legal viewpoi
the basis for classification should be spelled out. While doi
classifying, profound analysis appears to be in need with reg
community radio. Whereas a private company owned by one indi
has been able to run a commercial radio it is yet to be tested in
whether a community station can also operate under one indiv
ownership. Such questions should be addressed when workin
the basis for classification. Some commercial stations now ope
have been claiming that they were opened to provide a comm
service. Classification should also provide clear answers as to
to accommodate such stations within the classification scheme
the classification, the facilities, concessions and other consider
they are entitled to from the state should be spelled out on the
MS Nepal
of the service they provide. Similarly, the royalties and renewal fees
charged by the state should be reviewed. In doing this attention
should be paid to see to it that many kinds of radio develop in any
given place and that the listener has a maximum number of choices.
Fixing standards and follow up

Even 10 years into the operation of FM radio a follow up system
for it has yet to be put in place, nor has a yardstick been prepared
for fixing standards. It is clear from past experience that
bureaucracy cannot do the follow up for radio programming.
Over this period many have also experienced that if bureaucrats
try do so it will result in a constraint on the independence of
mass media. That is why an entity like the Press Council, which
fixes standards for the print media and monitors it as well as
resolves disputes, is needed for radio also. For this a broadcast
council or authority can be set up. Or else the scope of the Press
Council should be expanded to take in both electronic and print
media. But whatever entity is involved in fixing standards, follow
up and resolution of conflict should be independent, impartial
and above government control.
Reducing renewal fee or extending renewal period
As the law and regulations do not provide for renewal of license year
after year, the period for renewal should be spelled out in the
broadcast act and regulations themselves. As an arrangement requiring
renewal of license every single year does not exist anywhere except
in our country and renewing every year entails payment of huge fees,
either the renewal fee should be reduced or the renewal period
extended for five years and this should be clearly stated in the
regulations. The provision for fines in the regulations concerning
renewal should be scrapped. At the same time the license and renewal
fees should be different for community and commercial radio.
94
MS Nepal
Steps to be taken by donor community, government and broadc

working together
Basic research in radio
The areas in which FM broadcasts can be heard and the popu
of prospective listeners have been set out by all FM stations ope
in the country. But this has been done on the basis of estimate
time has long come for scientific and organized studies
geographical areas in which FM can be heard, the clarity of the
signal, ownership of radio sets and their characteristics, availa
of FM frequencies and radio listening habits. As a national
study has not been done even eight years after FM stations s
operating, an extensive study in this area has become an imm
necessity.
Building permanent infrastructur e for study and res
The number of FM stations in the country is growing. The statio
trying to project an image distinct from others. The habits and w
listeners are changing. The competition of radio with other mass
is increasing. And Nepalese society's habits regarding use of
communications are also changing from day to day. That is why
and figures concerning this subject are of growing need and signif
for all mass media operating in Nepal. There is a need to de
permanent infrastructure for study and research or for joint actio
existing mass communications media. To this end the universitie
teach mass communications, research organizations and organiz
active in the field of broadcasting can work together to build perm
structures. Setting up infrastructures and gathering facts and fi
storing them and processing them as required can be done easily en
At the same time such infrastructure will come in handy for regular
and research. From this FM radio and other mass media also can
ample benefit.
MS Nepal
Permanent structure for training and skill enhancement
What the stations should do :
A sort of gap has developed within a short span of time between FM

radio programs and the wishes, preferences and concerns of the listeners.
The effectiveness of programming depends on profound knowledge of
the subject matter, technical wizardry and the expertise shown by
producers and presenters in tackling subjects that are of interest or
concern to the listeners. Besides, both transmission work and management
require a high level of skills. And the development of such skills and
capabilities is a continuous process. That is why continuous effort is
needed for enhancing the standard and effectiveness of programming,
and developing technical and management skills. Such structures can
be built with the active involvement of organizations that have been
providing training in radio program production and engaging in the
development and expansion of community and commercial radio in
Nepal. Structures so developed can see to equipment repair, build a
library of books on radio, and come up with basic and advanced courses
for technicians needed by radio, for program production and enhancement
of management skills. They can provide all manner of services needed
by radio. Development of such structures will also help in producing
skilled manpower and making the manpower already at work more
skilled. It will also be of help for the donor community to provide radio
assistance in one lump.
While the cooperation of government and various organizations

development and expansion of radio has its own importance, the
responsibility for stepping up the influence of radio and establishi
significance of radio in society lies with the FM operators. That i
the main task of attracting government, advertisers, sponsors and
agencies to this sector is also that of FM operators. And this task
an easy one from the point of view of the social responsibility o
radio. That is why the FM stations operating in Nepal should ta
following measures for carrying out their work, ranging from p
formulation to taking policy and strategy down to the grassroot
mobilization of means and resources.
The biggest problem seen over this period is the growing proficiency of
program producers and presenters but failure of broadcast managers and
investors to develop in matching fashion. That is why the very first need
today is to organize basic and skill enhancement training in broadcast
management. If organizations involved in the overall development of
radio are to organize and run such training immediately as part of long
term infrastructure building, there will be improvement in the service
provided by FM radio and its capacity to carry out financial and social
mobilization will also grow.
96
MS Nepal
Formulation of policy and plans and their implemen

Many FM stations in Nepal are in a state of unhealthy compe
because of failure to take the measures that should have been
prior to establishing the stations (such as concerning identifi
of the audience and their preferences, the state of the mark
social resources that are of relevance to them, station identific
program policy and basic things like planning for mobilizat
means and resources for helping with the programming). A
same time the choice of radio stations facing the listeners has g
That is why the need to project the identity of one's station as se
from that of others has increased compared to yesterday. As so
a station establishes a different identity from others, a door wil
for it to focus its programming on specific listeners' groups an
will enhance access to listeners of particular classes. This k
clarity will yield additional opportunities for establishing the st
credibility in the market and mobilizing means and resources.
same time the unhealthy competition will also be ameliora
some extent.
MS Nepal
Enhancing social accountability

The amount of time slotted for social subject matter and for programs
being run for the poor, the helpless and economically deprived is extremely
meager at FM stations now operating in the country. Whether they are
established with a commercial or a community purpose, mass media is
bound to have some social responsibility. It is this responsibility that has
established FM stations as a medium for social change. In working
together with government and non government organizations involved
in raising the community's quality of life this responsibility will naturally
grow. At the same time FM stations can mobilize means and resources
to a large extent. FM stations can render themselves socially more
accountable and more sensitive by enhancing the number and standard
of pr ograms responsive to the listeners and the community.
Enhancing skills and expertise
Whether it is programming that is entertainment oriented or based on
social subject matter, the main thing that draws the listener is subject
matter, knowledge about this on the part of the producers and presenters,
effectiveness and attractive presentation. That is why efforts to hone the
skills and expertise of program producers and presenters is a continuing
necessity. Even a decade into the establishment and operation of FM
radio the program subject matter, format and presentation of the stations
remain the same. But the hopes and expectations of the listeners are
growing day by day while the advertising market is getting narrower. In
order to produce and present programming that answers to the hopes
and expectations of listeners, FM stations should keep on making available
to producers and presenters training opportunities at home and abroad
and opportunities for skill enhancement. And the first condition for this
is the development of skilled broadcast managers who can mobilize the
means and resources needed for such work.
Culture is the greatest heritage of radio. A community's speech h

ways and conduct and life style can contribute to radio as cultural he
in many ways such as through subject matter, format and presen
Such efforts have been made only by a few stations and those FM st
which have stared to turn to culture as heritage have seen an incre
their reach in society. That is why this heritage should be made
when choosing the subject matter, format, presentation and mus
programming.
Organizing listener participation
All kinds of FM stations have attached significance to greater or
extent to listener participation, be they commercial or community.
all stations attach significance to listener participation, only a f
them have done this in an organized fashion. Listener participati
only fosters a feeling of listeners' ownership in radio but also hel
station come closer to the community, understand their culture,
in their joys and sorrows, and make the reach of radio in the comm
still more effective. It has been the experience of all stations that a s
has nothing to loose from organized listener participation, but fail
organize such participation can cost it dear. That is why re
identification and classification of the listeners and sounding ou
opinions are very important. Bringing about listener participatio
only in the programming carried by radio but also in other pro
organized by it will only enhance the influence of the station. Th
also increase the opportunities for mobilizing financial resources. P
should therefore be prepared, implemented and refined for assoc
listeners' groups with the FM station, be they groups formed spontan
for listening to entertainment programming or groups formed by
community organizations and then mobilized as listeners gr
Mobilization of social and cultural heritage
98
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
A
N
N
E
X
List of FM stations operating in Nepal
Eastern development Region
14 HBC 94 F.M.
Commercial Arubari, Kathmandu
15 F.M.Adhyatmajyoti Commercial Dillibazar, Kathmandu

16 Radio City Times
Commercial Anamnagar, Kathmandu
17 Radio Nepal
Commercial Singha Durbar,
(Star F.M.)
4479258/4
4442253/4
423245
4243569
Kathmandu
18
Bhaktapur F.M.
Commercial
Bhaktapur
661070
19
Radio ECR
Community
Godavari, Lalitpur
5560782
20
Nepal F.M.
Commercial Rabibhawan, Kathmandu
4289121
4289123
S.No. Name of Station
Category
Broadcast Location Contact Phone
Kanchenjunga F.M.
Commercial
Birtamod, Jhapa
023-542611
Koshi F.M.
Commercial
Biratnagar, Morang
021-524665
Saptakoshi F.M.
Commercial
Itahari, Sunsari
Saptakoshi F.M.
Commercial
Radio Nepal (BBC)
22
Manakamana F.M.
Singhadurbar, Kathmandu
Commercial
Lamasure, Hetauda
Biratnagar, Morang
23
Kalika F.M.
Commercial
Bharatpur, Chitwan
021-536645/
021-536646
Kantipur F.M.
Eastern Region
Commercial
Bhedetar, Dhankuta
01-5541902
Image F.M.
Eastern Region
Commerical
Bhedetar, Dhankuta
019-626015/
019-626006
Solu F.M.
Community
Dorpubazar,
019-626015/
Solukhumbu
019-626006
422546
057-523
057-522
025-580277/
025-580266
21
056-527
056-527
24
Synergy F.M.
Commercial
Bharatpur, Chitwan
056-526
056-526
25
Radio Birgunj
Commercial
Muralibazar,Birgunj
051-52
051-52
26
Palung F.M.
Community
Palung, Makwanpur
057-54
Central Development Region

8
Radio Sagarmatha Community
Bakhundol, Lalitpur
5528091/5542245
Metro F.M.
Community
Kalikasthan,
Kathmandu
4441248/4441247
10 Hits F.M.
Commercial
New Baneshwar,
Kathmandu
4780296/4781424
11 Kantipur F.M.
Commercial
Pulchowk, Lalitpur
5541902
12 Image F.M.
Commercial
Lajimpat, Kathmandu
01-4433141
13 Times F.M.
Commercial
Jawalakhel, Lalitpur
5539171
100
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
Mid-Western Development Region
Western Development Region

27
Annapurna F.M.
Commercial
Pokhara, Kaski
061-532877
41
Radio Bheri, Surkhet
Community
Birendranagar,
083-521100
Surkhet
28
Machapuchre F.M. Commercial Pokhara, Kaski
061-532893/
061-532883
29
Pokhara F.M.
Commercial Pokhara, Kaski
061-532583
Community
061-528219/
061-533383
44
Swargadwari F.M.
Community
Ghorahi, Dang
082-560164
01-4433141
45
Radio Karnali
Community
Bijayanagar,
01-5522625
30 Himalchuli F.M.
Pokhara, Kaski
31 Image F.M.
Western Region
Commercial Pokhara, Kaski
32
Community
Radio
Madanpokhara
Madanpokhara,
Palpa
075-521405
Community
Nepalgunj,
081-550739
Banke
43
Bageshwari F.M.
Commercial
Nepalgunj,
081-526391/5
Banke
Far Western Development Region
Commercial
Tansen, Palpa
075-521660
34 Muktinath F.M.
Community
Tansen, Palpa
075-521663
35 Pachimanchal F.M. Commercial
Tansen, Palpa
075-521725/
075-521726
071-561003
36 Radio Lumbini
Community
Manigram,
Rupandehi
37 Butwal F.M.
Commercial
Butwal,
rupandehi
Tinau F.M.
Commercial
Butwal,
Rupandehi
071-545609/
071-545679
39
Bijaya F.M.
Community
Gaidakot
056-501364
40
Rupandehi F.M.
Community
Bhairahawa,
Rupandehi
071-521002
46
Ghodaghodi F.M.
Community
Uttariya, Kailali
091-55071
47
Saipal F.M.
Community
Bajhang
081-55060
071-46498/
071-547798
071-46498/
071-547798
38
MS Nepal
Radio Bheri Awaz
Jumla
33 Srinagar F.M.
102
42
MS Nepal
A
N
N
E
X
A
N
N
E
X
II
III
104
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
Short description of radio stations studied
A
N
N
E
X
Radio Sagarmatha, Kathmandu
IV
Does not fall within the traditional definition of community radio,

but gives emphasis to programming based on the community's
preferences
A station functioning as a bridge between the community and the
policy making level
Takes the voices of the community to the policy making level, the
voice of the voiceless
Operates on the belief that the community should receive factual
information
Advocates democra cy, human rights a nd pr ess f reedo m
Considered a model by FM radio stations in the Kingdom of Nepal
Provides training, assistance and guidance to various radio stations
Has a large repertoire of Nepali songs
Chooses advertising messages and songs on the basis of material,
language and presentation
Has wide access among entities and individuals involved with the
decision makers' level in Nepal
Entertainment programming popular among those who love Nepali
song and music
Entertainment programming popular among those who do not
understand Hindi or English songs and love Nepali song and music
Recognized by various organizations as a radio station that deals
107
MS Nepal
with the country's policies, regulations, law and social concern

well established as such
Weak in marketing and does not really pay attention to proj
itself in the business sector
Commencement of broadcasting
Duration of operation
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self reliance
Total employees
Capable employees
Program producers
Capable program producers
Technicians
Administration
Marketing
Gender participation
Community participation
Local languages
English
Hindi/English song
Income source
Priority for advertising
Jestha 1, 2054
8 years
Non government organization
(Nepal Environment Journalists Gro
Community radio
18 hours (5 am till 11 pm), 500 wat
News and information oriented 60 %
entertainment oriented 40%
Rs 34,32,000
Rs 1,03,20,326
Rs 69,50,590
Rs 68,50,590
yes
60 (volunteers, part timers, full time
All
48 (24 regular, 24 volunteers)
All, all have had some international
training or other
6
6
1
Women 35 %, men 65%
yes
Newari, Tamang and Maithili
(more than 8 hours a week)
None
None
Program sponsorship, advertising an
assistance, co-production
Low, only through selection
MS Nepal
Program sponsorship
Listenership
Local competition
Listener population size
Listener satisfaction
Target material
N o n g o v e r n m en t o r g an i z at i o n s,
international non government
organi zat ions and local o rganizations
Educated, of all ages and members of
intelligentsia
13 other radio stations
Very large number
Very high
Hig h, with vo lunteers, repo rting and
feedback
New s, di scu ssio ns and in fo rmatio n
transmission
Hits FM, Kathmandu

Purely commercial radio
Gives high priority to entertainment programming dedicated to music
No news or news oriented programming but airs messages to a limited
extent that are beneficial to community
Has established a reputation for production and transmission of quality
programming in music
Able to show advertisers value for money
Listening audience comprises middle class, educated and people of
all ages who love song and music
Mixes Nepali and English in its programming, and no qualms about
such mixing
Written record of all programming (including script)
Tries not to broadcast song or music that does not meet definite
technical standards
Most programming broadcast directly, with only about 12% of
programming recorded before broadcasting
Arrangement for three month compulsory training within the radio
for new employees, and even those who have worked before are not
allowed to act as presenters without first undergoing training
109
MS Nepal
Has a large repertoire of song, and makes direct contacts and agree
with various music companies in America and India
Requires prior permission for use of the script of any progra
the songs in it
No personnel for marketing. But the executive director hi
functions as marketing manager and program presenters also fu
as market representatives
Customers approached directly for marketing. Little advertising
through agents
Carries more advertising than competing stations
Gives Nepalese listeners a taste of western songs and also g
significant place to Nepali pop
Established
Magh, 2053, New Baneshwar, Kathm
Operation period
Seven years
Operator
Private, Hits Nepal pvt. ltd.
Category
Purely commercial radio
Transmission time
24 hours, 500 watts
Programming
Entertainment-oriented 100%
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Estimated ten million
Annual expenses
Estimated eight million
Self reliance
Yes
Total employees
42 (regular and full timers)
Capable employees
All
Program producers
All program presenters
All
Technicians
Administration
Marketing
Women 65%, men 35%
none
MS Nepal
Not available
English
Yes
Hindi/English songs
Yes
Income source
Program sponsorship and advertising
Broadcast commencement
High priority, almost all programming is
Operation period
5 years
sponsored
Operator
Cooperative
Program sponsorship
Commercial organizations and entities
Category
Community radio
Listenership
12-35 age bracket, urban youth
Transmission time
17 and half hours
Local competition
13 other radio stations
Programming
Information and education oriented 50 %
Very large
High
Initial investment
800,000
Plenty in the programming. Not organized
Present capital
7,200,000
Target material
Broadcasting of song and music
Annual income
2,800,000
Annual expenditure
3,000,000
Self reliance
Not yet
Total employees
73(37 part timers)
Capable employees
Some
Program producers
14(including 7 part timers)
Technicians
Administration
Marketing
45 % female
Yes
Local languages
Bhojpuri, Magar, Tharu, Newari and Gur
English
None
Hindi/English song
None
Income source
Local bodies, sponsorship, advertising an
Radio Lumbini, Manigram, Rupandehi

Many programs produced targeting agriculture and popular among
a farmers
Much programming for women, children, ethnic communities and
lower classes
After other radio stations opened up in the local area the listening
audience of this station got divided up
Run by a local cooperative organization with 129 members. Practically
all me mber ship local. with th e most members working
Broadcasts 8 hours of programming a week in the Bhojpuri language
Discussion programs between listener groups and local groups from
time to time
Instead of targeting any one particular subject matter the programming
incorporates many topics
Uses a great deal of language that is difficult for listeners to understand
Weak in the material broadcast, the language used and presentation
Plenty of songs in local languages and dialects broadcast
Because of financial and technical difficulties unable to broadcast as
wished
111
Used by program producers as a place for training. Once empl

become capable they tend to move on to other stations paying
little more
Local languages
MS Nepal
Magh 20, 2056
entertainment oriented 50 %
various organisations
Ordinary
Program sponsorship
Government, local bodies and Non-gover

organisations
MS Nepal
Listenership
All classes
Local competition
Two others
listener population size
Big
Medium
Much, volunteers, reporting and even

program production
Target material
Social subject matter and entertainment
Manakamana FM, Hetauda, Manakamana

Initially established as a commercial station but is now a commercial
station that carries much programming on social subject matter
Most of the programming meant to be of entertainment type, with
some community topics included in the programming, and some of
the pr ogr a ms pr od uce d with the c ommunity in mind
No written directives for preparing programs
Top priority for donors and sponsored programs
Some of the programs have impacted positively on governmental and
local organizations
Many listeners like programs produced elsewhere and broadcast over
this station, especially those produced in Kathmandu, rather than
programming produced by the station itself
Closure of industries day after day having an impact on marketing
has established its identity as not comparable with purely commercial
stations in terms of advertising and listenership
Established
Operation period
Operator
Category
Transmission time,
Programming
Initial investment
113
MS Nepal
Shrawan 31, 2057

5 years
Creative Eyes Entertainment and
Multimedia Pvt Ltd
Commercial radio
18 hours, 500 watt
Information and education
oriented 45%, entertainment 55 %
More than ten million
About 8,000,000
About 2,400,000
About 2,400,000
Yes
32
8
13
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self reliance
Total employees
Capable employees
Program producers
Technicians
administration
Marketing
Local languages
English
Hindi/English song
Income source
Program sponsorship
Listenership
Local competition
Target material
6
10
3
Equal male and female employe
Yes
Tamang
Yes
Yes
Advertising and donor support
high
Private sector
Village and urban youths aged 2
none
Very big
High
High
Entertainment and education and
information oriented
Butwal FM, Butwal, Rupandehi
First radio station outside Kathmandu Valley to become self supp

Greater emphasis in programming on news and information
No written directives for preparing programs
Greater priority for local news and subject matter pertaining to w
and educational topics
MS Nepal
Listeners prefer programs that are news and information oriented but
the station has been able to attract urban intellectuals and rural listeners
to a lesser extent only
Outstanding participation by the audience for entertainment
programming
Program producers capable of producing programs of quality
Financially sound as 70% income is from local market and only 30%
from outside and agencies in
Program presenters and technicians not properly mobilized and directed
for making the station more effective
Problems still persist in running the station effectively because of
lack of clear policy and regulations on the part of His Majesty's
Government
Operation period
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self reliance
Total employees
Capable employees
Technicians
Administration
Marketing
Local languages
115
MS Nepal
Asar 7, 2059
3 years
Private sector,
Siddartha Media Services Pvt Ltd
Commercial radio
18 hours
News-oriented 35%,
entertainment oriented 65%
7,500,000
More than 10 million
About 3 million
About 2.5 million
Yes
50
Some
5
Total of 7
3
Women 15, men 35
Yes
Tharu language
English
Hindi/English songs
Income source
Yes
Yes
Advertising and government
organizations and entities
High
Private sector
Age 12-50, rural and urban
2, (1 community, 1 commerc
Very big
High
High but not organised
Entertainment oriented,
news oriented and song and
music transmission

Program sponsorship
Listenership
Local competition
Targeted material
Saptakoshi FM, Itahari, Sunsari

Competing with radio stations carrying out relay transmissions
region, using Kathmandu as a base
Unable to become self-sufficient even in 3 years of broadc
although local market is huge, but greatly liked by local lis
Lacks skilled program producers and presenters for productio
transmission of quality programming
Programs based on social subject matter acting as a bridge be
the community and government and non-government organiz
Programs targeted at lower classes very popular among those c
and such programming covers their daily lives
Programming produced with the lower classes in mind has notic
increased their awareness and confidence
As the station does not have manpower to produce and present q
entertainment programming listeners have to turn to Kathmandu
stations for such programs
MS Nepal
Has helped arouse the community for local and national news and
information
Programs produced by Communications Corner in Kathmandu for
transmission through this station more popular
Harmonious relations with local government and non-government
entities
Operation period
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self sufficient
Total employees
Capable employees
Program producers
Technicians
Administration
Marketing
Community participating
Local languages
English
Hindi/English songs
Income source
Program sponsorship
117
MS Nepal
Asoj 29, 2058

3 years
Private sector, Saptakosi Media Pvt Ltd
Commercial
18 hours
Social 40 percent, entertainment 60 percent
5.5 million
7.2 million
3,865,000
4,593,000
Not yet
37
27
25
25
3
5
2
Women 12, men 25
Yes
Tharu, Limbu and Rai languages
Yes
Yes
Advertising, program sponsorship
and production
High
Business sector, NGO's, local government
bodies
Listenership
Local competition
Targeted material
All classes
2 (1 Kathmandu based and broadcasti
this area and 1 local)
Big
High
High in some programs
Information, human rights, education
and entertainment
Annapurna FM, Pokhara, Kaski

Considered biggest among local radio stations but is also in comp
with all
Radio station with the most manpower among the FM stations ope
in Pokhara
No special programs at all targeted at the poor and lower c
Some of the programs centered on the problems and wishes
listener s and amenable to mutual discussions among
Arrangement for 2, 3 months training within the station for empl
working there and one month compulsory exercise before they p
programs
Program producers and presenters professional and responsible
evaluation of listeners
Outstanding listener participation, send letters to the program
noticeable amounts of material and literary matter for the pro
Noticeable listener participation in programs and establishi
image as station carrying programming liked by list
MS Nepal
Operation period
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self-reliance
Total employees
Yes
67 (including part timers, full timers
and correspondents)
Capable employees
Program producers
Technicians
Administration
Marketing
Local languages
English
Hindi/English songs
Income source
Program sponsorship
Listenership
Local competition
Targeted material
119
MS Nepal
Baisakh 12, 2058

4 years
Private sector, Annapurna FM Pvt Ltd
Commercial radio
19 hours
Information 30, educational 15
and entertainment 55 percent
Ten million
13.5 million
25
16
6
8
8 (including 3 in Kathmandu)
35 percent women, 65 percent men
Yes
Gurung, Newari
Yes
Yes
Advertising and program sponsorship
High
Private sector
All classes
3 stations
Very big
High
High in some programs and
some organized
Information and entertainment oriented
Community Radio Madanpokhara, Palpa, Tansen

Most famous of the community radio stations operating in
Established as well respected and highly popular among all ki
listeners in Palpa district
Target audience comprises all local villagers in the d
Part of the income collected through the listeners with the partici
of the community
Much of the broadcast programming committed to dalits,
communities and farmers
Has made a good impact on land cultivation with the farmers foll
the techniques for better output that they heard about on the
Listeners mostly prefer news oriented and information ori
programming
Social discriminations are on the decline because of the awaren
the community fostered by radio
Many programs produced for women and children and ha
succeeded in raising awareness about the rights of the communi
other matters
Has won the hearts of the intellectual community with news or
programs produced in Kathmandu and of the farmers with program
produced at local level
High level of participation by women listeners in programs pro
at local level
Some of the weaknesses of this station have to do with transm
reach, and lack of adequate knowledge among program prod
and presenters
Operating period
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Initial investment
Chaitra 23, 2057

5 years, 2 months and 16 days
Madanpokhara VDC
Community radio
12 and half hours
Informational and educational 45 pe
and entertainment oriented 55 perce
1.4 million
MS Nepal
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self reliance
Total employees
Capable employees
Program producers

Technicians
Administration
Marketing
Local languages
English
Hindi/English songs
Income source
Program sponsorship
Listenership
Local competition
Targeted material
121
MS Nepal
5 million
2.2 million
2.2 million
No, 65% NGO's, 35% self
19
All
13 at station (in addition 28 radio
representatives in various VDCs and
6 community volunteers mobilized)
All
5 (operating)
6
1
25 percent women, 75 percent men
High
Magari
No permission received from code of
conduct for its use
No permission received from code of
conduct for its use
Donors, advertising and local
organizations
Social message not compromising
income, employment and health
Very little (ngo's and local bodies)
All classes, callings and genders in
the district
3 other local radio stations now
Very big
Very high
Comments, letters, telephone and direct
participation of listeners
Matters of community interest and
topicality
Radio Swargadwari, Dang

Run as community radio but listeners unable to tell whethe
community radio or commercial
Radio highly popular among the Tharu community and has an inf
on community life
Level of awareness in the community increasing because
information provided by radio and greater interest of listeners in
oriented programming
Some of the programs prepared around the issues of corruptio
local development
Programs prepared on the basis of listeners' lifestyle consi
successful and programs dealing with social subject matter
increased the knowledge of the listeners
Programs based on agriculture and farming have had an effect
daily lives of the farmers. But there is demand for programmin
is still better and more effective
Pr ograms targe ted at women a re popula r an d eff e
Has raised public awareness against social evil practices and h
do away with such practices (especially with regard to widow's
and women's self reliance)
Listeners say that the station has not given any real importa
their suggestions and complaints.
Established
Operating period
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Paush 9, 2058
4 years
Non-government organization,
Swargadwari Communications Cent
Community radio
13 and half hours
Information and educational 50 perc
entertainment 50 percent
5 million
About 10 million
1.8 million
MS Nepal
Annual expenditure
Self-reliance
Total employees
Capable employees
Program producers
technicians
administration
marketing
Local languages
English
Hindi/English songs
Income source

Program sponsorship
listenership
Local competition
Listening population size
Targeted material
1.9 million
No
30 employees and 37 volunteers)
About 10
15 and 25 part timers
8
4
8
3
11 women
Yes
Tharu, Magar and Awadi
Programs exist
No policy of playing songs
Advertising 50 percent and donor,
government and local organizations
participation in programming
Ordinary
NGO's, local bodies, ad companies
All age groups, all classes
none
High
Medium
Going from normal to high (volunteers,
reporting and feedback)
News oriented material and
entertainment programming
Radio Himalchuli FM, Pokhara

The station can close down if it does not produce and transmit
commercial programs. At present more that 60% of the programs are
commercially sponsored.
The radio is running under extremely straitened circumstances.
123
MS Nepal
No programs prepared around economics topics for raising the

standard of the community.
The station has however done outstanding good for the gandar
minstrel community. It has provided great help in safeguardi
song, music and culture of this community. It has also brought
improvement in their social standing.
Shortage of skilled manpower for producing and presenting q
programming
Suggestions and pressure from listeners concerning program
based on health and environment and how the money brought
ex-army personnel can be utilized
Awareness-oriented information and programming provided
radio against social aberrations has had a positive impact o
community.
The station lacks an adequate amount of songs and equipmen
studio
Established
Operating period
Operator
Category
Transmission time
Programming
Chaitra 29, 2057

4 years
Cooperative
Community radio
16 and half hours (5:30 am to 10 p
Information oriented 25 percent,
educational 25 percent, and
entertainment 50 percent
7 million
About 10 million
1.8 million
1.8 million
No
48(including 12 volunteers)
75 percent
30 (12 volunteers and 10 part time
14
4
Initial investment
Present capital
Annual income
Annual expenditure
Self-reliance
Total employees
Capable employees
Program producers
Technicians
MS Nepal
Administration
Marketing
Local languages
English
Hindi/English songs
Income source
Program sponsorship
Listenership
Local competition
Listening population size
Targeted material
7
3
18 women
High
Gurung, Magar, Newari and Tamang
No
Yes
Advertising and sponsorship and programs
from various organizations
High
Local businessmen and advertisers
All age groups, all classes
3 stations
High
Ordinary
High in some programs, generally of
a general type
Information and education oriented material
List of participants in interviews

and group discussions
Saptakoshi FM Itahari
Date: April 1, 2004

Place: Saptakoshi F.M. Itahari
Groupwise discussion
S. No.
125
MS Nepal
Time: 2.45 4.30 Aft
Name of participants
Gender
Binaya Guragai
Male
Arjun Upreti
Male
Srijan Nepal
Male
Anju Subba
Female
Chandra Neupane
Male
MS Nepal
Particulars
Program Coordinator
Social Program,
Saptakoshi F.M., Itah
Program Director,
Program Coordinator
Entertainment Progra
Assistant Director,
Entertainment Progr
Marketing Manager,
Date: April 1, 2004

Place: Itahari Municipality office
Time: 4.45 5.50 Afternoon
Date: April 2, 2004

Place: Sonapur VDC, Sunsari
Interview
S. No.
6
Groupwise discussion with Dalits
Gender
Krishna Kumar Niraula
Particulars
Male
Date: April 2, 2004

Place: Purbanchal Gyan Chachu Vidhyalaya
Dharan 15, Banjagara
Secretary,
Itahari Municipality,
Itahari
S. No.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
127
Gender
Man Kumari Rai

Gita Tamang
Bimala Tamang
Ganga Bhujel
Asha Rai
Jit Bahadur Tamang
Shahadev Thapa
Mukunda Chalise
Umesh Mandal
Sundar Limbu
Basanta Maharjan
Bidur Adhikari
Dinesh Mandal
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
MS Nepal
Time: 3.45 6.00 E
Particulars
Student, class 8 (blind)
S. No.
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Gender
Shakuntala Thateree
Shanta Bishwakarma
Sangita Bishwakarma
Bina Bishwakarma
Harimaya Bishwakarma
Seshchari Rishidev
Reshami Devi Rishidev
Khagendra Bishwakarma
Batoriya Rishidev
Rameshwar Paswan
Ramchandra Rishidev
Khopadiya Rishidev
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Date: April 3, 2004

Place: Abhiyan Nepal, Itahari
Particulars
Retail saleswoman/illiterat
Labourer - agriculture/illite
Labourer - agriculture/liter
Labourer - agriculture/liter
Labourer - industry/literat
Labourer industry/illitera
Retail salesman - illiterate
Labourer agriculture/liter
Temporary peon Sonapur
Farmer/illiterate
Time: 10.30 AM 12.00 D
Interview
S. No.
32
Keshab Dahal
Gender
Male
MS Nepal
Particulars
Chairman,
Abhiyan Nepal and
NGO Federation
Date: April 3, 2004

Place: Saptakosi F.M., Itahari
Discussion with Saptakoshi Listeners Forum,

an organization of listeners to Saptakoshi FM
S. No. Name of participants

33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Bandana Dahal
Punam Bhattarai
Sonu Khadka
Ajita Sigdel
Nirmala Subedi
Pusparaj Parajuli
Lekhraj Parajuli
Krishna Karki
Prasidda Parajuli
Rameshwar Paswan
Gender
Particulars
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Chairman/ I.Com./Housewife
Member/I.Com.
Member/S.L.C.
Treasurer/BBS
Member/I.A.
Secretary/I.A.
Secretary/I.A.
Vice Chairman/Rikshaw operator
Member/B.A. third year
Labourer Industry/literate
Manakamana FM Hetauda
Date: April 14, 2004
Time: 4.00 4.40 Aft
Place: District Development Committee

Makwanpur, Hetauda
Interview
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
44
Ram Krishna Thapa
Male
Information and communic

officer, DDC, Makwanpur

Place: Manakamana F.M., Hetauda
Date: April 4, 2004
Place: Saptakoshi F.M. Itahari
Time: 8.45 10.10 Morning
S. No.
Interview
S. No.
43
129
Hari Narayan Chaudhari
MS Nepal
Time: 11.00 1.00 Aft
Gender
Male
Particulars
Program producer,
Tharu language,
Saptakoshi FM
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Ram Abhikas
Sunil Shrestha
Sudip Dhakal
Sumitra Lama
Muskan Thapa
Niranjana Gadtaula
Nirajan Dhungel
Sunil Bhattarai
Suresh Shrestha
Jeevan Ram Timsina
Gender
Particulars
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
B.A./Journalist
B.B.S./Businessm
B.A./Journalist
I.Ed.
I.A.
I.A.
I.A.
I.Com.
B.B.S.
Program produce
Manakamana F.M
MS Nepal

Place: Manakamana F.M. Hetauda

Place: District Agriculture Office,
Makwanpur, Hetauda
Time: 11.00 1.00 Aft
Interview
Groupwise discussion with farmers

55
Gender
Samir Nepal
Male
Particulars
Operator/Managing director,
Manakamana F.M., Hetauda

Place: Nibuwatar VDC Ward No. 3, Makwanpur
Gender
59
Chiranjibi Acharya
Male
60
Krishna Prasad Adhikari
Male
61
Indra Prasad Adhikari
Male
62
Bimala Sapkota
Female
63
Basanti Chaulagai
Female
Interview
S. No.
56
Sonam Blon
Age
Gender
36
Male
Post
Particulars
B.A./Model Agricultural
Cooperative Group
Literate/Sri Sagarmatha
Cooperative Group
Class 10/Sri Sagarmatha
Cooperative Group
Literate/Sri Pran Nath Agricu
Cooperative Group
Literate/Sri Pran Nath Agricu
Cooperative Group
Rikshaw operator/
illiterate
Place: Asmita NGO, Hetauda

Place: District Agriculture Office,
Makwanpur, Hetauda
Time: 7.00 9.00 M
Intereview

64
Bharati Pathak
Gender
Particulars
Female
Chairman, Asmita, Het
Interview

57
58
Gender
Tej Prasad Dawadi
Male
Deepak Raj Mishra
Male
Particulars
Officer/Agricultural program producer,
Manakamana F.M.
Bahidar/Agricultural program presenter,
Manakamana F.M.

Place: Nepal Tamang Ghedung office,
Hetauda buspark
Time: 12.00 2.30 Afte
Groupwise discussion with ethnic communities
131
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
S. No.
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
Gender
Buddha Lama
Meyer Lo
Pritam Lama Rumba
Dhansingh Lama Rumba
Raju Waiba
Maharatna Lama
Ram Bahadur Bal
Som Bahadur Tamang
Man Bahadur Bal
Sunil Moktan
Surya Bahadur Lama
Kumari Waiba
Dudhu Moktan
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Male
Particulars
Social worker
Agriculture/business
Social worker/ agriculture
Student
Agriculture
Social worker
"
"
"
"
Agriculture
"
Student/BBS
Radio Lumbini and Butwal FM,

Rupandehi
S. No.
Gender
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
Tulasa Sharma
Man Bahadur Chetri
Dhrubanath Singh Khawas
Laxmi Rawal
Bishnu Kumari Thapa
Sita Giri
Abhiram Bishwakarma
Female
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Male
96
97
98
Chud Bikram Shahi

Sridhar Neupane
Bhawani Shankar Sapkota
Male
Male
Male

Place: Semlar VDC,
Bathahauliya, Rupandehi
Particulars
Teacher
Political worker
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Teacher/communi
correspondent,
Radio Lumbini
Teacher
Teacher
Farmer
Time: 1.30 3.00 Aft
Groupwise discussion with women

Place: Butwal F.M., Butwal
Time: 11: 20 12.00 Day time
S. No.
Interview

78
Madhav Nepal
Gender
Male
Particulars
Station manager, Butwal F.M., Butwal

Place: Devdaha VDC, Rupandehi
Discussion with listeners to Radio Lumbini

(Devdaha Listeners' Club, Devdaha)
133
MS Nepal
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
Gender
Particulars
Geetdevi Katel
Radha Chalise
Laxmi KC
Indra Chalise
Sita Acharya
Ratna Chalise
Sapana Bishwakarma
Renu Adhikari
Sita Poudyal
Radha KC
Mamata Chalise
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Housewife
Housewife
Housewife
Student, I.A.
Housewife
Student, B.Ed.
"
,Class
"
,S.L.C.
"
,I.A.
"
,S.L.C
"
,Class
MS Nepal

Place: Radio Lumbini,
Manigram, Rupandehi
Time: 10.45 12.20 Midday

Place: Tikuligadh VDC, Rupandehi
Time: 2.00 4.00 D
Groupwise discussion with Tharu community

Groupwise discussion with the board
of directors of Radio Lumbini
S. No.
Gender
110
111
112
113
Krishna Nepal
Arjun Gyawali
Ramchandra Acharya
Shashi Poudyal
Male
Male
Male
Male
Particulars
Executive Director, Radio Lumbini
Chairman, Management Committee
Member,
"
"
Vice Chairman

Place: Hotel Sindur, Butwal
Groupwise discussion with program producers and program

operators at Radio Lumbini and Butwal FM
Gender
114
115
116
117
118
Indira Aryal
Ramesh Pandey
Durga Aryal
Pradeep Acharya
Sapana Tamang
Female
Male
Male
Male
Female
119
120
121
122
Kiran Marhatha
Sudan Gyawali
Rekha Bhusal
Khemraj Regmi
Male
Male
Female
Male
123
Ramesh BC
Male
135
MS Nepal
S. No.
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
Bharat Chaudhari
Badri Chaudhari
Thulo Durai
Tek Bahadur Chaudhari
Chandrika Chaudhari
Anarkali Chaudhari
Badri Chaudhari
Amarnath Uru
Radha Chaudhari
Krishna Chaudhari
Punam Chaudhari
Ambika Chaudhari
Chandrika Chaudhari
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Male
Male
Female
Male
Female
Female
Female
Particulars
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Labourer
Farmer
Student class
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
Community Radio Madanpokhara, Palpa
Particulars
Program producer - Radio Lumbini
Program operator - Radio Lumbini
News/entertainment program operator
- Butwal F.M.
Program coordinator - Butwal F.M.
Program operator - Butwal F.M.
News correspondent - Butwal F.M.
Entertainment program operator
- Butwal F.M.
Entertainment program operator
- Butwal F.M.
Gender

Place: Sarada Higher Secondary School, Madanpokhara
Time: 4.00
Groupwise discussion with teachers
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
137
138
139
140
Toyanath Khanal
Prem Nath Ghimire
Khom Rai
Hira Nepal
Male
Male
Male
Male
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
MS Nepal
141
142
143
144
Bindu KC
Keshav Aryal
Jhapendra GC
Yam Prasad Bhandari
Male
Male
Male
Male
Teacher
Teacher
Former President, DDC, Palpa
Teacher
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
153
154
155
156
157
Seema Thapa
Kamala Thapa
Rekha Sinjali
Maya Thapa
Dunisara Birkatta
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Student class 7
Sewing & cutting/c
Retail shopkeeper
Housewife/literate
Illiterate
Place: Shikhardada, Madanpokhara
Discussion with Shikhardada forest users' group
S. No.
Gender
145
Ram Prasad Ghimire
Male
146
Ram Prasad Poudyal
Male
147
Major Bhandari
Male
148
Kopila Bhandari
Female
149
Sarmila GC
Female
150
Bishnuhari Acharya
Male
151
Krishna Bahadur Thapa
Male
152
Ganesh Bhandari
Male

Place: Madanpokhara, Damkada
Particulars
Chairman,
Shikhardada forest users' group
Member,
Member,
Member,
Member,
Member,
Member,
Member,
Time: 12.00 2.00
Discussion with women from the Magar community
137
MS Nepal

Place: Madanpokhara, Damkada
Time: 3.00 5.30
Discussion with radio listeners' group

(Mandabya friends of radio group)
S. No.
Gender
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
Sridhar Ghimire
Bharatraj Ghimire
Guru Prasad Bhattarai
Hari Bhusal
Durga Aryal
Dev Raj Aryal
Khum Kant Devkota
Santosh Aryal
Top Bahadur Shrestha
Radhika Parajuli
Min Bahadur Somai
Krishna Bahadur Shrestha
Loknath Devkota

Place: Radio Madanpokhara, Palpa
Particular
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Male
Male
Male
Memb
-
Time: 11.00 3.00 Afte
Discussion with community correspondents/

program producers/ program operators
MS Nepal
S. No.
Gender
171
Dhrubaram Adhikari
Male
172
Durgalal Shrestha
Male
173
Deepak Dhungana
Male
174
Basudev Dhakal
Male
175
Bimala Gyawali
Female
176
Mina Bista
Female
177
Khum Bahadur Poudyal
Male
178
Sagar Ghimire
Male
179
Hari Bahadur Saru
Male
180
Bharat Prasad Acharya
Male
181
Jaganath Sharma
Male
182
Om Prakash Gair
Male
183
Mohan Lal Karki
Male
184
Krishna Pahari
Male
185
Rajesh Kumar Aryal
Male
186
Juna Ghimire
Female
Particulars
Community correspondent,
Bhairavsthan VDC
Masyam VDC
Chistungdhara VDC
Rampur VDC
Kasyauli VDC
Masyam VDC
Humin VDC
Bandi Pokhara VDC
Devinagar VDC
Ratnapur Syangja
Chidhipani VDC
Darlam Dada VDC
Tahu VDC
Pokharathok VDC
Program producer/
shift in-charge/Radio
Madanpokhara
Program producer/
Radio Madanpokhara
187
Yamuna Saru
Female
188
Gunakar Aryal
Male
189
Somnath Aryal
Male

Place: DDC office, Palpa
Program producer/
Radio Madanpokha
Station manager,
Radio Madanpokha
Station coordinator
Radio Madanpokha
Time: 10.30 11.30 D
Interview
S. No.
Gender
190
Khadananda Chaulagai
Male

Place: Local Initiation Support Program Office
Particulars
Local Developmen
Officer, DDC, Palp
Time: 10.30 11.30
Interview
S. No.
191
Gender
Jitendra Jaiswal
Male
Particulars
Coordinator- Loca
Initiation Support
Program
Radio Swargadwari, Dang

Place: Social Alertness for Education office,
Ghorahi
Time: 4.00 6.30 E
Groupwise discussion with women youths of the Badi commu
139
MS Nepal
MS Nepal
S. No.
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
Gender
Particulars
Mala Nepali
Sangita Nepali
Punam
"
Manisha "
Sapana
"
Puja
"
Kamala Nepali
Kalpana "
Sarita
"
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Student class
Student class
Student class
Student class
Student class
Student class
Student class
Student class
Student class

Place: Radio Swargadwari F.M., Dang
9
7
5
6
8
5
7
7
9
Groupwise discussion with Tharu community
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
Professor, MahendraRatna
Multiple Campus, Dang
Treasurer, Rural Women
Upliftment Association/BBS
Volunteer, Rural Women
Upliftment Association/literate
Teacher
Innovative farmer
201
Dev Narayan Chaudhari
Male
202
Laxmi Chaudhari
Female
203
Kumari Chaudhari
Female
204
205
141
Yogendra Chaudhari
Bijaya Chaudhari
MS Nepal
Male
Male
Date: April 29. 2004

Place: Radio Swargadwari F.M.,
Dang
Time : 12.20 2.00 Afte
Groupwise discussion with students
S. No.
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
Srijan Adhikari
Hemraj Acharya
Mamata Bista
Priyanka Maharjan
Seejan Pokharel
Damodar Adhikari
Manoj Subedi
Gender
Particulars
Female
Male
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Class 12
Class 12
Class 12
Class 12
Graduate
Graduate
Graduate

Place: Disabled Human Rights and Concern Forum,
Tribhuvanagar 10, Ghorahi
Time: 3.15 4.50 Aft
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
Program producer,
Disabled awakening
SLC
Program assistant
Student
Social worker
Correspondent Dristi w
Student, I.A.
"
, I. Com.
Coordinator/B.A.
213
Bibek Khadka
Male
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
Shiva Bharati
Maya Bishwakarma
Dev Khanal
Anil Chaudhari
Durgalal KC
Lal Bahadur Khatri
Kanti Sharma
Indra Bista
Male
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
MS Nepal

Place: Radio Swargadwari, Dang
Time: 9.15 ll.00 Morning
Date: June 10, 2004

Place: Batule Chaur, Pokhara
Groupwise discussion with Gandarbha communities
Groupwise discussion with program producers and operators
S. No.
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
Gender
Dadhiram Subedi
Bipul Pokharel
Santos Subedi
Prakash Priya Khushumaya
Amar Subedi
Arjun Giri
Rita Pokharel
Durgesh Kumar Yogi
Sandhya Regmi
Kulbir Chaudhari
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Particulars
Station manager
News chief
Program coordinator
Program producer
Program producer
News reader
Program producer
Program producer
Program producer
Program producer
Himalchuli and Annapurna FM,

Pokhara
Date: June 9, 2004

Place: Anandaraj Mulmi's house
Time: 9.30 12.00 Mor
S. No.
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
Gender
Khadga Bahadur Gayak

Bhim Gayak
Sunil Gayak
Dipa Gayak
Muna Gayak
Puspa Gayak
Ramkrishna Gayak
Karma Gayak
Santa Gayak
Santos Gayak
Pradeep Gayak
Ichya Gayak
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Date: June 9, 2004

Place: Tamudhin Kaski, Pokhara
S. No.
Time: 4.00 6.00 Ev
Gender
245
Devi Raj Gurung
Male
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
Lieutenant Madan Gurung

Lieutenant Lalit P. Gurung
Jang Bahadur Gurung
Tham Bahadur Gurung
Chin Bahadur Gurung
Bam Bahadur Gurung
Sunita Gurung
Interview
Gender
232
Anandaraj Mulmi
Male
143
MS Nepal
Particulars
Former chairman,
Federation of Nepalese
Chambers of Commerce
and Industry
I.A.
SLC
Teacher
Student class 9
Student class 9
Student class 9
Security person
Actor
Actor
Sweeper
Sweeper
Sweepers
Group discussion
Time : 11.00 11.45 Morning
S. No.
Particulars
MS Nepal
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Particulars
President/
Operator Pokhara C
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Date: June 11, 2004

Place: Jitko office, Pokhara, Kaski
Date: June 12, 2004

Place: Fewa Lake, Pokhara
Group discussion with majhi community
Groupwise discussion with representatives of various

radio listeners' clubs of Annapurna FM
S. No.
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
253
Yogmaya Thapa
Female
254
Suraj Bastakoti
Male
255
Usha KC
Female
256
Bishnu Prasad Poudyal
Male
257
Jeevan Kumar Chetri
Male
258
Bimala Bhattarai
Female
Manav Jagaruk Radio

Listeners' Club
Manko Chautari Sathi
Radio Listeners' Club
Manav Jagaruk Radio
Listeners' Club
Manav Jagaruk Radio
Listeners' Club
Date: June 11, 2004

Place: Hotel Kailash, Pokhara
Group discussion with program producers at

Annapurna and Himalchuli FM
S. No.
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
Shyam Aryal
Amit Rijal
Ganesh Thapa
Binod Dhaulagiri
Nabin Ghayal
Kamal Parajuli
Muna Kunwar
145
MS Nepal
Gender
Particulars
Shift in-charge, Radio Annapurna
Shift in-charge, Radio Annapurna
News coordinator, Himchuli F.M.
Jit Kaski, program coordinator, Awaz
News editor, Himchuli F.M.
Program producer, Himchuli F.M.
Program producer, Himchuli F.M.
Time: 11.30 12.30 D
266
267
268
269
Santos Pariyar
Bikas Bhujel
Dhane Bishwakarma
Chanke Bishwakarma
Date: June 13
Place: Annapurna F.M.
Gender
Particulars
Male
Male
Literate
Literate
Literate
Literate
Time: 7.00 8.30 M
Interview
S. No.
270
271
Dipendra Shrestha
Shivalal Malla
Gender
Male
Male
Date: June 13, 2004

Place: Himchuli F.M.
Particulars
Station manager, Annapurna
Chairman, Annapurna F.M.
Time: 9.00 10.00 M
Interview
S. No.
272
Gender
Dilip Rai
Particulars
Station manager, Himchu
Hits and Radio Sagarmatha,

Kathmandu
Date: June 23, 2004

Place: Lalitpur Municipality 20
Time: 10.30 12.00 Da
MS Nepal
Discussion with Newar community (Na:twa: Manka Khala:)
S. No.
273
274
275
276
277
278
Gender
Laxman Maharjan
Ashalal Dangol
Babu Saheb Maharjan
Suka Maharjan
Shyam Maharjan
Kadamlal Maharjan
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Date: June 26, 2004

Place: Hits F.M., Kathmandu
Particulars
Chief guru
Nam music guru
Guru khin
Member
Vice-chairman
Secretary
Date: May 28, 2004

Place: Transparency International Nepal,
Putalisadak
Interview
S. No.
285
286
287
Gender
Particulars
Jeevanlal Shrestha
Chiring Choden
Mandira Dangol
Dipesh Shrestha
Sweta Koirala
Male
"
Female
Male
Male
Executive Director
Program director, English
Program producer
Program director, Nepali
Program coordinator
279
280
281
282
283
Date: June 28, 2004

Place: Nepal National Taxi Operators Association,
Kathmandu
284
Laxmibhakta Ranjit
147
MS Nepal
Gender
Ashish Thapa
Roshi Adhikari
Dinanath Bhattarai
Gender
Particulars
Male
Female
Male
Director
Employee
"
Time: 3.30 4.30 Afte
Discussion with the station manager and program

producers at Radio Sagarmatha
S. No.
Gender
Particulars
288
289
290
291
292
293
Mohan Bista
Sanjeev Adhikari
Durga KC
Rishiraj Acharya
Narayan Shrestha
Nimesh Adhikari
Male
"
Female
Male
"
"
Station manage
Program produc
Program produc
Program produc
Program produc
Program produc

Date: May 31, 2004
Place: Kathmandu Education Centre, Putalisadak
Time: 7.00
Interview
S. No.
Date: May 30, 2004

Place: Radio Sagarmatha, Kathmandu
Discussion with the executive director and

program producers at Hits FM
S. No.
Time: 3.30 4.30 Afte
Particulars
Chairman, Nepal National
Taxi Operators Association
S. No.
Gender
294
Shambhu Dahal
Male
295
Kamala Gautam
Female
MS Nepal
Particulars
Principal,
FW Taylor Colleg
Student
Manoj Subba
Ravi Sapkota
Surath Giri
Kushbu Jaiswal
Smita Thakuri
Prakash Siwakota
296
297
298
299
300
301
149
MS Nepal
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Male
Medical representative/student
Student 11
Student 11
Student
Student
Students

2005 Radio Report Eng

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

2005 Radio Report Eng

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Prospects for promoting equality, development and social justice through FM radio

Radio in Nepal: before and after democracy

2. Radio waves in the hands of the people

Broadcast area, broadcasters and FM craze

4. The power of radio and social mobilization

5. Areas for social mobilization and additional possibilities

6. Radio, audience relations and participation

7. Conclusions and suggestions

List of FM stations in Nepal

Program times according to target groups

Short description of radio stations studied

List of participants in interviews and group discussions

Some controversy still surrounds the question of when and on wha

Designed, formatted and printed by :- Creative Press P. Ltd.

Danish Association for International Co-operation

Danish Association for International Co- op

Danish Association for International Co-operation

Danish Association for Inter national Co-oper

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

Danish Association for Inter national Co-opera

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

Danish Association for International Co-opera

three programs in a single day. Although so many FM stations are running

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

A system for evaluation of the impact of programs by station manage

Danish Association for International Co-opera

The scope for mutual cooperation between organizations involved in areas

Danish Association for International Co-operation

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

establishment of democracy the same broadcasting equipment was

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

Muktinath FM in Palpa and Rupandehi FM in Bhairahawa

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

for the various government and non-governmental organizations which

1.2 Objectives of the Study

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

The answers to these questions differ from person to person. It is extr

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

radio, the role and responsibility of FM radio should be analyzed from

The aims of the study are:

collecting information about the wishes and needs of radio

analysis of the overall picture of FM radio operating in Nepal,

analysis of the participation and involvement of listeners in

analysis of outside cooperation in FM radio so as to come up

1.3 Methods of study and its area

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

While selecting these FM stations for study special attention was

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

On the basis of age

On the basis of calling

facts, preparing a list of questions for group discussions and interv

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

Radio waves in the

2.1 Broadcast area, broadcasters and FM craze

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

or the district council or by sending delegations to the ministry. B

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

A look at the ownership of FM stations in the private sector shows that

Danish Association for International Co-oper ation

a noticeable increase in the number of listeners. The opening o

Danish Association for Inter national Co-operati

Although radio stations and government bodies have paid no attention

2.2 Law, regulations, license and monitoring