United Nations

Educational, Scientic and

Cultural Organization

Mahatma Gandhi Institute

of Education for Peace
and Sustainable Development

Working Paper 2015 - 01 | November 2015

Policy and Practice in

Postsecondary Education:
The transitional experience
for students with learning
disabilities in India

Melinda (Mindy) Eichhorn

Gordon College, Massachusetts, USA

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education

for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO
Working Paper: Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Policy and Practice in Postsecondary Education:

The transitional experience for students with learning disabilities in India

United Nations
Educational, Scientic and
Cultural Organization

Mahatma Gandhi Institute

of Education for Peace
and Sustainable Development

UNESCO MGIEP
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization | Mahatma Gandhi
Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development
35 Ferozshah Road, ICSSR Building,1st Floor, New Delhi- 110001, INDIA.

October, 2015
UNESCO MGIEP
Author:
Melinda (Mindy) Eichhorn
Gordon College, Massachusetts, USA

ISBN 978-81-89218-49-2
The UNESCO Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Education for Peace and
Sustainable Development (MGIEP) Working Paper Series critically explores
contemporary issues related to learning and teaching for a more peaceful
and sustainable world. With a special focus on pedagogies and policies,
the authors seek to spark conversation, generate debate, and foster
innovation that will eventually lead to systemic change. Each paper
undergoes a rigorous peer review process before publication. The views
expressed are the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily
reflect the position of UNESCO MGIEP
Any communication concerning this publication may be addressed to:

Printed in India

Policy and Practice in

Postsecondary Education:
The transitional experience
for students with learning
disabilities in India

Melinda (Mindy) Eichhorn

Gordon College, Massachusetts, USA

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education

for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO
Working Paper: Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Abstract
Only six states in India currently acknowledge learning disabilities as a category of disability
(Al-Yagon et al., 2013). Although some research has examined the experiences of students with learning
disabilities in Indian secondary schools (see Karande, Sholarpurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Karande,
Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009), the role of policy in students transition into postsecondary education has
been largely unexplored. This paper critically examines educational policy and its impact on students
transition to postsecondary education, drawing on an exploratory study of students with mathematical
learning disabilities in junior colleges and degree colleges in Mumbai (Eichhorn, 2014). This policy
review is conducted from a sociocultural perspective, in which educational policy is reconceptualized
as a complex social practice which involves diverse actors interacting in diverse institutional contexts
(Levinson & Sutton, 2001; 2009). The findings suggest that students with learning disabilities are
presented with many barriers to postsecondary education, such as poor advice from secondary
school counselors, exclusionary practices of junior colleges, the stigma associated with the learning
disabilities label and accommodations, and peer bullying. Current interventions in Mumbai, as well as
recent international approaches to inclusive teaching and learning in higher education, are reviewed
and implications for policy and practice are discussed.
Key words: Learning disabilities; postsecondary; transition; policy; India

Recommendations for Policy and Research

Recommendations for Policy
Provide counseling to students with learning disabilities transitioning from secondary
education to postsecondary.
Provide mentors to students with learning disabilities entering higher education.
Implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Enhanced Anchored Instruction (EAI) in
all colleges and universities through training instructors in best practices for both of these
approaches.
Create and implement alternative assessment methods.
Provide alternative courses such as Maths for Business that provide students with alternative
options within content areas.
Include the voices of current and former students with learning disabilities in policymaking
discussions.
Potential Future Research Questions
Do students with learning disabilities in other parts of India have similar experiences of being
stigmatized or bullied?
How do other states in India prepare students for postsecondary transition, especially with
regards to mathematics?
How do typically achieving students (without learning disabilities) and college lecturers
across India view students with various abilities, including LD?

| November, 2015

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Introduction
Imagine going to work and not being able to do your job. Now
imagine that you cant leave your job. Imagine having to
do that every day. This is what life is like for children with
learning disabilities.
Dr. David Urion
Director, Neurology and Learning Disabilities Program
Childrens Hospital, Boston
(Public Broadcasting Service, 2002)

Students and adults with learning disabilities are

individuals who, at an academic level, perform
substantially below their peers, and whose poor
performance cannot be explained by any deficit
in vision, speech, hearing or intelligence. It is,
in a sense, unexpected underachievement
(Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2007, p.
27; American Psychiatric Association, 2013a,
2013b). Students with learning disabilities have
average to above average intelligence, yet exhibit
differences in cognitive abilities, which may
lead to deficiencies in academic performance
(Lewis, 2011). Learning disabilities, which can
occur in the areas of reading, mathematics and/
or written expression, contribute to students
experiencing low self-esteem due to their poor
academic performance and negative school
reports (Fletcher et al., 2007; Gibson & Kendall,
2010; Lahane et al., 2013). Students with learning
disabilities have experienced years of failure
and frustration in academia (Jones, Wilson,
& Bhojwani, 1997). Students with learning
disabilities may feel incapable of performing their
daily tasks of reading, writing, and mathematics.
In India, learning disabilities are commonly
referred to as dyslexia, dyscalculia and
dysgraphia. Approximately 5-15 per cent of
children have a learning disability (Karande,
Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011). Learning
disabilities may arise from difficulties in one or

more of the following areas: Phonemic awareness,

number sense, working memory, visual-spatial
processing, sequencing, processing speed,
language and attention (Allsopp, 2008; Raghubar
et al., 2009; Little, 2009; Fletcher et al., 2007).
Students with learning disabilities have complex
learning profiles of strengths and challenges but
the current academic system in India is not built
for diverse learners.
In India, students have typically been diagnosed
as having a learning disability based on the IQachievement discrepancy model. This model,
from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM IV), reveals a severe
discrepancy between a students achievement
in an academic area and his/her age, schooling
and level of intelligence, as well as significant
impairment in real-life activities (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). However, the
DSM was revised in 2013, and the discrepancy
model has been replaced with new criteria,
including evidence of symptom persistence for at
least six months, despite extra help or targeted
instruction (Tannock, 2014). Organizations in
India are moving towards the DSM-5 criteria
for diagnosing learning disabilities (M. Khan,
personal communication, September 30,
2014). In Maharashtra, students receive a
learning disability certificate from one of three
government hospitals in Mumbai (Nair, Sion, and

November, 2015 |

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

King Edward Memorial (K.E.M.)), or a recognized

testing center, such as the Maharashtra Dyslexia
Association (MDA). Generally, though, there is
an extreme lack of awareness about learning
disabilities among Indian teachers (Unni, 2012).
Consequently, diagnoses of disabilities are often
inconsistent.
Although some research has examined the
experiences of students with learning disabilities
in Indian secondary schools (see Karande,
Sholarpurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Karande,
Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009), the role of policy
in students transition into postsecondary

The national government of India

does not currently recognize the term
learning disability so there are no
uniform guidelines for assessment,
diagnosis or eligibility. In India,
education is a responsibility of both
the national and state governments.
The national government performs
an advisory role, but allows states the
freedom to adapt or adopt policy and
curricula, since the context varies
considerably from state to state

education has been largely unexamined. The

national government of India does not currently
recognize the term learning disability so
there are no uniform guidelines for assessment,
diagnosis or eligibility. In India, education is
a responsibility of both the national and state
governments. The national government performs
an advisory role, but allows states the freedom
to adapt or adopt policy and curricula, since the
context varies considerably from state to state
(M. Jain & K. Sharma, personal communication,
July 5, 2013). Only six states (out of 29 states
and seven union territories) consider learning
disabilities as a category of disability. These
4

| November, 2015

states are Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala,

Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu (Al-Yagon et al.,
2013).
Providing students with learning disabilities
access to postsecondary content and equal
opportunities to pursue their personal interests
and courses of study are also relevant goals
of international policies rooted in ideals of
inclusion and equality. According to Article 2
of the Salamanca Statement notes: education
systems should be designed and educational
programmes implemented to take into account
the wide diversity of these characteristics
and needs (UNESCO, 1994, p. viii). Article 2
continues by stating: regular schools with
this inclusive orientation are the most effective
means of combating discriminatory attitudes,
creating welcoming communities, building an
inclusive society and achieving education for
all (UNESCO, 1994, p. ix). These policies also
align with frameworks associated with peace
education. For example, Galtung (1969) argues
that unequal power structures (or structural,
indirect violence) lead to unequal life chances;
people are constrained and their true potential is
not realized (Barnett, 2008). Structural violence
can be overcome through inclusive education
systems.
This paper is the first step in beginning to
understand the way special education policy
or lack thereof and the current education
system in India impacts upon students academic
abilities and their postsecondary education
options. One goal of this paper is to describe the
current experience for students with learning
disabilities as they transition to postsecondary
education and to highlight strategies that
promote integration and participation, combat
exclusionand seek to bring about a genuine
equalization of opportunity (UNESCO, 1994,
p. 11). On the whole, very little is known about
the transitional experience of postsecondary
students with learning disabilities in India. This
paper attempts to address this knowledge gap.

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

This paper addresses the following questions:

What factors impact upon students with
learning disabilities before they leave
secondary school?
What factors have an effect on students with
learning disabilities once they are enrolled
in junior college?
What support systems exist for students
with learning disabilities in higher secondary
settings?

Throughout this paper, I will cite examples

from Mumbai, as Maharashtra is one of the
few Indian states that has taken steps to make
adaptations in the examination procedures for
students with learning disabilities. I also focus
on mathematics courses in secondary and
postsecondary education, since mathematical
learning disabilities was the focus of an
exploratory mixed-methods study I conducted in
Maharashtra between 2012 and 20131 (Eichhorn,
2014).

How can students obtain better access to

postsecondary content through inclusive
teaching and learning practices?

1 Pseudonyms have replaced all names of students,

parents, lecturers, administrators, and colleges in the
exploratory study and this paper.
November, 2015 |

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Background
National Special Education
Policy
The Persons with Disability (PWD) Act, 1995
(Rehabilitation Council of India, personal
communication, August 6, 2013) is the landmark
legislation in India regarding disabilities. It
includes ten categories of disabilities. Initially,
only seven were listed, namely blindness, low
vision, leprosy-cured, hearing impairment,
locomotor disability, mental retardation and
mental illness, but in 1999 a further three
conditions, autism, cerebral palsy, and multiple
disabilities, were added through the National
Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple
Disabilities Act (Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment, 2009b). In addition, the PWD
Act currently has a draft amendment pending
in Parliament (Rehabilitation Council of India,
personal communication, August 6, 2013; Shelar,
2013; Unni, 2012). According to the Ministry of
Social Justice and Empowerment (2009a), the
proposed changes will add education of children
with learning disabilities to Section 27 (p.3). If
the amendment is approved, the government
shall take necessary steps to ensure that:
(i)
Learning disabilities in children are
detected at the earliest;
(ii) Suitable pedagogical and other measures
are taken so that the child is enabled to
overcome such disabilities at the earliest,
and is able to fully develop its potential.
(Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment,
2009a, p. 38).

The amendment includes conditions such as

attention deficit disorder, dyslexia, dysgraphia,
dyscalculia and dyspraxia under the category of
learning disabilities (Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment, 2009a). It is unclear as to when
6

| November, 2015

this amendment, introduced in 2011, is expected

to be reviewed and voted upon (Rehabilitation
Council of India, personal communication,
August 6, 2013).

Prevalence of Learning
Disabilities in India
According to one experienced doctor, who wished
to remain anonymous, the most common learning
disabilities diagnosis in Mumbai government
hospitals is dyslexia and dysgraphia (learning
disabilities pertaining to reading and written
language). The next most common diagnosis
is a combination of dyslexia, dysgraphia, and
dyscalculia (exact statistics were not available for
public information) (personal communication,
March 26, 2013). However, without uniform
guidelines and a lack of general awareness, it is
extremely difficult to report on the prevalence of
learning disabilities in India.
Currently, there are no standardized measures
available to assess students who study in
vernacular-medium schools (where the language
of instruction is not English), and debate is
ongoing as to whether standardized tests used
in Western countries, such as the WoodcockJohnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities or the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC),
are culturally appropriate for Indian students
studying in English-medium schools (Al-Yagon et
al., 2013). While the WISC IQ test has an Indian
adaptation test, there are no standardized
Indian measures for academic achievement.
Centers like MDA use the academic achievement
battery standardized on the U.S. and U. K. but
place emphasis on error analysis and give a
qualitative report with rationales for diagnosis
and accommodations (M. Khan, personal
communication, March 6, 2014). In Mumbai,
the learning disabilities clinics at Nair and Sion
government hospitals also use tests that are not

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

standardized on the Indian population, while

K.E.M. government hospital uses curriculumbased tests for students in English-medium
schools (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). More research
needs to be done to develop curriculum-based
tests for diagnosis of learning disabilities in
India, especially in the 21 official languages, most
of which have distinct, non-roman alphabets.
Another reason why language disabilities remain
undiagnosed is that although students with
learning disabilities may be behind their peers
academically, some are able to mask their
difficulties in college. Students with learning
disabilities who have attended English-medium
schools have much better English language
skills than their peers who attended vernacularmedium schools. Nearly all of the degree
colleges in Mumbai use English as the medium
of instruction with the exception of Shreemati
Nathibai Damodar Thackersey (SNDT) University
(M. Bose, personal communication, February
18, 2013). Therefore, students with learning
disabilities such as dyslexia and dyscalculia
have better spoken, written and receptive
English language skills than their peers who have
limited English proficiency, thereby masking
their disabilities (K. Currawalla, personal
communication, January 15, 2013). Therefore,
postsecondary lecturers may be unaware of
which of their students have learning disabilities.

Special Education Policy

in Maharashtra at the
Postsecondary Level
Most junior colleges in Maharashtra are affiliated
with the Higher Secondary Certification Board
(HSC). In HSC colleges, there is a 3% quota
(or reservation) for admission to 11th standard
(or grade) for physically disabled students,

which includes visually impaired students,

speech and hearing impaired students, and
students with orthopedic disorders and
learning disabilities (dyslexia, dysgraphia and
dyscalculia) (Maharashtra Secondary and Higher
Secondary State Education Department, 2001).
Degree colleges (for Bachelors and Masters
degrees) are affiliated with the University of
Mumbai, but both types of institution make the
same accommodations available (MDA, 2014).
Students with learning disabilities receive an
extra half hour on each exam (two hours in total),
exemption from drawing figures and no penalty for
number reversals (Government of Maharashtra
Higher & Technical Educational Department,

Students with learning disabilities

such as dyslexia and dyscalculia
have better spoken, written and
receptive English language skills
than their peers who have limited
English proficiency, thereby masking
their disabilities.

2004). If the student fails, he/she gets 20 grace

marks to pass the exam which can be applied
to one subject or spread across several subjects
(Government of Maharashtra Higher & Technical
Educational Department, 2004, p. 1). Despite the
accommodations, many students with learning
disabilities in Mumbai continue to experience
difficulties in the transition to postsecondary
education. Therefore, the MDA decided to
explore why students with learning disabilities
were having more difficulty, especially in the area
of mathematics.

November, 2015 |

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Methodology
Between April 2012 and November 2013, while
employed by the MDA, I conducted a mixedmethods exploratory study in Mumbai examining
the impact of policy on students transition
from secondary to postsecondary education.
I interviewed five secondary students and six
post-college adults with learning disabilities,
conducted a large group interview with 19 eleventh
standard students with learning disabilities at
one of the south Mumbai colleges and interviewed
four secondary mathematics teachers and 18
college lecturers in mathematics. All interviews
were conducted in English. Furthermore, in
my visits to seven colleges, I observed three
postsecondary mathematics classes in two
of the colleges, collected survey data from 28
mathematics lecturers, and reviewed documents
from educational institutions across Mumbai.
The survey was used to collect descriptive
statistics regarding the lecturers experience,
teaching methods and class attendance. In
addition, lecturers were asked to remark on
students current mathematical skills and areas
of improvement.
The participants in this study are from
predominately middle and upper-middle class
areas of Mumbai and all have completed their
education in English. The students/adults that
were interviewed for case studies are broken
down as follows:
Table 1: Students/Adults with Learning
Disabilities: Case studies
Education level

Sex

Board or degree

Secondary
students

3 females;
2 males

3 ICSE, IGCSE,
1 SSC

Postsecondary
adults

1 female; 5
males

3 B.Com., 1 B.Sc.,
2 B.A.

I examined the data through a sociocultural

| November, 2015

perspective of policy (Levinson & Sutton,

2001). Using this lens, I considered how diverse
social actors like students and teachers make,
interpret and engage policy through their
practice. Broadly, I wanted to know how policy
is implemented, based on different interests,
responses and scenarios of the participants
involved.
Even though I employed rigorous research
methods, my study does have some limitations.
For example, much of this paper has referred
to the particular case of Maharashtra, and it
is one of only six states currently identifying
learning disabilities as an actual category of
disability. The exploratory study also involved
students from middle and upper-middle class
backgrounds. I also acknowledge that policy
may be constructed differently according to
a particular location or environment, due to
the interactions among diverse policy actors
(Levinson & Sutton, 2001). Future researchers
can build upon the present work by investigating
students with learning disabilities from various
socio-economic backgrounds and explore special
education policies in other states.
Moreover, I acknowledge that the current
methods of identifying which students have
a learning disability are problematic. The
eligibility criteria make a judgement between
what is normal and what is a learning
disability. Consequently, it is often found that
the problem of disability is seen as being
the students fault, instead of questioning why
institutional norms and classroom practices
have not been changed (Hehir, 2015, p. 181).
In this article, I examine the way learning
disabilities policy affects participants in various
roles and contexts by prioritizing student
voices, ensuring that these voices are heard,
recognized and valued.

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Researcher Positionality
With my background as a special educator, I
recognize that this paper is strongly influenced
by my pro-inclusion stance. I believe that
diversity and differences in ability are normal,
and education systems should be more flexible
to accommodate learning diversity. Students
with learning disabilities need allies in learning

people who do not limit their achievement,

but believe in intellectual growth and the talent
of all students (Dweck, 2006). I am also aware
of my position as an outsider, an American,
although I have lived and worked in India for
more than six years. Therefore, my positionality
should be considered in the interpretation
of the results and recommendations in this
paper.

Results
Factors Impacting Students
with Learning Disabilities
before they Leave Secondary
School
In India, schools and colleges are associated with
various boards, or curricula, such as the Indian
Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Board and
the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).
Depending on the board affiliation of the school,
students with learning disabilities in Mumbai are
eligible for provisions, or accommodations,
ranging from extra time to dropping mathematics
after 8th standard (Karande, 2008; Karande &
Gogtay, 2010; Kulkarni, et al., 2006; MDA, 2014).
Students with learning disabilities are presented
with barriers to postsecondary education as early
as the 7th standard. These barriers include poor
advice from secondary school counselors to drop
courses, the stigma of the learning disabilities
label and using accommodations, bullying and
exclusion from college courses due to poor exam
results or dropping courses in secondary school.
In the following section, I explore some of these
barriers in more detail.
In accordance with Maharashtra special
education policy, students with learning
disabilities are exempt from the mathematics
content in the 10th standard Secondary School
Certificate (SSC) Board exam, as well as algebra
and geometry. Instead, they are tested at the

Students with learning disabilities

are presented with barriers to
postsecondary education as early
as the 7th standard. These barriers
include poor advice from secondary
school counselors to drop courses,
the stigma of the learning disabilities
label and using accommodations,
bullying and exclusion from college
courses due to poor exam results
or dropping courses in secondary
school.

7th standard level during the 10th standard

government exam, and they can choose to
take lower-level mathematics (Kulkarni et
al., 2006). Unfortunately, these policies are
focused on ensuring that students pass the 10th
standard exams, rather than preparing them
for postsecondary education. According to one
parent of a secondary student with learning
disabilities, there is no separate mathematics
class offered other than grade-level instruction
(T. Davis, personal communication, September
22, 2012). When students opt for lower-level
mathematics in the SSC schools, they do not
actually receive any instruction. Instead, they
either sit in the regular mathematics class (and
November, 2015 |

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

study on their own), or they go to the school

library or an empty classroom, with supervision
if available. Moreover, if they fail the SSC board
exam, students with learning disabilities can be
awarded as many as 20 grace marks, or extra
points (S. Kapadia, personal communication,
February 6, 2013). Alternatively, students
with learning disabilities can replace their
mathematics courses with work experience
courses, such as typing at secondary level.
Secondary students with learning disabilities in
the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education
(ICSE) Board have the option of dropping
mathematics and/or science after the 8th
standard, and must take one or two other

Although course substitutions or

modifications may be considered
as an accommodation in secondary
school, the same courses may be
required at higher secondary level.

subjects instead, such as commercial studies

or commercial applications (R. Khan, personal
communication, October 24, 2012). Students
make this choice in the 8th standard, and cannot
change their decision once it has been made.
Although course substitutions or modifications
may be considered as an accommodation in
secondary school, the same courses may be
required at higher secondary level (Shaw,
2009). For example, students may decide to
drop mathematics in secondary school, only
to discover later that it is a required course
in the first year of their Bachelors degree in
commerce.
Beginning in secondary school, students with
learning disabilities can be restricted from
obtaining mathematical content knowledge,
which can unevenly distribute the access
10

| November, 2015

of education resources and inhibit students

from realizing their potential. Secondary
school counselors can play an important role
in helping students to prepare and transition
to postsecondary education (Milsom & Dietz,
2009). They may have low expectations for
students with learning disabilities, which can
lead to the students having limited exposure
to prerequisite courses, such as mathematics
(Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). In
Mumbai, some counselors have advised students
with learning disabilities to drop mathematics
or take lower-level mathematics as early as
possible (sometimes after the 7th standard) (A.
Kumar, personal communication, November 27,
2012). Yet, college lecturers recommend that
all students take mathematics throughout their
academic careers, especially since it is required
for competitive entrance exams for furthering
postsecondary education (K. Kapoor, personal
communication, January 21, 2013). Mr. Kumar, a
lecturer at Gandhi College, suggests: Since we
cannot change the syllabus, we can change the
way we counsel students about maths courses,
especially secondary school counselors (A.
Kumar, personal communication, November 27,
2012). Thus, according to this example, secondary
school counselors advice is disconnected from
the recommendations and expectations of
mathematics lecturers.

Factors Affecting Students

with Language Disabilities
Enrolled in Junior College
Methods of Instruction and
Assessment
According to a Shri Ram college mathematics
lecturer, the Indian educational system is
very exam-focused, and the teaching style is
reflective of the system (P. Yadav, personal
communication, January 30, 2013). Much of the
assessment in postsecondary education focuses
on rote learning and producing answers straight
from the textbook (Chib, 2011). Students are
expected to write narrative and essay-length

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

answers for the HSC (12th standard) exam. In

Indian postsecondary education, very little room
is allocated for life application and creative
problem solving.
Instead of understanding mathematics, the
focus of postsecondary instruction is on
practicing and memorizing. Mathematics
lecturers acknowledge the need for daily
practice in mathematics (K. Kapoor, personal
communication, January 21, 2013; U. Jain,
personal communication, January 21, 2013). In
the exam-centric environment of postsecondary
education, students are given few other
means of expressing what they actually know
and understand. In my observations of
postsecondary mathematics classes, all
students copied diagrams, formulae and
equations with no reference to life application
problems (Shri Ram College, observation,
January 30, 2013, February 11, 2013; Ambedkar
College, observation, February 8, 2013). For
example, at Ambedkar College, I observed an
11th standard lesson on finding the equation
for a circle. In class, students dutifully copied
diagrams and formulae that the lecturer wrote
on the chalkboard (directly from the textbook)
(observation, February 8, 2013). I observed a
lesson on the same topic at Shri Ram College.
Students were expected to have pre-requisite
knowledge and quick recall of vocabulary,
such as radius, diameter, locus, concentric,
square roots, coordinates and the Pythagorean
Theorem. Students had to copy quickly from the
chalkboard (which was difficult to see from the
back of the classroom) and, in some instances,
to process what the teacher had orally dictated
and write it in their notebooks. Students had to
use auditory discrimination skills, since noisy
fans were running on the highest speed and
the lecturer was inconsistent in the use of the
microphone (observation, January 30, 2013).
This environment and tasks may be difficult
for a student with learning disabilities as their
educational difficulties may arise from working
memory, visual-spatial processing, sequencing,
processing speed, language and/or attention.

The students I interviewed were unsatisfied

with this pedagogical approach. For example,
students from a large group interview at Gandhi
College said that they would rather understand
mathematical concepts instead of merely
studying materials purely for the purposes of
a test. They also reported that they would like
more time to prepare, fewer exams and more
opportunities to show their knowledge through
other means, such as assignments and projects
(11th standard students at Gandhi College,
personal communication, December 13, 2012).
Generally, students desire accessible alternatives
to assessment.

Barriers Faced by Students

Being labeled as learning disabled can attach
a certain stigma to a students identity (Baglieri,
Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011; Connor, 2012;
Goffman, 1963). As learning disabilities are
an invisible disability, students may reject
accommodations and assistance to conceal
their disability and avoid the associated stigma
(Goffman, 1963). Students may or may not be
willing to embrace this aspect of their identity,
depending on how they imagine others will
perceive them (Schifter, 2015). Students with
learning disabilities that accept accommodations
are sometimes ridiculed, teased, bullied and
subjected to academic and social exclusion
(Wilson et al., 2012). Consequently, when students
with learning disabilities transition to higher
secondary level, they may not want their peers
and lecturers to know about their difficulties,
or to be singled out for special instruction or
accommodations (Pierce, 2015). According to Mr.
Kumar, a lecturer at Gandhi College:
Most students with LD do not disclose their
diagnosis. They get bullied. Other students
are very strong and harsh towards students
with LD. In fact, many students do not want
to meet me during school hours, for fear that
their peers might see them getting extra help.
(A. Kumar, personal communication,
November 27, 2012).

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In colleges that offer accommodations to

students with learning disabilities, such as extra
time on exams, students may feel uncomfortable
with the ways in which colleges implement such
policies, potentially isolating students from
their peers (Chib, 2011). For example, Vinod felt
uncomfortable about the prospect of having to sit
his exam in a separate room in order to have extra
time, so he did not disclose his learning disability
to the college (personal communication, April
25, 2013).
Vinod outlined why he did not want to seem
different from his peers, and consequently did
not ask for accommodations in college for his
learning disabilities:
It is not always so easy to ask for help. If you
get provisions, then you have to take your
exam in a different room. You will be seated
in the roll number order during the exam.
People will notice you arent there and they
will ask you, Why didnt you give your exam?
Where were you? No one was aware that I
had dyslexia in college.
(Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013)

Likewise, some students may make different

choices about accommodations in secondary
school and college. For instance, Vinod said
that he used accommodations during his 10th
standard exam, but then did not disclose his
disability in college:
I didnt ask for help in college, but the
environment was such that they also did
not advertise help. The environment was
not helpful. I wasnt sure how I would be
perceived. It is easier in secondary school
you know the people and theyve known
you for years. It is easier to ask for help and
people dont judge you.
(Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013).

For students like Vinod, the differences in the

educational environments of secondary and
postsecondary settings affected his ability to
accept accommodations (Hamblet, 2014).
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However, some students are satisfied with the

approaches adopted by their colleges. Kunal,
for example, reported that Shri Ram college was
cooperative, offered special classes, and kept
track of our progress (personal communication,
March 13, 2013). Others are grateful for the
separate settings because they then do not have
to discuss their answers with their peers. John
told me: I would avoid talking to friends after the
exam about how they solved the sums. I would
always do it differently, and that would freak me
out (John, personal communication, June 10,
2013). Some also claimed to benefit from the
quiet environment of a separate setting, away
from distractions of the busier main exam hall
(Chib, 2011). Students with learning disabilities
have different profiles, which can lead to different
preferences regarding accommodations.
In my interactions with lecturers in the colleges, I
found that only a few are aware of, and advocate
for, students with learning disabilities, such as
Mr. Kumar at Gandhi College. The majority of
lecturers and administrators in my sample did not
express empathy towards students difficulties.
Since having learning disabilities is an invisible,
or hidden, disability, lecturers may not believe
consider it an authentic difficulty, and may
perceive these students to be lazy or incapable
(Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). This
may be a result of low awareness of learning
disabilities among faculty at the postsecondary
level. For instance, when asked about the
concessions offered for students with learning
disabilities at Singh College, one of the science
college principals questioned the authenticity of
the learning disability certificates:
Most students are applying for dyslexia
(and other LD certificates) because they
get concessions and benefits. We question
the authenticity of the government hospital
certificate. We question whether or not the
student really has a problem or difficulty. Are
parents taking advantage of the system?
(V. Jha, personal communication, February 6, 2013)

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Another lecturer at Narsee College also wondered

how the authenticity of learning disability
certificates can be verified: Some of these
dyslexic students (with certificates) dont have
spelling mistakes, but for others, you can make
out their mistakes. How do you know if a student
really has a difficulty? (S. Parikh, personal
communication, August 23, 2013). Unless lecturers
and administrators understand what learning
disabilities involve and the way it affects a students
ability to complete academic tasks, colleges may
continue to question the authenticity of learning
disabilities, which could affect the overall support
they are willing to offer. In this way, students are
constrained by structural violence and their true
academic potential is not realized. Lecturers and
administrators maintain power over students by
not accommodating diverse learning profiles.

Elective Courses and

Exclusionary Practices of
Junior Colleges
According to the syllabus for standards 11 and
12, college students only have three compulsory
subjects: English, environment education, and
health and physical education. Students can
then choose four other electives (42 electives are
listed in the syllabus) to complete the required
coursework each year, including mathematics
(Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and
Higher Secondary Education, 2012). In the HSC
Board, students can substitute secretarial
practice (SP) for mathematics during the 11th
and 12th standards. However, SP requires no
mathematical skill. For this subject, students
need only to understand English (SP college
lecturer, personal communication, December 19,
2012).
In all of the junior colleges in my sample, students
must choose, as one of their electives, either
mathematics or SP. In some colleges, students
have an open choice between mathematics
or SP while other colleges have a cut-off score
requirement for entry to mathematics courses
and all other students must take SP. At Ambedkar

College, only students who have scored 87-88

per cent on their 10th standard exam are eligible
to enroll in 11th and 12th standard mathematics
classes (L. Ghose, personal communication,
February 6, 2013). The case is the same at Singh
College, except that the acceptable passing
percentage for the 10th standard exam is a little
lower, at 83% (or 125 out of 150). Only students
who qualify for mathematics based on their
10th standard exam score are eligible to enroll
in mathematics in the 11th standard (V. Jha,
personal communication, February 6, 2013).
At St. Joseph Junior College, if a student took
general mathematics or lower-level mathematics
for their 10th standard exam (an accommodation
for students with learning disabilities in the
SSC Board), they are ineligible to enroll in
11th standard mathematics (U. Jain, personal
communication, January 21, 2013).
In my study, students themselves confirmed this
policy of eligibility. For example, Malik mentioned
that he did not have the option of taking
mathematics in junior college: I had to take
SP. I did not get the necessary marks on the SSC
exam (70%) (Malik, personal communication,
August 25, 2013). In this way, some colleges force
students to take SP instead of mathematics.
When junior colleges require students with
learning disabilities to take SP, students are
excluded from mathematical content and skills
required for mathematics courses at degree
colleges, thereby unevenly distributing access
to mathematical content knowledge and access
to career pathways that require foundational
mathematics courses.

Support Systems for Students

with Learning Disabilities in
Higher Secondary Settings
Despite the barriers to postsecondary education
outlined above, some students with learning
disabilities persevere and complete a Bachelors
degree. The following section explores specific
strategies used by students with learning
disabilities to finish their degree.
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Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Current Interventions in Mumbai

Colleges
If students have difficulty understanding
mathematical concepts in junior college and
degree colleges, most lecturers will offer them
extra classes. However, these are open to all
students and are not remedial. Three colleges in
my sample offer extra classes, or tutorial classes,
once a week. At Shri Ram College, during one of
the free periods, four lecturers simultaneously
offer classes (30 students each) to review a
concept (R. Archarya, personal communication,
February 11, 2013). At Ambedkar College, tutorials
are also offered, but the students are not willing
to do the extra practice problems assigned by the
lecturers (L. Ghose, personal communication,
February 6, 2013). Ambedkar College also offers
a mentor cell for differently-abled students
(L. Ghose, personal communication, February
6, 2013). At Narsee College, all teachers offer
extra lectures, which they call remedial classes
(H. Borde, personal communication, February 6,
2013).
Only a few colleges in south Mumbai offer special
dyslexia cells. These cells, or programs,
are primarily support services for students
with learning disabilities (A. Kumar, personal
communication, November 27, 2012; R. Archarya,
personal communication, February 11, 2013;
Getzel & Thoma, 2008). However, some students
chose not to self-disclose their learning disability
to the postsecondary faculty and therefore
declined the provisions (Getzel, 2008).
Shri Ram College, for example, has a special
dyslexia cell for students with learning disabilities,
where students learn strategies and study
skills (R. Archarya, personal communication,
February 11, 2013). According to the head of
the mathematics department, in these cells,
mathematics lecturers train students to pass the
exam (R. Archarya, personal communication,
February 11, 2013). As part of this strategy, in
the first year of the B. Com. Mathematical and
Statistical Techniques course, the mathematics
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| November, 2015

lecturers tell students with learning disabilities

to focus on sections they find easier, such as
statistics or simple and compound interest, while
dropping other sections that they find difficult,
such as derivatives (R. Archarya, personal
communication, February 11, 2013). However,
the mathematics sections vary for individual
students depending on what they find easier or
more difficult.
During tutorials, the lecturer might be able to give
more attention to individual students, but he/she
does not use alternative, differentiated teaching
methods tailored to students with learning
disabilities. None of the college administrators
in my sample mentioned changing their teaching
methods to cater for the learning needs of
students with learning disabilities. Vinod verified
this, by stating:
The whole system how it is dealt with when
you come to college and are dyslexic needs
to change. I could go to 50 extra classes, but
it wont help unless it is catered to my needs
and helps to bridge the gaps in my learning.
Teachers need to further understand dyslexia
and learning disabilities they need to
understand how to teach me so that I can
learn because I did not learn the way they
taught me.
(Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013)

One student, Kunal, reported how he focused

on passing the exam in the Mathematical and
Statistical Techniques course with a private tutor:
I took Secretarial Practice (SP) in junior
college, so I had a gap of 2 years with no
mathematics. Plus, I wasnt really comfortable
with maths in the first place. During my first
year of B. Com, I had a private tutor. He came
to my house three days a week and taught me
for two hours. Then, he gave me homework
and practice problems. For six days a week,
I studied math. I had to work really hard at
math.
(Kunal, personal communication, March 13, 2013)

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Kunal was solely focused on passing the class: if

you dedicate your time, and study for three hours
a day, you can easily get 18 marks on a 50 mark
paper (which is 36%, just enough for passing).
Kunal worked with his tutor to strategically pass
the exam and score the minimum.
Vinod
contrasted
his
experiences
in
postsecondary education in India and in the U.K.
He reported that: The Indian system cant cater
to individuals. The UK has a different system. It
caters more towards individuals needs. There
are various methods of assessment (Vinod,
personal communication, April 25, 2013). Vinod

speaks from personal experience, since he

went to London to study media upon finishing
his Bachelor of Arts degree in Mumbai. As
there are many barriers in the Indian education
system, some students with learning disabilities
attend a foreign university or an International
Baccalaureate (IB) school, if their families can
afford it (A. Kumar, personal communication,
November 27, 2012). Increasingly, students with
learning disabilities with the resources to do so
choose to go abroad, like Vinod, where they can
get the services they need to make the most of
their abilities.

Discussion: Recommendations for Policy

Although there are some support systems in place
for students with learning disabilities in higher
education settings in Mumbai, I would suggest

that additional approaches be added to college

and university environments to promote greater
inclusion of students of diverse abilities to provide

Box 1: Recommendations for Policy and Research

Recommendations for Policy
Provide counseling to students with learning disabilities transitioning from secondary
education to postsecondary.
Provide mentors to students with learning disabilities entering higher education.
Implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Enhanced Anchored Instruction (EAI) in
all colleges and universities through training instructors in best practices for both of these
approaches.
Create and implement alternative assessment methods.
Provide alternative courses such as Maths for Business that provide students with alternative
options within content areas.
Include the voices of current and former students with learning disabilities in policymaking
discussions.
Potential Future Research Questions
Do students with learning disabilities in other parts of India have similar experiences of being
stigmatized or bullied?
How do other states in India prepare students for postsecondary transition, especially with
regards to mathematics?
How do typically achieving students (without learning disabilities) and college lecturers across
India view students with various abilities, including LD?

November, 2015 |

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Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

more peaceful and equitable classrooms. Based

on the findings of the exploratory study in Mumbai
and my review of the literature, there are other
ways students can obtain even more access to
postsecondary content through inclusive teaching
and learning practices.

Having a mentor would also make

students feel more visible, despite
the large class sizes. A mentor can
frequently check in with the student
and follow up if he or she has not
been attending classes. However, it
is important that these services are
available to all college and university
students so that students with
learning disabilities are not singled
out or seen as being different, as is
the case at Ambedkar College.

Counseling Services for all

Students
Beginning with secondary schools, all students,
especially students with learning disabilities,
need competent counselors that can prepare
them for the transition to vocational or higher
education (Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson,
2012; Shaw, 2009). Secondary school students
with learning disabilities in Mumbai receive little
guidance about their postsecondary options
(Gregg, 2007; Sparks & Lovett, 2009). Secondary
school teachers and counselors should advise
students about the potential repercussions
of dropping mathematics. Secondary school
counselors
could
attend
professional
development workshops, targeting the process
of transition to postsecondary options. By
following this approach, counselors would have
knowledge of the potential routes students could
pursue and the way their choices could impact
upon their future courses of study. Counselors
could then guide students and parents in the
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| November, 2015

decisions regarding secondary mathematics

courses and provisions for students with learning
disabilities, since educational counseling
has been a successful transitional service for
students with learning disabilities in the U.S.
(Kosine, 2007; Aune, 1991). Counselors must
be aware of their powerful role in distributing
access to mathematics education resources.
At college level, specific lecturers can take on
the role of mentors, such as Mr. Kumar at Gandhi
College, which can serve as a counseling program
(Shaw, 2009). Mentors can encourage students to
persevere in taking the necessary steps for their
career paths (Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson,
2012). Having a mentor would also make students
feel more visible, despite the large class sizes. A
mentor can frequently check in with the student
and follow up if he or she has not been attending
classes. However, it is important that these
services are available to all college and university
students so that students with learning disabilities
are not singled out or seen as being different, as is
the case at Ambedkar College. Perhaps students
with learning disabilities could be given priority
for these programs and services, if they have
chosen to report their disability to the college.

Universal Design for Learning

(UDL)
UDL has been developed by the Center for
Applied Special Technology (CAST), a non-profit
organization dedicated to the improvement of
teaching and learning for all types of students.
UDL utilizes overarching principles and methods
that eliminate barriers and allow the content
to be accessible to all students, not only those
with learning disabilities (Dunn, Rabren, Taylor,
& Dotson, 2012; Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley,
& Abarbanell, 2006). Using UDL, lecturers
will anticipate having diverse individuals in
their classrooms and plan their lectures and
assignments with this in mind.
Lecturers could use a variety of teaching
methods and have multiple ways of representing

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

content knowledge, allowing students to

perceive and comprehend information in various
ways, which can engage and motivate students
to learn. Students could have multiple options
for expressing what they know as well (CAST,
2011). This would eliminate the need for specific
accommodations for students with learning
disabilities, which could lessen the stigma and
bullying that occurs with accommodations
(Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). With
UDL, lecturers are equally distributing resources
to students with learning disabilities to help
achieve their potential.

learning profile, therefore, the same strategy

will not improve the learning environment for
everyone (McBride, Scatton, & Coley, 2007).
If all students have additional choices, such
as multiple ways to interact with the content
and lecture, or the amount of support they can
receive, then motivation to engage in course
material is likely to increase (Rose, Harbour,
Johnston, Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006).

There are multiple ways to begin UDL in the

Indian postsecondary context. Lectures can be
recorded (audio or video) and uploaded on the
college website (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley,
& Abarbanell, 2006). Students with languagebased learning disabilities and students from
vernacular-medium secondary schools will find it
helpful to be able to review and repeat sections
that contain difficult vocabulary. Students with
attention difficulties can review the video to fill in
gaps or to break down information into segments.
Lecturers could also use powerpoint slides with
visuals, graphics, and/or videos to supplement
their lectures (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley,
& Abarbanell, 2006). Student notes could be
collected and made available for all students, not
just those with learning disabilities. These notes
could then be uploaded on a website. Groups
of students could rotate and be responsible for
notes on different days, which can be part of their
participation grade (Rose, Harbour, Johnston,
Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006). In terms of formative
assessment, students could be given an option
of an exam, research paper, or using media, such
as video, to showcase their knowledge. Lecturers
could provide models for students, from previous
courses, to help students understand the
lecturers expectations.

Students learn more when they compute and

problem solve in concept-rich contexts, such as in
EAI (Gagnon & Bottge, 2006; Maccini, Strickland,
Gagnon, & Malmgren, 2008; Strickland &
Maccini, 2010; Evmenova & Behrmann, 2012). In
EAI, students learn mathematics through hands-

Incorporating changes across the instructional

spectrum and curriculum would allow all
students greater access, including students
with learning disabilities (Pierce, 2015). Not all
students with learning disabilities have a similar

Enhanced Anchored
Instruction (EAI)

Lecturers could use a variety of

teaching methods and have multiple
ways of representing content
knowledge,
allowing
students
to
perceive
and
comprehend
information in various ways, which
can engage and motivate students to
learn. Students could have multiple
options for expressing what they
know as well

on projects, such as designing and building. EAI

makes use of the concrete, semi-concrete, and
abstract sequence (Gagnon & Bottge, 2006).
Furthermore, when problem solving is embedded
in a real-world context, students are better able
to activate their conceptual knowledge and
demonstrate increased motivation, participation
and generalization skills (Maccini & Gagnon,
2000; Gagne, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993;
Polloway & Patton, 1997). With EAI, students see
how they use mathematics and why they need to
know the concepts (Woodward, 2006).
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Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Various EAI-based programs have been

successful in improving basic mathematics skills
and motivation to learn mathematics among
middle and high school students with learning
disabilities (Bottge & Cho, 2013). These programs
have evolved to include multi-media based
problems with an accompanying computerbased learning model, as well as hands-on
application (Bottge, Grant, Stephens, Reuda,
2010). Implementation of the programs has
ranged from 21 days to seven months (Bottge,
Rueda, LaRoque, Serlin, & Kwon, 2007; Bottge,
Hienrichs, Mehta, Rueda, Hung, & Danneker,
2004; Gagnon & Bottge, 2006).

Alternative Course Options

A major problem in the current mathematics
courses for the commerce stream is that
the syllabus is created by mathematics and
statistics teachers, or lecturers from the
Bachelor of Science programs. Therefore, the
current coursework is not application-based
for students in a commerce degree program
(A. Kumar, personal communication, July 19,
2013). Students with and without learning
disabilities become unmotivated and see
no application for mathematical ideas when
teachers use drill-orientated approaches,
as is the case with current extra/remedial
classes (Woodward, 2006). Students need
more mathematics lecturers with a business
or economics background (A. Kumar, personal
communication, November 27, 2012).
Based on the findings of the exploratory study,
I recommend a pilot model course for business
mathematics in junior college. This Maths for
Business course should be embedded in a

18

| November, 2015

realistic context of the way these students will

use mathematics in their future careers, and
should be open to all students. The course will
motivate students to complete mathematics
problems, using fractions and algebra, by
applying mathematics to commerce-related
situations and multi-media based problems.
The goal of this pilot course would be to
improve students foundational mathematics
skills required for postsecondary mathematics
and their overall perception of the subject.
This course could be based on EAI courses that
have been implemented in the U.S., along with
a combination of explicit instruction using
the models and manipulatives for hands-on
application. These courses have greatly improved
the problem solving performance of averageand low-achieving students (Bottge & Cho, 2013).
All algebra content and word problems will be
applied to a business situation and during the
course all students will have access to calculators
and extra time to complete projects and tests.
In this course, students can begin to address
misconceptions and improve their critical
component skills needed for postsecondary
mathematics. Also, by embedding mathematics
in a realistic and motivating context catered to
their needs, students with learning disabilities
may foster an appreciation for mathematics,
instead of feelings of anxiety. Students should
see mathematics as valuable and be able to
apply their knowledge to specific commerce/
business situations (Rose, Harbour, Johnston,
Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006). Students will then
increase their access to education resources,
such as mathematics content knowledge through
the Maths for Business course.

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Conclusion
In conclusion, to provide all students with greater
access to postsecondary education, I suggest
that postsecondary lecturers and administrators
take part in professional development
opportunities, especially in the areas of
mentoring/counseling and UDL. To implement
any changes in the curriculum, colleges and
universities need to support their lecturers and
strengthen their capacity through professional
development. Centers for teaching could be
established at the different colleges to offer
resources to lecturers and professors regarding
effective instructional practices and integration
of technology. An alternative would be for a
larger institution, such as Mumbai University, to
offer training via Distance Open Learning (DOL)
(Sharma & Deppeler, 2005). Lecturers should
have high expectations for all students, including
those with learning disabilities, balanced with
an understanding of their learning profiles, so
that they have equal access to content (Dunn,
Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). College lecturers
should be aware of learning disabilities, since
the difficulties students with learning disabilities
have in academics will not disappear as they
transition from primary to secondary and on to
postsecondary education. Lecturers and college
administrators also need to be aware of the
power they have, to distribute resources either
equally or unequally to students, which can
impact upon their future career paths.

Implications for Policy and

Future Research
These findings will be useful for inclusive
education advocacy groups in India as they work
with policy makers and enforcers at the national
and state level, to revise policy and procedures
for students with learning disabilities across
India. As these policies are revised, I suggest that
policy makers consult with adults with learning
disabilities who have experienced the transition

from secondary to postsecondary education. It

is important to involve participants in diverse
roles and contexts, including former students
with learning disabilities, to begin to diminish
the power structures in policy formation and
implementation. As students in this study
reported, policy and curriculum changes could
reflect more accommodations and options that
are available to all students, so students with
learning disabilities can avoid the stigma of being
different or separate from their peers.

To implement any changes in the

curriculum, colleges and universities
need to support their lecturers and
strengthen their capacity through
professional development. Centers
for teaching could be established
at the different colleges to offer
resources to lecturers and professors
regarding effective instructional
practices
and
integration
of
technology.

In addition, specific research questions derived

directly from the findings of this study include:
Do students with learning disabilities in other
parts of India have similar experiences of being
stigmatized or bullied?
How do other states in India prepare students
for postsecondary transition, especially with
regards to mathematics?
How do typically achieving students (without
learning disabilities) and college lecturers
across India view students with various
abilities, including LD?

November, 2015 |

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Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

On the whole, a comprehensive approach to

providing all postsecondary students better
access to the curriculum, as well as increasing
their participation and motivation, is necessary
(UNESCO, 2009). In this article, I have suggested
multiple, unobtrusive ways that lecturers and
administrators can create a more inclusive
learning environment at the postsecondary level
and anticipate diverse learning needs in their
classrooms. No student should be excluded
from a desired career path due to their learning
profiles or differences. For students with
learning disabilities, the dis in disability
can overshadow their strengths and unique

20

| November, 2015

talents (Connor, 2012, p. 24). Giving all students,

including those with learning disabilities,
additional options to understand the content
and express what they know, will make higher
education more accessible.
The author wishes to thank the MDA in Mumbai
for their support in the exploratory study in
2012-2013, especially Mrs. Kate Currawalla and
Ms. Masarrat Khan. In addition, the author is
grateful to Dr. Mathangi Subramanian and three
anonymous reviewers for their comments and
suggestions to improve this paper.

Working Paper:
Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

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