Synonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one part of speech, close

in meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts. Synonyms are

characterized by either the semantic relations of equivalence or by the semantic
relations of proximity.
The degree of semantic proximity is best of all estimated in terms of the
aspects of meaning, i.e. the denotational, the connotational, and the pragmatic aspect.
The highest degree of proximity is observed in synonyms which have similar
denotational aspects but differ either in the connotational (1) or the pragmatic (2)
aspect of meaning.
1.
The difference in connotation may be illustrated by the words famous
meaning 'known widely, having fame' and the word notorious which is defined as
'widely known because of smth. bad, for example for being criminal, violent,
immoral'. Thus, the word famous implies a positive emotive evaluation, and the word
notorious negative.
1.
The difference in the pragmatic value of words is found in a far greater
number of words than the difference in the connotational aspect. It can be observed
in synonymic pairs consisting of a native and a borrowed word. In most cases the
native word is more informal, whereas the foreign word has a learned or abstract air:
brotherly fraternal.
Taking into account the difference of synonyms by the three aspects of their
meaning they may be classified into stylistic, ideographic and ideographic-stylistic
synonyms.
Stylistic synonymy implies no interchangeability in context because the
underlying situations are different, e.g. children infants, dad father.
Ideographic synonymy presents a still lower degree of semantic proximity and
is observed when the connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but there are
certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words, e.g. forest
wood, apartment flat, shape form.
Ideographic-stylistic synonymy is characterized by the lowest degree of
semantic proximity. This type of synonyms includes synonyms which differ both in
the denotational and the connotational and/or the pragmatic aspects of meaning, e.g.
ask inquire, expect anticipate.
Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic
dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features
rendered by all the other members of the synonymic group. In the series leave
depart quit retire clear out the verb leave, being general and both
stylistically and emotionally neutral, can stand for each of the other four terms. The
other four can replace leave only when some specific semantic component prevails
over the general notion.
Words denoting different things correlated on extralinguistic grounds form
lexical sets ( ). Depending on the type of the
notional area lexical sets may acquire a more specialized character, e.g. names of
'musical instruments': piano, organ, violin, drum; names of parts of the car
mechanism': radiator, motor, handbrake, wheels. Such classes of words are called
terminological sets ( ).

Words describing different sides of one and the same general notion are united
in a lexico-semantic group if
a)
the underlying notion is not too generalized and all-embracing, like the
notions of 'time', 'space', 'life', 'process', etc.;
b)
the reference to the underlying notion is not just an implication in the
meaning of the lexical unit but forms an essential part in its semantics.
Thus, it is possible to single out the lexico-semantic group of names of 'colours'
consisting of the words pink, red, black, green, white; the lexico-semantic group of
verbs denoting 'physical movement' to go, to turn, to run; or 'destruction' to
ruin, to destroy, to explode, to kill; etc.
If the underlying notion is broad enough to include almost all-embracing
sections of vocabulary we deal with semantic fields. For example, the words
cosmonaut (.), spacious (adj.), to orbit (v.) belong to the semantic field of 'space'.
The members of the semantic fields are joined together by some common semantic
component, i. e. the component common to all the members of the semantic field,
which is sometimes described as the common denominator of meaning.