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Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete

Structures and Service Life Predictions A
Review
CONFERENCE PAPER NOVEMBER 2014

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9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete Structures and Service Life Predictions A Review

Sushil DHAWAN1, Suresh BHALLA2 and B. BHATTACHARJEE3

1, 2, 3

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD), India, 110016

Abstract
This article provides an overview of the mechanism of
reinforcement corrosion, its initiation, progress and factors
that expedite the process of reinforcement corrosion. Since
the desirable requirement of high electric resistivity of
concrete and high alkalinity of the pre solution is not
achieved in practice, a monitoring system of the structures
become essential to assess the damage of the structure over
time due to reinforcement corrosion. Once the
reinforcement corrosion is initiated, it shortens the service
life of the structures by crack initiation, propagation and
subsequently spalling of the cover concrete due to
expansion of corrosion steel. Hence prediction of the
remaining service life of the structure becomes essential in
the assessment of the stability of structures. The prediction
of the remaining service life of a corroded structure may be
carried out with the help of various available prediction
models on experimental techniques with the utilization of
the data through monitoring.
Key words
Corrosion, concrete, service life, rebar & crack
1. Introduction
Reinforced concrete is one of the most common
materials used by the construction industry all over the
world. The raw materials required for its construction are
widely available and the built structures are in general
durable. Owing to the wide variety of applications,
reinforced concrete structures are subjected to a range of
exposure conditions including marine, industrial, or other
severe
environments.
Actually,
high
durability
requirements is not always achieved in practice due to
which corrosion of reinforcement in concrete is one of the
main cause of deterioration in RC structures.
Reinforcement corrosion has been widely reported and it is
one of the main durability problems. Reinforced concrete
is used for construction of transportation infrastructure
such as bridges, tunnels, and harbour structures. It is also
used for offshore platforms and a wide range of public and
private buildings. Owing to the wide variety of
applications, reinforced concrete are subjected to a range
of exposure conditions, including marine, industrial or
other severe environments.
The functionality and reliability of infrastructure is
crucial for a society and its economy to function. Concrete
normally provides a high degree of protection to the
reinforcing steel against corrosion, by virtue of the high
alkalinity (pH 13.5) of the pore solution. Under high
alkalinity steel remains passivized. In addition, well
consolidated and purely cured concrete with low w/c ratio

has a low permeability, which minimizes the penetration of

corrosion including agents such as chlorides, CO2,
moisture etc. to steel surfaces. Further the high electrical
resistivity of the concrete restricts the rate of corrosion by
reducing the flow of electric current from the anodic to the
cathodic sites. At the outset, it must be mentioned that
usually in a properly, constructed and maintained structure,
there should be little problem of corrosion during its
service life.
In general there are two major features which cause
corrosion of reinforcement in concrete to an unacceptable
degree; (i) Carbonation (ii) presence of chloride ions which
may either have been present in the concrete constituents
right from the beginning or are introduced into the concrete
during the service life. When the rebar in the concrete is
exposed to the chlorites, either contributed from the
concrete ingredients or penetrated from surrounding
chloride bearing environment, carbonation of concrete or
penetration of acids into the concrete are the causes of
reinforcement corrosion along with others related to the
external environment such as moisture, oxygen, humidity,
temperature and bacterial attack.
2. Mechanism of corrosion of Rebar in Concrete
Corrosion of steel embedded in concrete is an
electrochemical process. The surface of the corroding steel
functions as a mixed electrode that is a composite of the
anode and the cathode electrically connected through a
body of steel itself, upon which coupled anodic and
cathodic reactions take place.

Fig.1 Schematic representation of corrosion of

reinforcement steel in concrete as an electrochemical
process [1]
The assessment of the causes and the extent of
corrosion is carried out using various electrochemical
techniques. In this paper a review on the mechanism of
reinforcement corrosion techniques utilized to monitor

9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

reinforcement corrosion and methodologies that are

utilised for the production of remaining service life of the
structures.
Concrete is a complex material of construction that
enables the high compressive strength of natural stone to
be used in concrete structures. In tension, however,
concrete can be no stronger than the bond between the
cured cement and the surfaces of the aggregate. This is
generally much lower than the compressive strength of
concrete. Concrete is therefore frequently reinforced,
usually with steel. When the system of steel bars or a steel
mesh is incorporated in the concrete structures in such a
way that the steel can support most of the tensile stresses
and leave the immediately surrounding concrete
comparatively free from the tensile stress, then the
complex is known as Reinforced Concrete.

Fig.2 Progress of corrosion in concrete and eventual spalling

[2]
Anodic and cathodic reactions are broadly referred to
as Half- Cell reactions. The anodic reaction is the
oxidation process, which results in the loss of metal, while
the cathodic reaction is the reduction process which
results in reduction of dissolved oxygen forming Hydroxyl
Ions [3]. De-passivation around rebar would bring down
the pH value and would result to corrosion in rebar.
Corrosion rate is affected by the following factors (i) The
pH of the electrolyte in concrete which is affected mainly
by the carbonation, (ii) The availability of oxygen and
capillary water and (iii) The concentration of Fe2+ in
concrete near the reinforcement [4].
3. Factors affecting Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
Structures [5]
Availability of oxygen and moisture at the rebar level
Relative humidity and temperature
Carbonation and entry of acidic gaseous pollutants to
rebar level
Chloride ions reaching to the rebar level either through
the concrete ingredients or from the external
environment.
Aggregate Size and grading
Construction Practice
Cover over reinforcing steel
Cement composition
Impurities in aggregate
Impurities in mixing and curing water

Permeability of concrete which is a function of w/c

ration affects the corrosion of the rebar

The detrimental effects on the durability of RC structures

are that it causes volume expansion developing tensile
stress in concrete, which ultimately results in cracking and
spalling of concrete. Due to loss of concrete cover there
may be significant reduction in the load bearing capacity of
the structure.
4. Durability of Concrete (Construction Practice)
Aggregate washing of deleterious materials
Recommended w/c ratio, minimum cement
content, cover thickness etc
Proper mixing, placing, compaction of freshly
placed concreteProperties of fresh concreteworkability, uniformity, segregation, bleeding.
Segregation and bleeding should be avoided
Properties of hardened concrete Strength and
durability
Proper curing of concrete
Engineered concrete [cement, graded coarse
aggregates, graded fine aggregates, mineral
admixtures , chemical admixtures (use of water
reducing admixtures or super plasticisers), water]
5. Time Dependent States of Reinforcement Corrosion
Corrosion process has three distinct stages:
De-passivation (process of de-passivation takes an
initiation period)
Propagation (propagation phase starts from the time of
de-passivation to the final state)
Final State

Fig.3 Stages of Rebar Corrosion

Critical tcr is the time of unacceptable corrosion
damage and this critical time can be the service life. For
the reinforced concrete it is assumed to equate the
unacceptable corrosion damage to the onset of spalling of
concrete. Corrosion-induced deterioration of reinforced
concrete can be modelled in terms of these components:
1. Time for corrosion initiation (Ti)
2. Time, subsequent to corrosion initiation, for
appearance of a crack on the external concrete surface
(crack propogation, Tp); and

9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

3.

Time for surface cracks to progress into further

damage and develop into spalls (Td) to the point where
the functional service life(Tf) is reached.

Figure 3 shown illustrates this schematically as a plot of

cumulative damage versus time.
6. Reasons of Corrosion
The two most common causes of reinforcement
corrosion are:
1. Localised breakdown of the passive film on steel by
chloride ions and
2. General breakdown of passivity by neutralization of
the concrete, predominantly by reaction with
atmospheric CO2.
Durable concrete (alkaline with pH~13.5) is an ideal
environment for steel but the increased use of salts and the
increase concentration of Carbon dioxide in modern
environment due to industrial pollution has resulted in
corrosion of the rebar becoming the primary cause of
failure of this material.
Loss of alkalinity due to carbonation due to
depassivation alkalinity is lost as a result of
1. Reaction with acidic gases (such as CO2) in the
atmosphere
2. Leaching by water from the surface
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -------- CaCO3 + H2O
It consumes alkalinity and reduces pore water pH to
8.9 range, where steel is no longer passive.
6.1 Loss of alkalinity due to chlorides [6]
The chloride ion locally de-passivates the metal and
promotes active metal dissolution. Chloride reacts with the
calcium aluminate and calcium alumino ferrate in the
concrete to form insoluble calcium chloro aluminates and
calcium chloro ferrates in which the chlorite is bound in
non active form; it is the chlorite in solution the is free to
promote corrosion of steel.
6.2 Cracks due to mechanical loading
If the cracks penetrate to the steel, protection can be
lost. This is especially under tensile loading, for debonding of steel and concrete occurs, thus removing the
alkaline environment and so destroying the protection in
the vicinity of the de-bonding. Corrosion of steel
reinforcement also can be due to atmospheric pollution.
7. Prevention [7]
1. Keep concrete always dry, so that there is no moisture
to form rust. If concrete is always wet, then there is no
oxygen to form rust.
2. Epoxy coating to rebar to protect them from moisture
and aggressive agents. The embedded epoxy coating
on steel bars provide a certain degree of protection to
the steel bars and thereby, delay the initiation of
corrosion. These coatings prevent movement of

moisture to the steel surface but restrict oxygen

penetration.
3. Stainless steel can be used in lieu of conventional
reinforcements.
4. Use of fly ash concrete with low permeability which
would delay the arrival of carbonation and chlorites at
the level of the rebar. They form a calcium silica
hydrate (CSH) compound that over time effectively
reduces concrete diffusivity to oxygen, carbon dioxide,
water and chloride ions.
5. Electro chemical injection of organic base corrosion
inhibitors into carbonated concrete.
6. Physical properties of durable concrete would improve
the extent of carbonation decline.
7. Installation of physical barrier system such as coatings,
sealers, membrane.
8. The zinc surface layer applied either hot dipped or
electrode deposition would result on a low corrosion
rate for zinc, thereby providing galvanic cathodic
protection.
9. Concrete mix design modification involves such
factors as reduced water cement ratio including use of
water reducing admixtures or super plasticisers, type
of cement, permeability reducing admixtures such as
fly ash, silica fumes, blast furnace slag, and corrosion
inhibiting admixtures.
10. Remedies for corrosion-damaged concrete include
removal of all delaminated concrete, cleaning of the
reinforcement by abrasive blast cleaning.
8. Strategies for Investigation of a Corroded RC
Structure
A visual survey, whether the corrosion of rebar is
really a cause of distress. The survey consists of a careful
investigation of the structure for any sign of distress such
as cracking, spalling and rust staining.
8.1 Reinforcement Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
Half Cell potential, E corrosion
Concrete resistivity (P)
Corrosion current density ( I corrosion)
9. Service Life Prediction Models [8]
9.1Bazants Model
This model predicts the corrosion damage based on
volume expansion due to the formation of hydrated red rust
over the residual rebar core. This rust is expansive in
nature and occupies four times the volume of parent steel
that creates a pressure on the concrete to produce cracks on
its surface.
9.2Morinagas Model
An empirical model to predict the service life of
corroded rebars based on the instance of concrete cover
crack by means of rust formation on rebar surface.

9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

9.3Wang and Zhaos Model

The analysis of a large number of rebar corrosion data
collected from laboratory and their comparision with finite
element analysis, the authors (Wang and Zhao) have
established an empirical expression to determine the ratio
of thickness of corrosion product, , to the depth of rebar
penetration, H, corresponding to the cracks in cover
concrete.
9.4 Dagher and Kulendrans Model
In the context of service life prediction of RC
structures subjected to rebar corrosion, this model can be
used more reliably to determine the radial bar expansion at
which cracks in cover concrete occurs.
10. Experimental Method of Service Life Prediction
In this method, Ahmad et al. predicted service life
based on the cumulative damage theory. The fraction of
damage due to the externally induced current is subtracted
from 1 to obtain the fraction of damage due to corrosion. It
is assumed that there are no alternative sources of
corrosion in the rebar.
The methodology is based on the cumulative damage
theory.The final failure is assumed to be the effects of two
mode failure.The first mode considered is the natural
corrosion of rebar from the time of depassivation followed
by the second mode,which is the accelerated corrosion of
rebar by anodic electrolysis under the impressed anodic
current for a short period.The actual cracking of the
specimen after applying an optimal anodic current for a
given period has been carried out by splitting the
specimens under physical load.The reduction in failure
tensile stress of concrete is co-related with intensity and
duration of the impressed current.From this
relationship,the time required for cracking under impressed
current is determined corresponding to the zero residual
tensile stress at failure of concrete.To demonstrate the
utility of the suggested experimental methodology,the
service life of a number of R.C. core specimens having
different corrosion rates and cover thicknesses were
determined and compared with the results obtained.

11. CONCLUSIONS
The most common causes of reinforcement corrosion
are chlorite ions and carbonation by atmospheric carbon
dioxide. In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for
roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that
may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from the use of
epoxy coating, hot dip galvanized or stainless steel rebar.
A good structural design, detailing and a well-chosen
cement mix that makes durable concrete may provide
sufficient protection for many applications. Use of fly ash
also delays the effect of chlorite and carbon dioxide.
References
[1] Shamsad Ahmad: Reinforcement corrosion in concrete
structures, its monitoring and service life predictiona
Review, J. Cement & Concrete Composites, 25 (2003),
459471.
[2] Hansson C. M.: Comments on electrochemical
measurements of the rate of corrosion of steel in
concrete, J. Civil Engg. Materials, ASCE 14 (1984),
574584.
[3] Berkely K. G. C., Pathmanaban S.: Cathodic protection
of reinforcement steel in concrete, Butterworths & Co.
Ltd., London, (1990).
[4] Mozer J.D.: Corrosion of reinforcing bars in concrete, J.
American Concrete Institute, (1965), 909931.
[5] Cahyadi J.H., Uomoto T.: Influence of environmental
relative humidity on carbonation of concretre
(mathematical modeling), Durability of building
materials and components (1993), 11421151.
[6] ASTM C: 1152 - Standard test method for acid-soluble
chloride in mortar and concrete (1990), 609610.
[7] Uhlig H. H.: Corrosion and corrosion control, John
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[8] Bazant Z. P.: Physical model for steel corrosion in
concrete sea structures-theory, J. Struct Engg., ASCE
15 (1979); 11371153.