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Review article
State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Oshore Engineering, Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Ganjingzi district, Linggong Road 2, Dalian 116024, China
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-4006, USA
Received 10 January 2003; received in revised form 11 May 2004; accepted 25 May 2004
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of current research and development in the eld of structural health monitoring with civil
engineering applications. Specically, this paper reviews ber optical sensor health monitoring in various key civil structures,
including buildings, piles, bridges, pipelines, tunnels, and dams. Three commonly used ber optic sensors (FOSs) are briey
described. Finally, existing problems and promising research eorts in packaging and implementing FOSs in civil structural health
monitoring are discussed.
# 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Structural health monitoring; Fiber optic sensor; Civil health
1. Introduction
Structural health monitoring has attracted much
attention in both research and development in recent
years. This reects continuous deterioration conditions
of important civil infrastructures, especially long-span
bridges. Among them, many were built in the 1950s
with a 40- to- 50-year designed life span. The collapses
and failures of these decient structures cause increasing concern about structural integrity, durability and
reliability, i.e. the health of a structure throughout the
world.
Currently, there are no foot proof measures for
structural safety. A structure is tested for deteriorations
and damages only after signs that result from fault
accumulations are severe and obvious enough. When
the necessity of such tests becomes obvious, damages
have already exacerbated the systems reliability in
many cases and some structures are even on the verge
of collapse. Though routine visual inspection is manda
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86-411-8470-8512x8208; fax: +86411-8470-8501.
E-mail address: hnli@dlut.edu.cn (H.-N. Li).
0141-0296/$ - see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2004.05.018
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geographical locations is also feasible. With many signal processing devices (splitter, combiner, multiplexer,
lter, delay line, etc.) being made of ber elements, an
all-ber measuring system can be realized.
Table 1 lists the FOSs available to civil engineering
applications and their categories. One method of
classifying FOSs is based on its light characteristics
(intensity, wavelength, phase, or polarization) that is
aected by the parameter to be sensed. Another
method classies an FOS by whether the light in the
sensing segment is modied inside or outside the ber
(intrinsic or extrinsic). FOSs can also be classied as
local (or point), quasi-distributed and distributed sensors depending on the sensing range. This method of
classication is adopted here to organize the rest of this
section.
2.1. Local ber optic sensors
Many intensity based sensors, such as microbend
sensors, and most of the interferometric FOSs are local
sensors, which can measure changes at specied local
points in a structure. Interferometric FOSs are by far
the most commonly used local sensors since they oer
the best sensitivity. This sensing technique is based
primarily on detecting the optical phase change
induced in the light as it propagates along the optical
ber. Light from a source is equally divided into two
ber-guided paths (one is a reference path). The beams
are then recombined to mix coherently and form a
fringe pattern which is directly related to the optical
phase dierence experienced between the two optical
beams. The most common congurations of such interferometric sensors are the Mach-Zehnder, Michelson
and FabryPerot FOSs [20,21]. Among them, the
FabryPerot (F-P cavity) FOS and the so-called long
gage FOS (LGFOSs) are the two types of local sensors
commonly utilized in civil engineering. FabryPerot
Table 1
Fiber optic sensors for civil structural health monitoring
Sensors
Mesurands
Linear
response
Resolution
Range
Modulation
method
Intrinsic/
extrinsic
Local
FabryPerot
Long gage sensor
Straina
Displacement
Y
Y
10,000 le
50 m
Phase
Phase
Both
Intrinsic
Quasidistributed
Strainb
1 l strain
5000 le
Wavelength
Intrinsic
Distributed
Raman/Rayleigh
(OTDR)
Brillouin (BOTDR)
Temperature/strain
0.5 m/1 C
2000 me
Intensity
Intrinsic
2000 m
Intensity
Intrinsic
a
b
c
d
e
Temperature/strain
0.5 m/1 C
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Fig. 2.
Distributed sensors are most suitable for large structural applications, since all the segments of an optical
ber act as sensors, and therefore, the perturbations
within various segments of the structure can be sensed.
Distributed sensors are based on the modulation of
light intensity in the ber. Fracture losses or local
damages in a structure cause light intensity variations.
Two major distributed sensor methodologies are the
optical time domain reectometry (OTDR) and the
Brillouin scattering. In the OTDR, Rayleigh and
Fresnel scatterings are used for sensing structural
Fig. 3.
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Multiplexing schemes, principles and wavelength shift of ber Bragg grating sensors.
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records of unique diagnostic events such as the curvature defects present in the sliding shoe device.
Although FOSs have been embedded or attached to
many concrete bridges, steel structures equipped with
FOSs are not so common. This may be is attributed to
the fact that it is almost impossible to embed an FOS in
a steel structure element. Surface-bonding, at present, is
the only way to integrate an FOS with a steel structure,
and the benets of utilizing FOSs in such situations are
not evident. The Waterbury Bridge in Vermont, the US,
is such an example [40]. This bridge is a 67 m steel truss
bridge spanning the Winooski River. Thirty-six chloride
FOSs were embedded at various points along the bridge
to monitor the chloride penetration into the deck. The
chloride sensor is based on the interaction between the
chloride ions and a solgel lm, which is positioned
between the inputoutput ber. The lms transmission
characteristics changes in terms of color (from milky
white to pink); thus overall bers transmission change
and chloride ions concentration are determined.
Another 16 FBG strain sensors were placed at points of
the reinforcement bars with maximum strains to monitor the strain variations. Their eorts showed that
instrumentation of FOSs may cost up to 10% higher in
certain cases.
3.4. Highway trac monitoring
Although FOSs embedded in the Beddington Trail
Bridge is intended for long term SHM and therefore
employ low rate data sampling system, they can still
weigh vehicles running slowly. However, these FOSs
are inadequate for trac monitoring, such as classifying vehicles, on a regular highway without trac interruption since the FOSs used for such purposes demand
a high-sampling-rate data acquisition system in
addition to high measuring sensitivity [41].
A trac sensor is basically a sensor embedded on the
surface of a road to detect trac ow. The dynamic
testing system developed by Udd et al. can achieve less
than 0.1 micro-strain resolution with a dynamic range
of 400 micro-strain at 10 kHz sampling rate, which can
satisfy such trac monitoring requirements. They
installed 28 specially designed FBG trac sensors (26
survived) in surface-cut slots of the Horsetail Falls
Bridge in the Colombia River Gorge National Scenic
Area of the United States [42], and tested the monitoring system by running vehicles of dierent weights at a
speed of 1018 km per hour. Then, ve long gage FBG
sensors were installed in the I-84 freeway to test the
ability of these sensors as vehicle classier and counter
[43]. Over half a years monitoring showed that the
sensing systems are sucient to discriminate tractor
trailer and buses, and even the trac in adjacent lanes
in some cases. The amplitude of the signal appears to
be closely proportional to the vehicle weight, the speed
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ground heat pump system and three out of the six ber
splicing joints were damaged and had to be re-spliced.
Other practical issues of integrating FOSs with civil
structures are strain and temperature cross-sensitivity,
ingress and egress problems and local material properties surrounding the optical bers [51].
FOSs have to be embedded into dierent host materials subjected to various conditions; therefore, sensor
packaging is of great importance. Eective sensing
demands a compliant mechanical contact between the
ber and the host structure to ensure an appropriate
transfer measurands of interest into light signals; however, an additional protection has to be used to isolate
the delicate bare ber from water and alkaline and
from damages caused by the host structure. The protection scheme of the ber in the sensing region diers
with dierent host materials. Experiences from recent
applications showed that polymide coated bers and
epoxy were possible to secure an excellent mechanical
coupling between the bers and the anchorages in concrete structures [53]. In addition, the thermal expansion
coecient of the sensor packaging should be approximately equal to that of the host structure to avoid
possible slippage between the interfaces.
Moreover, the installation of Bragg gratings on base
structures requires longitudinal uniform bonding.
Otherwise, the non-uniform bonding of the gratings
will cause several reected Bragg wavelength peaks
when the gratings are strained. In such a situation,
accurate strain measurement will be impossible.
Generally, the survival rate of FOSs during installation is about 90%; therefore redundant sensors
should be used for critical measurements and careful
planning is required. During installation, all-ber components, especially connections, should be delicately
handled. Mechanical and thermal fatigue as well as
chemical aggression will also decrease the life of FOSs.
Special attention and various measures have to be
taken to relieve these adverse eects on optical ber
health monitoring.
5. Summary
4.2. Ingress and egress problems
For FOSs embedded in concrete structures, the portion of bers at the locations where FOSs enter or exit
a structure needs adequate protection prior to their
deployment. An adequate protection is used to prevent
the brittle optic ber from breakage. In addition, this
protection also ensures a satisfactory light transmission
since light can be easily lost if the ber is bent or
clamped in such a way that micro-bends or ripples are
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Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the joint support of the
Natural Science Foundation of LiaoNing (no.
20032120), support of the Construction Administration
of LiaoNing (no. 02001), and Young Teachers Foundation of Dalian University of Technology.
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