BOOK

HAND

OF

Instruction

General

FOR

MECHANICS
CONTAINING
USEFUL

AND

RULES
FOR

MEMORANDA

PRACTICAL

MEN

BY

FRANKLIN

E.

NEW

D.

VAN
23

YORK

NOSTRAND
MURRAY

SMITH

AND

COMPANY
27

I907

WARREN

STS.

Copyright,
By

D.

Van

1906

Nostrand
COPYKI"aT

Company
1907,

"T

B.

Van

Nost"and

Company

T4
"Sco

?U3RARYofCONGRiIs|
Two

Cooles

AUG

2o

Received

I90f

Cooyrifht Entry
CLASS

COPY

T/ie

Plimpton

Press

XXc./No,
B.

Norwood

Mass.

U.S.A.

PREFACE

is

the

give

to

advantages,

with

and

meaning,

to

as

him

scientific

In

limit

be

to

has

in

various

such

read

and

of

course

their

instruction

required

understandingly

for

making

way,

terms

the

manner,

rules

concise

book

educational

established

technical

general

simple

had

not

and

simple,

this

writing

knowledge

advanced

more

works.

writing
the

text-book

being

in

impart,

enable

to

the

to

in

explaining

clear,

author

who

text-book

in

familiar

the

mechanic,

calculating

him

of

object

primary

The

the

language

on

used

book,

to

the

rigid

mathematics

which

will

and

be

more

of

brevity

physics,

acceptable

made

been

has

attempt

no

the

average

free

very

the

to

style

general

reader.

Franklin

E.

to

Smith.

CONTENTS

PART

Arithmetic
i

PAGE

Numeration

"

Notation
Addition

10

Subtraction

16
22

Multiplication
Division

'.

Tables

of

Weights

and

Measures

Used

by

Mechanics

40
63

..

Reduction

67

Fractions

72

Addition

of

Fractions

85
.

Arithmetical
Subtraction

Vulgar

of

Multiplication

of

Division

of

Decimal

Fractions

Reduction
of

Subtraction

Multiplication
Division

of

Fractions

94

Fractions

Vulgar

97

Fractions

Vulgar

of

Addition

85

Signs

99
103

Decimal

Fractions

108

Decimals

109

of

110

Decimals
of

Decimals

Ill

Decimals

113

Proportion

Compound

119

Proportion

126

Interest

131

Involution

137

Evolution
Cube

.138

Root

141

vi

CONTENTS

PART

Arithmetical

Signs

II

Characters

and

Explanation

and

of

Formula

Solving

page

Arithmetical

Signs
the

149

of the

Use

Examples

on

Examples

Performed

Examples

Showing

Examples

on

Examples

Addition

where
how

Addition

Brackets

Proper

Use

on

Proper

Use

Examples

on

Signs Representing

Examples

on

Signs

that

Signs

of
of

Minus

and

Signs

are

Used

152

Used

are

Multiplication
Division

151

154

Sign

156
....

158

Sign

the

Powers

of

Numbers

161
.

Represent

the

Roots

of Numbers

162
.

Law

of

Signs

in

Multiplication

164

Law

of

Signs

in

Division

166
167

Formula

PART

III

Mensuration

Table

Ecfuivalents

Decimal

of

Explanation

177
177

of Terms

The

Circle

182

The

Ellipse

184

The

Triangle

187

The

Rhomboid

192

The

Trapezium

196

The

Sphere

199

Volume

Measure

Rectangular

and

Solids

Contents

of Solids

200
200

The

Cylinder

201

The

Pyramid

202

The

Cone

204

The

Frustum

205

vii

CONTENTS

IV

PART
Weight

How

Measurements,

Dimensions,

the

Different

Gravity

Specific

"

Vessels

Shaped

Weight

and
is

of

Found

and

How

Weight

the

Different

of

Parts

is

Found
page

SpecificGravity
Table

of

211

of

SpecificGravities

Circular

Liquids and

Solids

.214
.

Measure

219

Square Measurements

224

Circular

229

Areas

Measurements

and

Weights of Tanks

Measurements

of Circular

234

Tanks

238
.........

How

Calculate

to

the

of the

Weight

of Different

Weight

Different

Parts

of

Materials

Machine

or

and

Structure

the
of

Kind

any

Table

of

242

of Various

Weights

Metals

.251

PART
The
The

Lever

The

Compound

The

Pulley

The

Strength of

The

Wheel

The

Inclined

Primary

or

V
Simple

Machines
256

Lever

268
269

and

Rope

275

Axle

276

Plane

284

The

Wedge

288

The

Screw

290

PART
Strength

of

Materials

Showing

Ultimate

Table

Showing

Safe

Table

of Factors

Table

Tensial

of

Stress

and

and

Working
Safety

VI

Questions

Elastic
Stress

Relating

Strength

to

Stress

of Materials

308
.

309
310

311

Compressive Stress

313

Shearing Stress

315

PART
I

ARITHMETIC

ARITHMETIC

is

Arithmetic
known

to

in

man

called
the

termed

(calculi) pebbles
of

process

all

science
the

by

and

to

make

and

And

each

unit

By
one

of

is meant

five

the

six

called

single thing,

as

one

Figure

represents

collection

of

Figure

represents

collection

of

or

is

is, figure
be

termed
A

for

stands

of

character

used

be

may

number

Number

Number

nine

nought

0, represents

units.

cent,

one

one

dollar,

unit.

collection

number,

nine

units.

two

three
and

nothing,

units.
when

alone

presses
ex-

units.

unit

figure

easy.

etc.

represents

of

called

the

figures:

eight

seven

Figure

figure

so

when

estimating

exception

single things

pound,

one

no

of

with

figure,

ounce,

The

four

three

collection

specific

times
some-

89

two

one

been

when
to

1234567
Named:

is

It

is referred

characters

ten

are

has

time.

savages

computing,

there

and

calculation/'

the

used

were

counting,

Arithmetic

In

of
of

early period

numbers

for

forms

various
''science

the

of

science

the

is

units.
3

is

termed

is

to

called

represent

1, and

number

unit

called
Number

is

and

number,

that

number;

figure

may

9.

then,
1

units

collection

or

unit.

Number

is

of

three
3

collection

is
of

collection

units,

of

etc.

units
a

collection
two

units.

By

HAND

means

number

may

There

of

the

be

represented.

figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.,

also six rules

are

operations

according

which

to

known

any

arithmetical

called

performed,

are

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

Numeration.
Notation.
Addition.
Subtraction.

Multiplication.
Division.
last four

The
rules

rules

of these
and

of Arithmetic,

of all arithmetical

called

are

the

them

depend

reading

numbers

upon

fundamental
solution

the

problems.
NUMERATION

is the

Numeration
in

written

art

of

The

figures.

art

of

which
value

the

naming

are

of

figures.

Figures

have

value

the

Naming

Example.

called

values

two

9376267, for instance.

of

Simple

and

value

Place

value.
of

value

simple

The

standing alone,

or

figure is

the

on

right

value

the
hand

of

it has

when
of

number

figures.
In
it

both

the

figure denotes

of units

number

represents.
of

right hand

the

in both
The
when
a

two

place

standing alone,

example,

For

of

the

cases

units

a
or

value

standing

with

figure depends

figure.

number

of

when

or

standing

figures,thus, 342,

on

denotes

ones.

of

other
upon

figure

is the

figures.
its relative

And

value
the

it denotes

place

positionto

value

another

NUMERATION

1364, has

of

number

the

And

value.

place

figure of

each

example,

For

the

value

that

it is toward

places

following number,
depends

left hand

the

upon

from

the

right-hand figure 4.
of

value
For

44,

example,

alone,

Standing
units

alone

or

right
then

of

being removed
its value

thus, 444, its value

the

times

next

Each
to

four

express
has

place

figure
three

the

the
the

the

left,

it then

notes
de-

four

the

as

and

the

follows,reading from

"

"D

"+h

i;
^

fl

03

PQ

0,

0,

40,
ten

figures

forty-four.

d
S

4 to

three

03

right

its value

73

\2

to

more

the

it from

increases

hundred,

ones).

or

tenfold.

left increases

hundred
name,

from

on

figures

two

left:

PQ

it denotes

place

one

places

removal

four

making

more,

together

to

third

or

And

again increased

is

first removal
the

and

forty, and

units.

it then

left, making

and

4, thus,

standing

forty-four(forty-fourunits

together express

The

when

place to

one

times,

ten

is

four

denotes

Again, by removing
the

it does

of

right-hand place

four, which

times
it

left hand

the

at

value

the

on

but

only,

ten

the

right-hand place.

above, increases

as

the

times

ten

left increases

the

to

times.

standing

in the

or

place

one

figure ten

expresses

four

of

removal

Each

0,

0,

right

Often

the

right-hand
order,

first

figure in

order,

third

the

In

Each

Ten

the

times

of

ten,

second

or

etc.

number.

or

expresses

equal
value

to

one.

ten

equal

ones.

to

ten

units.

or

single things
thousand

ten

means

and

value

hundred

ten

means

thousand

Ten

the

hundreds,

number
or

one,

ten

means

Thousand

figure of

ten, single things, individuals

times

figure of

specificvalue

first whole

times

ten

is

order

expresses

the

means

called

of tens.

name

means

Hundred

called orders,

of units.

place

place, of

place

As, unit

order

second

order

figure is

unit

or

the

or

the

the

or

MECHANICS

places occupied by figuresare

the

thus, the

FOR

BOOK

HAND

units.

or

single things

or

units.

thousand

Hundred

things

hundred

means

thousand

single

units.

or

Million

means

thousand

thousand

single things

or

units.
Ten

million

singlethings

units.

or

Hundred

things

million

Each
that

order

to

when

thus,

79

units

ten

is

Where
third

one

thousand

single

each,

from

stand

units

right-hand

of

one

the

left-hand

is still called

and

order, which

second

units

units

is called

alone

and

seven

seventy

unit;

sets

units,

or

of
of

seventy-nine.

figures
the

units

many

together

of the

of nine

of nine

is read

three

so

expresses

of them

many

or

(1,000,000,000).

belongs.

collection

million

figure standing

two

the

units, and

it

one

so

tens, but

number

which

expresses

is

thousand

one

example,

unit, but
one

means

figure of

For

thousand

ten

means

units.

or

Billion

79

thousand

thousand

ten

means

unit

stand

together, thus, 346,

figure 6

expresses

so

many

the

units

NUMERATION

third

of the

order, which

figure is 3, three

the

reads

above

three

fourth

The

is

hundred

hundred

in this

as

case

represented, and

is

the

forty-six.

of

figure

and

hundreds,

number

so

expresses

many

thousands.
The

fifth expresses

The

sixth

The

nought

when

For

And
unit

figure

only, but
value

place

value

and

and

three

millions, and
With
the

the

value

three

of

aid

of the

three

are

the

tenfold

the

cypher

figure 1, causing

places

has

group

Millions.

of three

set

the

thirty.

three) ; here

on

it to

of the

set

below:

000,

Thousands.

Hundreds.

the

right
the

of three

shown:

are

next
are

following table,

numbers

shown

as

denote

000,

thousands,

next

separated

thus

name

000,

first set

removed

are

By

each

each

13

will
referring to page 5 we
places of figures are separated by a

hundred.

Billions.

next

and

significanceon

000,

The

and

standing

by connecting

thereby given

hundred

one

(,) and

group,

and

left each

(one hundred

each

comma
a

the

because

13

Again,

figures

one

1, thus, 10,

it ten

units, and

thirteen

to

one

that

left.

the

to

denotes

the

to

tenfold,making

it, thus, 130, the

103

represent
see

denotes

cypher

to

similar

place

become

Again,
has

represented.

are

standing alone, thus, 1,

one

alone, thus, 13,

one

other

standing alone, thus, 0,

cypher

of 1 is increased

cypher

with

stands

it

when

but

by connecting

it is removed

the

units

no

the

etc.

something.

means

that

thousands,

of

hundreds

many

(0),usually called cypher, signifiesnothing

example,

means

of thousands.

tens

many

so

expresses

standing alone,

figures it

the

so

hundreds,
set

of three

the
are

billions.
express

in

writing

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

02

52

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1 1

1 1

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Number

-25

Number

342

Number

674

Number

-54

340

Number

960

780

Number

--3

726

90

Number

-15

908

660

Number

302

607

606

Number

--5

003

000

003

Number

10

-32

673

300

300

Number

11

999

999

999

999

Number

12

---

---

Example.
First

Read,

begin

and

463463765322.
mark

off the

from

figures in threes

right to left;thus,
463,463,765,322
and

billion
and

reads

number

the

four

hundred

four

sixty-three

sixty-fivethousand

three

Example.

Read,

1070008346.

First

off in

threes

mark

hundred
million

hundred

from

and

right

example; thus,
1,070,008,346

sixty

hundred

seven

and

to

three

twenty-two.

left

as

in

last

10

HAND

with

Now

the

This

million.

eighteen
This

of the

above

in

million

and

done

by

under

between

its proper

figures

Examples

and

guide

as

and

position as

shown

aid

above,

of

the

under

million

cyphers,

is the

its

fill out

fifty;then

with

18,000,050, which

in

the

the

next

these

Express

table

placing eighteen

spaces

1.

the

figureseight

fifty.

position place

it stands

in

express

figures,with

proper

and

MECHANICS

by using

million

express

is

FOR

is done

placing eight
Again

aid

BOOK

the

above,

as

expression.

correct

Exercise

for

figures three

thousand

seven

thousand

six

hundred

twenty-five.

2.

Express

in

figures twelve

3.

Express

in

figures three

and

thousand
4.

hundred.

and

hundred

twenty-two

six.

figures six

in

Express

and

fifty thousand

million

twenty.
5.
and

figuresthirty-eightmillion

thousand

twenty

6.

in

Express

in

Express

million

eight

hundred

and

fifty.
and

hundred

figures two

twenty-two

thirty-five thousand

and

hundred

and

hundred

three

hundred

four

one

thirty.
ADDITION

Addition
units

is the

The

addition
unit

figureof
in

the

the

two

be

must

line above

it.

The

tens, hundreds,

figure in

the

and

taken

line must

one

the

express

342

second

in

one

be

the

number

numbers.

more

or

instance,

care

the

expressing

numbers

figure of

placing
unit

for

in the

contained
In

in

contained

single number,

of

art

Making

of units

number

721.
in

placing

placed

same

of

under
must

care

thousands,
line

the

etc.

figures.
the

unit

be taken
That

figures must

is,
be

11

ADDITION

placed directly under

the

figures,and

figure

the

figure of

unit
The

unit

second

the

thousands,
must

be

also

the

thousands

For
to

line

the

must

of the

line above.

instance,

lines of

figuresin

""

unit
second

The

it will

units

are

not

above;

figuresthan
three

of

would

sum

in another
be

figurescan

number

the

if there

matter

line.
added
And

figures.

be placed thus:

Line

having four figures.

14

Line

having

three

unit

figure

of

second

first.

The

the

are

likewise

first line

each

And

line

line

be

placed

hundreds,

are

seen

under
etc.

the
tens

placed

as

figures.

and

under

line

under

hundreds
the

tens

the

of
and

the

dreds
hun-

shown.

following examples

figures in

under

the

the

hundreds

figure of
of the

It does

any

such

of

the

the

line

it, likewise

having
or

under

being placed

"

Placing

the

"

under

placed directly under

line of

four

having

be

line

one

line

dreds,
placing the tens, hun-

hundreds

the

one

in

tens

figuresabove

thousands

figuresin

more

are

The

under

placed

third

the

first line of

line, etc.

etc.

line of

of the

tens

of

be followed

rule must

same

figure of the

unit

will show

fully how

the

just explained,

that

more

placed:

thereby,
units,

as

tens

under

tens, hundreds

12

HAND

BOOK

Rules

Add

the

figure of

tens, if any,
the

of

sum

the

to

of

each

So

the

with

unit

the

the

write

under

column.

down

case

first and

column

next

column,

in which

column,

column

the

columns, writing

sum

Adding

for

right-hand

the

MECHANICS

FOR

it, and

add

proceed

with

figure only
of

exception

entire

the

of

sum

the

unit
the
all

of

the

the

last

column

is

down.

written

Add

Example.

together

Proceed

by placing

other, as

follows:

each

and

43

of

row

Thus,

and

52

16

and

8.

under

figures one

the

43

52
16
8
119

first add
we

in

9 units
the
and
the

under

are

whole
to

added
Example.

and

the
of

are

and

column

and

are

and

11, and

and

find

we

together

346
794
19
6

1165

ten,
and
to

3
so

add
1

when
sum

19;

are

we

and

case

the

now

write

we

the

makes

because

the

the

6'

and

in this

down

together they equal

Add

added

is written

added,

16

of units
1

example,

right-hand column,

are

units

in the

as

is the

tens, then

column
be

14

are

there

column

column
are

and

units

19

numbers

units, which

the
8

say

the

arranged

Having

the

1 ten

to

2, and
the

sum

of

it is the

last

four

numbers

of 119.

following: 346, 794, 19,

13

ADDITION

Here

proceed

numbers

be

to

the

different

proper

relative

before, first by placing

as

added

together

in

their

places.
Then
19

are

column

first the

and

and

hundred

to

or

the

there

is

would

was,

thousands
when

the

adding

the

column,

as

in

summed

up

to

down

of

equal

three

and

two

the

the

only

sum

other
the

example,
and

place

Write

add

the

and

are

equals

11

hundreds

case

place

we

and

hundreds,

as

if there

thousand

one

in

of the four numbers,

sum

1165.

above

figures or

added

the

where

example,
unit

that

next

the

sum

the

to

the

figure only

the

to

right-

under

down,
added

to

the

next

the
next

columns
ten
writ-

was

column.
of the

column

right-hand figure 2 only

is added

of

sums

the

more,

is written

figures,the
tens

the

figures where

figures are

two

if it is found

34

16.

the

the

together:

figuresequals 342,

down,

we

of tens,

added, which,

be

columns

the

are

and

of

to

find the

we

under

and

tens
1

column

the

and

15

are

column

in which

hundred,

column

will

and

column,

of

and

Add

figure of

For

column

together, equals

columns

hand

of this

thousands,

Examples.

When

of

column

sum

place,and

added

and

12

are

then

under

be

the

to

column,

other

no

and

units

2 tens

next

the

hundred

the

the

thousand

one

the

Write

add
3

are

the

11; then

are

and

under

tens

units, thus, 6 and

25.

are

of units

thus,
the

add

column,

is

put

whose

14

MECHANICS

FOR

with

will

suppose

equals 1436,

34.

Then

the

right-hand figure 6

column
the

BOOK

we

sum

the

HAND

next

column,

is written

column,
would

have

which,

if it

its whole

Examples

123621

only, and

down

for

130301

the
of the

the

143

happened
sum

addition

to

written

sum

of the

is added
be
under

Practice

141168

of

the
it.

to

last

15

ADDITION

Examples

Add

together:
Thirty-two thousand

1.

and

hundred
One

2.

four

and

four

five
three

Five

hundred
and

and

thousand

four

million

three

hundred

and

and

million
and

hundred

the

1.

4627

2.

916742

thirty-two
and

fifty-

seven

thousand

seventy-two

hundred

and

twelve

thousand

sixty-two

and

hundred

and

3. 18926742

three

and

hundred

and

nine

9824
and

and

and

7104

2763
and

five

and

6742839

9005.

and

7628143.

and

sixty-

six hundred
hundred

thirty-six.

and

83

dred
hun-

thirty; seventeen

thousand

million

three

of:

sum

and

five hundred

twenty

forty-two

thousand

million

twenty-two

thirty thousand

million

seven

eighty-two

and

sixty thousand

fifty;one

and

thousand

sixty-seven.

hundred

thirty-three thousand

seventy-two;

Find

and

four;

hundred

seven

hundred

and

three

and

twenty-four

million

seven

hundred

hundred

two

seven;

and

hundred

million

eighteen

seventy-two.

Seven

5.

hundred

twenty;

thirty; two

and

hundred

four

million

million

thousand

eighty-four;nine

two

hundred

one

fifty-three.

twenty-six

and

million

seven

hundred
thousand

ninety-four thousand

; three

thousand

4.

and

and

and

hundred

thousand

four

sixty-three; one

forty-two ; four

hundred

seventy-two

sand
thou-

sixty-seven thousand

five million

and

and

thousand

hundred

and

forty-two;

hundred

Six

sixty-seven; nine

hundred

hundred

seven

teen
two; six-

forty-four; forty-two

twenty-two;

and

sixteen

thousand

and

and

hundred

3.

three

three

thousand;

and

and

sixty-four.

million

hundred

three

and

hundred

three

hundred

seven

hundred

four

thousand

one

Exercise

for

15078949

and

1672.

and

16

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

SUBTRACTION

Subtraction

from

quantity

or

order,

is the

the

or

of

or

another

of the

finding the

of

process

number
of

operation

numbers

two

art

difference

quantity

or

number

of the

same

finding the difference between

kind.

same

taking one

For

between

example,

the

the process

numbers

and

1674

4236.
Like
other

denominations
That

only.

but

25

can

36 bushels

but

36

cents

is,25
be

cannot

cents

subtracted

from

be taken

of oats

be

may

75

from

one

be taken

can

taken

of wheat

bushels

be

may

from

75 cents,
Neither

potatoes.

from

taken

the

96

bushels

from

96

of oats,

bushels

of

from

is

oats.

That

number

called

the

operation
the

and

minuend,

is called

is taken

quantity

or

of

the

that

be

to

number

subtrahend.

taking

quantity

or

And

the

from

number

one

subtracted

result

another

which
of the

is called

difference.

Minuend

to

means

Subtrahend

be diminished.
that

means

number

which

is taken

from

another.

Only
is,ones
from

of the

units
can

be

taken

hundreds,

Proceed
First

from

ones;

be

can

tens

the

difference

from

That

tens; hundreds

between

684

and

under

the

minuend

342.

thus:

place

the

subtrahend

342

684, arranging the figuresin columns

under

subtracted.

etc.

Find

Example.

order

same

units,
As

tens

under

tens, and

follows:
684

Minuend

342

Subtrahend

342

so

that

hundreds

units
under

come

dreds.
hun-

18

HAND

BOOK

MECHANICS

4.

Subtract

137

from

249.

Ans.

112.

5.

Subtract

283

from

999.

Ans.

716.

6.

Subtract

567

from

878.

Ans.

311.

7.

If six

cents, how

friend,
Ans.

cents

did

marbles

46

and
the

and

how

another;

to

cents

apples

cost

oranges
cost

than

the

one

12.

had

boy

18

cost

more

Ans.

8.

apples
many

oranges.

he

gave

away

marbles

many

had

to

he

left?

31.

John

9.

is 37

difference

dollars

had

he

Bought

11.

it for 60
Ans.

Ans.

dollars; how

16, what

is the

and

he

spent 24; how

many

51.

of iron

pounds

100

is

Henry
21.

dollars

75

left?

and

Ans.

ages?

had

man

old

years

in the

10.

much

was

for 90

dollars

lost

on

the

has

less units

and

sold

transaction?

30.
order

If any
order

same

of

of the

the

subtract

; consider

one

less and

proceed

is found

that

the

minuend

subtrahend,

and

the

figure in

the

taken

it, increase

from

the minuend

figure in

be

subtracted

For

instance:

unit

from

of the
In

the
the

the next

37

Take

18

order

words, when
be

to

units

the

is decreased

From

other

the

by ten,

minuend

next

minuend

than

its units

taken

which

subtrahend,

then

times, and

ten

increase

before.

as

is less than

to

FOR

of that

figurein

it

from

is to

be

figure of

the minuend

unit.

one

19
From

by
from
the
then

ones

units

10

17
next
we

we

and

units

becomes
leaves

figure 3
say

take

cannot

1 ten

17
9

units.

units, which

is decreased
from

8 ones,

tens

by

one

leaves

We

so

7 is increased

now

say

down.

write

unit,

8 units

so

becomes

1 ten, which

Now

2;
write

19

SUBTRACTION

the difference

down, and
in

37 and

between

18 is

19, as shown

example.
Example.

From

566

Take

388
178

Here
subtrahend

is

add

we

10

this unit

when

be

it then

becomes

leaves

taken,

be

last

so

and

the

we

considered

leaves

is found

difference

be
be

the

to

be

by

5 tens

by 10,

same

15

tens

that

reason

3 hundreds
write

down,

shown

as

and

order

next

say,

178

units;

10

from

which

5,
from

from

the

5; then

say

neath.
under-

taken

tens

Now

so

considered

8 tens

say

hundred,

write

8 tens

the

less for

was

hundreds

from

so

minuend,

it is increased
Now

the

in

units; then

must

underneath.

considered
6

is to

increase

wTe

write

order

it 16

of 6.

15 tens;

7, which

is to

before

unit

in the

unit

unit

units, which

figure

5 instead

becomes

unit

leaves

next

the

cannot

the

consider

and

just explained,

as

the

the

because,
it then

the

16 units

Now

the

previous example,

larger than

to

from

8 units

the

in

as

in the

example.
Example.

From

6605

Take

3767
2838

Seven
added

are

units

units

from
Now

is 0,

in

as

whereupon
from
before

these
it

the

to

was

15

the
the
10

leaves

units
the

example,
0

would

tens

it

increased

10

be
unit
10

units

be

to

is

write

to

10

taken, because

units, therefore

units

neath.
under-

subtracted

from

added,

likewise

are

increased

10

units; then

15

units, which

order

next

units, so

units, making

when

from

taken

be

cannot

tens.

the

it becomes

Now
unit

9;

20

then

we

write

HAND

say,

BOOK

7 cannot

be

from

taken

15; then
it

and

underneath,

it

order

from

as

neath.
under-

unit, which

2, which

leaves
is

5, and

write

6 take

by

thereto,making

8, which

difference

the

units

10

leaves

next
3

proceed

order,making

add

we

tens, which

Then

place.

15

say

leaves

tens

next

the

5; then

the

from

from

MECHANICS

tens

7 from

say

Then
makes

the

unit

one

FOR

from

tens

underneath

taking
it

2838,

write

shown

as

in

example.
Examples

Exercise

for

1.

From

397

take

279.

2.

From

966

take

788.

Ans.

3.

From

4592

take

2364.

Ans.

2228.

4.

From

6422

take

3188.

Ans.

3234.

5.

From

9263

take

6346.

Ans.

2917.

6.

From

8674

take

5785.

Ans.

2889.

When
of

units

the

as

minuend

178.

as

which

has

the
was

the

number

same

subtrahend,

its units

the

the

order

in

case

of the

less than

the

units

words, when

the

figure to

were

the

of

the

units

same

ceding
pre-

in the

order

in

from

is

subtrahend.
other

In

the

of

by tens,
in

118.

minuend

order

same

examples
the

of the

increased

not

are

order

any

Ans.

same

matter

what

subtracted
from

the

as

figure which

the

order

from

one

the

be

is to

be

taken

taken

from

figures which

is, of the

other, the figureto

are

it, no
to

be

be subtracted

is unchanged.
""'

For

example:

From

14

Take

4
10

In

this

case
are

the
the

unit

same,

figuresin
in which

case

and

minuend

the
we

say

ones

trahend,
subfrom

21

SUBTRACTION

ones

leaves

place.

Then

ten,

there

we

so

say

from

ten

in

example.

Example.

From

654

Take

354

shown

be

to

the

or

ones

from

taken

leaves

ten

place, and

in tens

underneath

write

tens

no

are

in units

down

write

which

0 ones,

the

ten, which

is 10

answer

as

300
is

Here

the

having

example

an
same

figures of the

two

as

figures in the

two

hend,
subtra-

order

same

in the

minuend.
So
4

proceed

units, which

units

or

hundreds

units, which

in

hundreds

write

units

then

place, and

say

which

hundreds,

the

in

leaves

5 tens

place;

tens

from

underneath

from

tens

leaves

hundreds

underneath

say

underneath

write

from

shown

by taking

example

place; then

which

tens,

as

leaves

ones

write

in last

as

is 300.,

answer

example.

Example.

From

767

Take

558

209
In

this

less than
from

the

units

Now

the

from
tens
2

figure
it

take

order

by
the

then
which

answer

say

8 units

as

is to

be

in the

in

which

makes

5; then

write
from

underneath

shown

in

17
and

place.

ones

is

6, is
say

7 hundreds
hundreds

to

underneath

example.

is

subtracted

subtrahend

minuend,
it

from

it becomes

underneath

5 hundreds

down

subtracted

units, and

10

tens, which

write
is 209

be

to

which

write

of the

leaves

tens

less,which

one

place;
the

figure 7

left,which

next

hundreds,

and

which

are

considered

unit

increase

it, so

units, from
9

unit

the

case

be

tens

in

leaves

place,

22

HAND

Example:

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

is the difference

What

between

89645278

and

65437169

Arts.

24208109

Examples
1.

Ans.
2.

Ans.
3.

What

Ans.
5.

What

7543.

difference

between

486795

and

245483.

is the

difference between

937256

and

518137.

is the

difference

419119.

What
Ans.
What

between

76042912

and

537-

2246034.
is the

difference

between

and

843676

796832.

46844.

What

is

the

Ans.

25342621.
6.

is the

241312.

96878.
4.

Exercise

for

What
Ans.

between

difference

26784263

and

1441642.

is the

difference

between

2932933.

MULTIPLICATION

Multiplication

Table

7500476

and

456-

23

MULTIPLICATION

Multiplication
of

sum

is

convenient

that

number

any

has

method
be

to

of

added

finding the
itself any

to

of times.

number

instance, if

For
6 added

occasion

to

find

operation

thus:

the

of

sum

itself 5 times.

to

of

Instead

had

we

performing

the
6

6
6
6

J5
30

6 is written

The
it the

operation by the

the

perform

we

5, underneath

down

draw

following :

tion.
multiplica-

only, and

once

which

of

process

line

underneath
shown

as

in the

"

_5
30

Proceed

then, saying
the

underneath
It is here
but

that

line

the

both

of

units

are

one

number

the

increased

the

process
as

many

three

are

Multiplicand, Multiplier,and
The

Multiplicand

is the

The

Multiplier is

the

The

Product

According
the

give

results,

same

of

finding

times

as

the

there

in another.

multiplication there

In

place

convenient.

more

is

Multiplication, then,
amount

30, which

are

methods

is the

latter

shown.

as

that

seen

times

is the
then

multiplier) is

to

the

number

number

terms

used

called the

Product.
be

to

by which

multiplied.
we

multiply.

answer.

multiplication,one

made

to

operate

on

number
another

(called
number

24

HAND

BOOK

FOR

(called the

multiplicand)

units

multiplier,and

in the

called

the

where

As

product.

7, the

MECHANICS

as

the

of the

in the

there

as

the

result

which

by

the

is

followingexample,

number

of

are

operation

tiply),
mul-

we

8, the multiplicand (the number

on

multiplied), and

result

shown

multiplier (the

operates

times

many

to

is

operation, 56,

be
the

product.
8

Multiplicand

Multiplier
Product

56

multiply

Always
When

the

arranging

other,

the

multiplier under

must

care

rule

same

Proceed

follows:

as

the

unit

draw

which

underneath

figure in

set

down

which
are

set

arranging
the

the

4, which

set

the

tens,

under

sands.
thou-

multiplicand 34231,
the

multiplier 2,

shown.

as

sum

1 ; then

the

down

tens,

Multiplier

underneath

down

under

tens

place

thus, proceed

multiplier,saying

underneath

the

placing

2.

right to left,the figures in

the

multiplicand.

Product

68462

from

the

figure of

Multiplicand
2

after

down

line

unit

thousands

of which
a

34231

Then

is,

by

34231

Write

figure 1

that

by

one

the

in

out

and

hundreds,

Multiply

Example.

figure of

unit

etc.;

multiplied

place

to

carried

be

be

to

taken

the

must

under

hundreds

under

numbers

thousands,

hundreds,

right to left.

be

the

The

from

the

underneath

the

multiplicand by

2 times
say

3; then
the

ply
multi-

to

2, which

are

times
say

2;

3
2

then

are

6,

times

say

26

Proceed
unit

HAND

before

as

of

figure

FOR

BOOK

the

MECHANICS

multiplier under

the

by placing

multiplicand,drawing

the

line underneath.

64395
4

257580

multiply

Then
4 times

the

4.

last

of this

product, we

and
4

add

times

figure of

the

36,

1 to

the

next

16

and

are

4 times

completes
product

the
is

15,

Examples

as

and

17, the

are

24

multiplication we

257580,

set

we

only, and
6

next

product

are

set down

which

which

to

the

3 to

are

the

9 in the

plicand,
multi-

add

the

2 tens

the

38; setting down

the

and

product, saying
it

are

(cypher) directly

multiply

12

are

the

add

the

then

product, making

of the

times

We

multiplicand by 4, saying

down

set

4 times

saying

in the

20, and

are

underneath

the

and
set

shown.

for

product; saying
down

Practice

the
1

the

only

proceed, saying

right

add

only

are

down

hand
1 to

or

the

unit
next

25, which,

as

in full and

27

MULTIPLICATION

Example.
is

Here
in

which

the

an

Multiply 4635

by

example having

two

when

case,

operation is

the

the

11.

figures in the multiplier,

multiplier does

same

in the

as

exceed

not

12,

preceding examples.

4635
11

50985

Having arranged

the

numbers

the

other, placing the unit

the

unit

figure of

multiplierunder
the

5 in the

set

down

the

33,

are

the

11, saying
left-hand
9

only

Now
are

the

multiplicand, and
of the

tens

is

times

figure

of the

the

We

50, which

set

Example.

and

66

are

38;

add

and

down

the

in full

product

we

Now

are

times

11

it finishes

as

say,

of the

down

set

the

multiply

the

55;

are

then

69, the

6 to

figure 5

preceding product;

by 11, saying

the

left-hand

multiplicand.

of the

product

multiply

the

the

multiply

times

11

of

tens

multiplicand, we

added, making

3 of the

11

and

which

to

by

multiplier under

right-hand figure only.

preceding product
8 under

figure of

multipliedone

multiplicand by 11, saying

the

times

11

the

be

to

set

by

being

the

down

the

product.

next

44

are

the

and

cation,
multipli-

is 50985.

Multiply 6324

by

12

12

Set down

placing

the

figureof
under

the

the

the

multiplicand

unit

figure of

and

multiplier under

the

multiplicand, and

tens

place

of the

the multiplier as before,

the

tens

of the

multiplicand.
6324
12

75888

the

unit

multiplier

Thus:

23

Then

the

which

multiply

24,

are

which

to

We

and

36

the

multiply
times

which
and

is the

The

12

times

the

making

only

figure of

28;
of

of this

the

down

set

by 12, saying

figure

12

ceding
pre-

the

times

8
are

preceding product)
product.

We

then

multiplicand by 12, saying

the

product

down

whole

in

and

left-hand

added,

the

72

are

is set

multiplicand by 12, saying

multiply

down

set

48, of

are

then

(the left-hand

38;

are

then

We

4, the

is

times

12

right-hand figure 8 only.

the

product,
only.

figure of the multiplicand

multiplier, saying
2 in the

the

MECHANICS

each

multiply

to

down

set

we

FOR

BOOK

proceed
by

HAND

12

3 of the

preceding product are 75,

last figure to be multiplied

of the

in full.

product

then

Examples

is 75888.

Practice

for

52436

Multiply

10

By

524360
63425

Multiply

12

By

761100

Multiply

724302
11

By
7967322
the

When

(and

multiplier consists

exceeds

multipliedby
For

24,

in

each

instance, if
which

proceed
thus:

12), each

after

case

figure

figure of
we

the

had

the

of

than

more

of

is

multiplier.

occasion

the

figure

multiplicand

the

to

multiply

multiplier exceeds

arranging

one

numbers

to

12,
be

we

463

by

would

multiplied,

29

MULTIPLICATION

463
24

1852
926
11112

by multiplying each
the

of

figure 4

unit

the

by

the

figure of

each

manner

figure

2 of the

of

the

multiplicand

multiplier first.

the

Then

in

would

multiplicand

463

be

by
like

plied
multi-

multiplier.

obtained

the

operation

of each

figure

multiplicand are
the
right-hand figure of
products, and
product is placed directlyunder the figureof

called

partial

each

partial

The

products

of the

that

in

Thus,
of

the

of

the

We

get

multiplier

example,

of the

and
multiplier,
the

unit

figure 4

first

multiplied each

multiplicand by the

by

the

figure2

of the

we

got

process
of which

is

figure 4

the

partial

placed directly

multiplier.

multipliedeach of the figures463 by 2 and

second
partial product 926, the unit figure 6 of

then
a

which

To

above

figures 463

the

the

it.

the

product 1852,
under

the

multiplier upon

produces

by

placed directly under

which
produced it.
product
get the whole
is

the

add

figure2

of the

together

the

plicand
multi-

several

partial products.
Example.
and

Multiply

multiplicandas

433

by

before.
433
32
866
1299
13856

32.

Write

the

multiplier

30

Proceed

the

with

unit

set

down

the

next

of the

multiplierwe

the

of the

unit

multiply

multiplicand by the
times

unit

figure

6, which

are

of

each

6, which

are

Then

multiplier 2.

set

the

multiplicand
multiplier,saying 2 times 4

of the

figure 2

multiply

2 times

multiply the figure 4

8, which

are

figure of the

multiplier,saying
Then

the

each

multiplicand, saying

figure 3

down.

by

the

underneath

the

of

MECHANICS

multiplicand
multipliersuccessively. Beginning

figure 2

the

figure of

multiply

to

FOR

BOOK

figure of

each

by

HAND

down.

set

operation of the figure 2 of the multiplierupon

figure of the multiplicand,the partial product 866
the

By
each

is obtained.

Proceed
the

by

figure 3

next

9, and,

are

multiply each figureof

to

now

partialproduct

produces it; the

multiplier which
3

of the
Now

the

multiplier,saying

placed directlyunder

is

of

figure 3

the

underneath

down

the

preceding partial product.

figure 4

of the

multiplier,saying

line
the

the

by

times

the

the

last

to

Example.

Now
the

set

have

underneath

obtained,

be

in

as

product, 13856,
Multiply 543 by

as

left

the

the

of the

down

in

multiplier
obtained

which,
we

addition, and

shown.

43.

9,

as

it

draw

product by adding

whole

get the

are

figure 3

multiplicand we
to

multiply

we

of the

partialproducts together
whole

times

figure3

of the

partial product

proceed

multiplicandby

12, which

are

partialproduct, 1299,

and

for the

under

figure to

next

multiplicand by

operation

figure of

each

the

is

figure of the

placed

multiplier,saying

the

of the

another

the

of the

figure 3

next

set

upon

is

which

full,and

times

multiplier.
multiply

next

multiplicand

stated,the right-hand figureof each

before

as

of the

the

we

have

31

MULTIPLICATION

Here

the

arrange

the other

numbers

be

to

multiplied one

by

before.

as

543
43

1629
2172
23349

And

this

exceeds

12,

making

each

figure of

another

being

proceed

we

figure of

the

the

of the

multiplicand,saying

directly underneath

15 and
Now

proceed

to

12; here

are

the

figure

times
the

1629, and
4 times

Now

543

the

are

20

having

underneath
to

to

get the

as

whole

multipliedby

down

the

the

cand
multiplitimes

and

add

5 times

the
3

are

right-hand figure
and

set

of the

figure 4

next

add

4 times

to

under

the

next

proceed, saying

down

21, which

are

the
and

product,
43

the

duced
pro-

the

only

under

preceding partialproduct
product add the 1; proceed, saying

obtained
before

down

left of the

next

and

3 of

set

multiplicand,saying

17;

are

the

in full.

figure

the

place to

next

with

multiplier,which

produced it,and

and

16

9, which

figure of

down

the

left-hand

are

each

upon

multiplier,saying

the

down

set

are

next

multiply by

which

the

product

product by

multiply

we

proceed,saying

set

figure of

multipliereach

the

set

we

and

product
16, which

are

of

of the

figure 3

next
1

3 times

the

12; of this product

the

multiplier

multiplier operate

multiply the

it; then

1 to

get the

to

multiplier,first

the

are

the

multiplicand successively. Beginning

figure 3

the

before

as

the

by

where

example

set

partialproducts,

proceed
and

is 23349.

as

to

add

shown

in full.

down

draw

them

the

line

together
product of

32

HAXD

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

Examples

Practice

for

63063

Example.
is

Here

Multiply
an

example

32472

5943

by

434.

three

having

figures in the

multi-

Plier'
5943
434
23772

17829
23772

2579262
After

arranging the multiplier under

placing
under

units

under

hundreds,

multiplicand by

units,

proceed
each

the

the

the

multiplicand,

tens, and

multiply

to

figure of

examples, placing
of the

under

tens

the

each

hundreds

figure of

multiplier,as

the

in preceding

right-hand figure of

each

three

partialproducts directlyunder the figure of

is, place the
produces it. That
multiplier which

right-hand figure obtained

figure

of

the

multiplier

multiplicand directlyunder

the

by

upon

the

4.

operation
each
Place

of the

figure
the

of

unit
the

right-hand

34

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

2270502

proceed

we

multiplierand

first

multiply

to

obtain

the

by

by the

of

figure 3

the

operation the partialproduct

16902.
Now

the

to

come

we

the

and

multiply by

the

right-hand figure

obtained

multiplier which

4 of the

having obtained

Now

together

the whole

and

the

the

place

to

care

the

is

be

to

seen

by

be

figure

it.

partial products,

to

over

pass

partial product 22536,

produces
product

numbers

the

Arrange

add

same

2270502.

24003.

multiplied

by

one

the

Thus:

before.

as

of

Multiply 9436782

Example.

other

figure 4, taking

next
6

we

multiplication,directly under

the

by

cypher (0), which

9436782
24003
28310346
37747128
18873564
226511078346

Proceed

by

the

obtained

figure 9

to

now

figure 3
the

of the

the

which

is

figuresof

the

multiplicand

multiplier,by which

partial product

of which

multiplier

multiply

28310346,

placed directly under

produces

it.

We

now

operation

the

right-hand

the
come

is

of the
to

the

35

MULTIPLICATION

cyphers
over

of the

and

use

the

of

operation

figure 4

the

partial product
figure 8

figure

multiplier,by

the

the

the
2

the

the

the
the

right-hand

figure4
figure

is obtained

of the

multiply

to

now

right-hand figure 4
of

the

the

Proceed

operation

pass

multiplicand,

obtained,

multiplicand by

which

the

it.

we

multiplier. By

next

upon

is

produces

product 18873564,
directlyunder

which

them,

place directly under

of which

figure of

the

as

37747128

multiplierwhich
each

of

multiplier,two

the

of which

multiplier which

of

the

partial
place

produces

it.

Having
them

now

obtained

together and

the

have

we

several

partial products,add

the whole

product

as

shown,

226511078346.

Examples

Example.

for

Multiply

425326

Practice

by

5300.

right of
the multiplier. In which
the first significant
case
figure
of the multiplier (from right to left) is placed directly
Here

is

an

example

having cyphers (0) on

the

36

under

if AM)

FOR

hook

the first figureof the

MECHANICS

multiplicandfrom

right to

left.

Multiplyby the significant

figuresonly and annex
as
cyphers to the product as there are cyphers on
many
the right of the multiplier.Proceed now
to multiply,
arranging the first figure3 of the multiplierunder the
first figure6 of the multiplicand.Thus:
425326
5300
1275978

2126630
2254227800

the

cyphers and, as before stated,multiply

by the significant
figuresonly.
First multiplythe multiplicand425326
by the figure
3 of the multiplier5300, by which
operation we obtain
the partialproduct L275978, the right-handfigure8 of
which is placed directlyunder the figure3 of the mul" iplier
which produced it.
the multiplicandby the next figure5 of
Multiply
the multiplier,
by which operation is obtained the partial
is placed
product, 2126630, the cypher C0j of which
directlyunder the figure5 of the multiplierwhich produced
it. Add togetherthe partial
productsthus obtained,
the cyphers (two of them) which are at
to which annex
the right of the multiplier,
and
obtain the whole
we
shown.
as
product 2254227800
Passover

now

Example.

Multiply 53267

by

4700.

as before,placing
Arrange I he numbers to be mull iplied
the first figure7 of the multiplier4700
under the first
and place the uext figure4
figure7 of the multiplicand,
of the multiplier
one
place to the left. Thus:

37

MULTIPLICATION
53207
4700

372809
2 1 3008

250354900
Proceed

t.o

now

multiply by

the

figure 7

plier
of the multi-

then by the figure4.

first,
Add

which
and

together
annex

the

the

partial products

cyphers

by the operation

the

obtain

we

obtained,

to

rightof the multiplier,

the

on

thus

product 250354900

:iown.

Ex

Process-

iMPLBS

there

hi'

OB

'J J'

right of
both multiplicand and multip
the significant
I down
figuresof the multiplierunder the significant
figure
the multiplicand,placing the first (from right to left)
When

are

cyphers

on

the

38

HAND

BOOK

of

significantfigure
first

the

MECHANICS

multiplier directly under

(from right to left) significantfigure of

Annex

of the

the

to

multiplier upon

there

as

FOR

Example.
the

multiplier
the

placing

figure

figure from

the

first

the

multiplicand (which
from

of

the

the

is the

many

cyphers
and

plier.
multi-

multiplicand
is

multiplier (which

left)under

to

operation

340.
under

340

left.

as

cand.
multipli-

the

multiplicand

by

right

right to

by

multiplicand

Multiply G4200

Arrange
64200,

the

the right of the

on

are

obtained

product

the

the

first

the

of

figure 2

figure of

the

plicand,
multi-

Thus:

64200
340
2568
1926

21828000

Proceed

to

multiply.

the

figures642

of the

multiplier,we

obtain

now

Multiplying
of the

figure 4
2568, the

right-hand figure 8

under

figure 4

the

Now
the

multiply

figure

obtained
is

of

the

of the

which

figures 642

Proceed

the

multiplier, by

By

stated, the

cyphers

cyphers, the

the

produces

figure

operation

figure 6
of

it.

multiplicand by

which
the

placed directly

the

is

of which

multiplier

it.

obtained.

multiplierare

under

by adding together

now

is

of the

the

partial product

multiplier which

partial product 1926,

produces

the

of which

the

placed directly

multiplicandby

so

doing
on

annexed.
whole

the

get 21828,

we

the
We

product

right of
then

to

the

partial products
which,

as

before

multiplicand

and

have, by annexing the

21828000

as

shown.

39

MULTIPLICATION

Example.

proceed

Here

of the

figure 4

80246000

Multiply

multiplicand.

200400.

by

before, placing the

as

multiplier under

first

significant
figure6 of the

first

the

Thus:
80246000
200400
320984
160492
16081298400000

Proceed
the

figures4
the

By
the

multiply

to

now

and

2 of the

figures80246

of the

product 320984,
placed directlyunder

multiplicand by

multiplier.

of the

operation

of the

80246

of the

figure 4

multiplicand

multiplierupon

is obtained

the

right-hand figure 4

the

figure 4

of the

the

tial
par-

of which

is

multiplierwhich

produced it.
Next

in

the

in the

over

is

operation

cyphers,

two

then

We

operation.

which

by

multiplierare

multiply by

obtained

the

Now
which

the

of the

add

as

and

before

the

cyphers

multiplier,and

multipliedby

as

for

2309
361827
120609
80406
9282872700

placed directly

on

the

thus

obtained, to

rightof

the

whole

the

Practice

tiplicand
mul-

product

is 16081298400000.

4020300

By

figure2,

produced it.

shown

200400

Examples

Multiply

is

together the partialproducts

annex

of 80246000

multiplier which

the

pass

partial product

160492, the right-hand figure2 of which

under

which

40

HAND

BOOK

FOR

Multiply

5003600000

By

2063100

MECHANICS

3060402

3002010000

50036

3060402
6120804

150108

9181206

300216
100072

9187357408020000

10322927160000000

Examples
12

by

1.

45673

2.

567346

by

342

3.

760263

by

3604

Exercise

for

4.

4200600

5.

954673000

3002000

by

by 700730

DIVISION

is the

Division
The

parts.
for

"

number

the

another

of times

number."

of times

number

separating

units

into
one

Finding,
contained

are

units.

There

three

are

is the

Divisor

The
which

Dividend

applied

or

in the

is contained

arranging

the

divisor

the

divisor

is

separated

number

by

operation

placed

of

on

the

dividing

Division."

to

dividend

When

into

number

that

to

parts.
the

of times

number

Divisor

Dividend.

numbers

and

line,thus, ).
''Short

that

to

applied

name

the
Quotient signifies

The

the

Quotient.

name

is the

is divided

which

the

division, called

in

divide.

we

The

used

terms

Dividend,

Divisor, the

In

dividing, or

finding
in

contained

instance, the

in 20

of

process

is

number

of

process

is

divided

be

the

left

are

divisor

of

one

the

by

not

performed by

other

dividend, and

separated by
does

the

exceed
process

curved
12

the

called

42

which

set

goes

down

FOR

BOOK

underneath

of the

figure 6
6

HAND

the

dividend

shown, the quotient thus

as

2 is contained

that

in

Divide

Example.

Arrange the

462

divisor

the

23, which

next

into

6, and,

signifies

times.

by

and

is

the

2, saying

underneath

obtained
23

46,

divide

divisor

down

set

Then

4.

the

by

times, which

MECHANICS

2.

dividend

before.

as

2)462
231
Then

proceed

Taking
2 into

say

divide

the

saying

the

4 goes

into

under

of the

dividend

by

times; place the

the

2, saying
the

into

by

2.

2 goes

and

figure 2,

quotient 231,

6482

figure 2

next

as

Examples

Divide

dividend

the

place

divide

to

of

times, which

goes

under
the

figure

figure 6
6

divisor

obtained

next

obtained

divide.

left-hand

the

proceed

Then

by

to

the

Now

4.

divisor

under

of the

2,

the

6.

dividend

times, place the

the

by

the

first,

operation

is

shown.

Exercise

for

Thus:

2)6482
3241

Divide

Example.

36366

by

3.

Thus:

3)36366
12122

If there
of the
is

is

remainder

after

following figures

prefixed to (placed to

dividend.

of

the

dividing

the

first

the

dividend, the

left

of) the

next

or

any

remainder

figureof

the

43

DIVISION

instance, if there

For

occasion

was

divide

to

74

by 2,

Thus:

2)74
37

divisor

the

3 times

dividend
under

37

the

1 which

the
of

3 in the
left

was

times; place

under

the

shown,

which

shows

the

prefixed to

4;

then

say

thus

tained
ob-

then

there

figure of

the

the

the

on

have

we

operate in the

to

over

the

of

quotient

We

when

next

figure

dividend.

the

seven

divisor is made

the

first

Place

quotient
as

it is

the

in

over.

figure 4
in 14

in the

and

place

next

is contained

quotient

and

7 and

the

left of the
2

is contained

in the
is

mainder
re-

dividend,

number

thus

formed.

Divide

Example.
the

Arrange

762

example

by

6.

before.

as

Thus:

6)762
127

Proceed

then

to

one

over.

and

1 time

Write

imagine

the

quotient figure

the

remainder
of

next

figure 6

16.

Inquire then

the

1 to

the

is

prefixed.

Now
7

next

We

thus

is found

to

be

figure 2

of

then

have

under
the

the

dividend

and

left of the
the

the

2 times
6

in

the

the

to

forming
times

quotient figure 2

the

16, which

placed
of

Place
to

be

number

in

and

directly under

dividend,

contained
the

is contained

divide, saying 6

divisor

and

of the
the

number

is

over.

dividend,
remainder

42.

divide 6, the divisor,into 42, saying 6 into 42 goes

times; place the figure 7 under

and,

as

shown,

the

the

quotient

figure 2

is 127.

of the

dend,
divi-

44

HAND

BOOK

Divide

Example.

FOR

948

by

MECHANICS

4.

4)948
237

the
2

other, proceed
and

times

numbers

the

arranged

Having

divide, saying

to

Place

over.

dividend

the

dividend, the remainder

figure 9
divide

now

4 is contained

dividend,
the

quotient figure

the

and

remainder

Divide
goes

8 and

the

to

4, the

now

times, which
which

is less than

figures of
to

The

the
the

the

figure,which

if

is

is annexed

Divide

651

the dividend

figure of
than

more

to

the

the

next

over.

of

the

prefix
into

28

figure

to

by

figure or
quired
re-

operate in it.

the

7.

dividend

figure is

one

placed directly under

dividend.
Example.

dividend

28, saying

it to

annex

divisor

quotient figure

Exercise

left-hand

divisor,

the

and

figure

of the

thus

14

operation.

for

dividend,

allow

number

3 times

underneath

place

the

of

28.

Examples

When

under

14.

the

divisor, into

completes

Process.

under

in 9

figure 4

next

the

in 14

figure 8

next

2, making

the

4 into

by

one

is contained

making

divided

quotient figure 2

prefix to

divisor

the

obtained, saying
Place

the

and

the

We

be

to

left-hand

the

figure of

last
the

45

DIVISION

the

Arrange

divisor

dividend

and

651

before.

as

Thus:

7)651
93
then

Proceed
is

It
hand

seen

and

divisor

of

the

dividend,

by

now

figure 5
next

is annexed

figure

of

is contained

Divide

Arrange

and

dividend,

Example.

next

6, making 65.
in 65

9 times

prefix the remainder

dividend.

the

8.

be

divided

Place

we

the

is completed.

by

one

doing

so

times.

by

to

By

the division

and

6344

numbers

the

the

to

the

case

quotient figure 9 directlyunder

1 of the dividend

the

under

which

in

of the

21, in which

have

the

the left-

greater than

is

7, saying 7 is contained

the
Place

over.

the

to

the

of the dividend

figure 5

the

that

figure 6

Divide

divide.

to

the

other.

Thus:

8)6344
793

The

figure 6 of the dividend

left-hand

divisor

8,

it

to

so

in

how

now

many

times

and

remainder

dividend, making
Inquire
contained

Place
of the

the

now

in

the

number

of

74, saying 8 into 74

quotient figure 9
the

to

over

the

next

(remainder).
the dividend,

figure 4

of

the

74.

dividend, and

figureof

the 3 of

the quotient figure7 under

prefix the

the

the divisor 8 is contained

63, saying 8 goes into 63 7 times and

Place

of

figure 3

next

63.

dividend, making
Inquire

the

annex

we

is less than^the

times
goes

obtained

divisor

the

9 times

under

prefix the remainder

dividend, by doing which

and
the

to

is

8
over.

figure 4
the

is obtained

next

24.

46

this

Divide
24
4

HAND

BOOK

number

24

and

is

division

the

divisor

the

into

quotient figure 3 under

the

8, saying

completed.

Divide

Example.

MECHANICS

the

by

Place

3 times.

goes

FOR

by

11424

12.

12)11424
952
It is

divisor

the

figure (4)

prefixing the

Place
and

to

12

the

so

into

114

the

divide

to

now

and

times

goes

two

figure 4

next

Proceed

114.

annexed

was

the

first

remainder

62, which

have

we

as

greater than

quotient figure 9 directlyunder

which

dividend

of the

and

the

is

12

dividend,

12, saying

Place

over.

last

the

thereto, making

is annexed

by

left of

the

figures on

the divisor

that

seen

to

the

to

the

figures 11

two

figure of the quotient.

the

dend,
figure of the divi-

next

divisor

the

contains

By

12

5 times

over.

the
the

quotient figure5
figure 3

next

2, making
divisor

the

quotient figure 2

12, saying

12

into

under

the 2 of the
dividend

the

Divide

24.

the

of

under

24

the

prefix the

the

now

goes
4

and

dividend,

number

24

times.

the

mainder
re-

by

Place

division

is

completed.
Examples

for

Exercise

7)23541

6)3254214

92121844

Process.

When

the divisor

is

greater than

the

figure

47

DIVISION

of

the dividend

(0) directly under

cypher
with
of

the

division

this

dividend.

the

in the

figure,then

divisor

thus

Divide

Exa.mplj;.

the

made

proceed
figure

next
to

operate

formed.
3.

by

3624

Arrange the divisor

is then

quofieni
to

figure is prefixed to the

The

number

new

in the

divided, place

he

to

and

dividend

before

as

3)3624
1208

Proceed

in the
Place

the

in

figure 1

dividend

of the

figure3

the

tained
con-

1 time.

quotient under

the

figure3

dividend

by the

dividend.

of the

divide

Then
divisor

the

3, saying
the

Place

is contained

of the

figure 6

in 6 2 times.
obtained

quotient figure 2
observed

It will be
is less

under

figure 2,

now,

the

Proceed

under

to

thus

Place

the
the

divisor

the

figure

Divide

(0).

the

divisor

Consider

the

the

next

operate in the

into

under

place

case

24.

obtained, saying
is

which

In

cypher

quotient figure

Example.

3.

dend
divi-

of the

prefixed (placed before) to

make

division

figure 2

next

dividend, making

now

24

the

figure

be

to

of the

figure 4

that

the

than

directly

number

next

dividend.

6 of the

4 and

divide, saying 3, the divisor, is

to

now

the

24

goes

dividend

new

times.

figure

completed.
243648

by

12.

12)243648
20304

Proceed

to

divide

Inquire the

number

as

follows:
of times

the

divisor 12 is contained

48

HAND

in the

left-hand

two

12 into

24

quotient figure
The

the dividend.

of

times.

goes

the

under
this

figure 3

36

the

figure 6

The

in the

which

Proceed

by the

of

and

to

now

consider

divide

is

the

it

figure 4

to

is

after
a

of the

number

the

into

12

by

dividing the

quotient
short

annexed

be

48

obtained

thus

48

4 times.

goes

6)481236

and

cypher (0)

the figure8,

Practice

for

remainder,

remainder

the

completed.

5)402010

The

is less than

dividend.

of the

Examples

right

directlyunder

obtained

dividend

the

12, saying

the division

there

dend,
divi-

by the divisor 12, saying

36

the quotient figure 4 directlyunder

When,

consider

of the

figure 6

next

place directlyunder

case

figure 8

divisor

Place

and

and

dividend.

of the

figure

next

the

rectly
di-

obtained

dividend

3 times.

quotient

the

to

the

quotient figure

next

divisor,in

of

figure 3

this number

goes

the

Place

(0) thus

into

12

say

is

36.

divide

into

12

case

cypher

prefixedto

as

making
Now

the

figure 4

the dividend

of

figure 3

12, in which

Place

the

underneath

next

divisor

the

less than

dividend, saying

the

of

24

figures

2 times.

goes

the

Place

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

the

and

divisor

horizontal

'7)700245

last

figure

remainder

thus

line (
"

is

placed

it set the

underneath
when

dividend

of the

).

placed

are

at

the

divisor.
rated
sepa-

50

HAND

BOOK

Examples

Practice

for

7)700243

6)481237

5)402013

MECHANICS

FOR

80206J

80402|

100034?

9405207"

920392105ft
divide by any

or

That

number

of

number

any

by

would

be

it which

with

with

cypher

or

cypher

cyphers

figures as
Mark
The

by

the

from

off

Mark

there

As

the
are

off also

with

either

of
of

cyphers

or

or

cyphers
cypher

after

cyphers

it, or

after
or

it, as, 60,

number

any

120, 1200, 12000, 120000,

of

right

dividend

the

as

etc.
many

in the

divisor.

noughts (cyphers)

in the

divisor.

Divide

by

2469204

divided

are

divisor.

of the

number

dividend

of the

remaining figures then

Example.

cypher (0)

noughts (cyphers)

the

remaining

cypher (0),

20, 200, 2000, etc.,

with

12

to

it.

after

it.

number

any

600, 6000, etc., up

of

after

number

any

or

12, having

to

up

cyphers

is, to divide

after

80403j

12)112862492

11)10124313158

To

8)643226

20.

20)2469204
123460-4-#o

Arrange
proper

divisor

the

then

manner,

dividend, 2469204,
in the
marked

divisor

20, in which

done

is

this,

the

being

remaining
marked

number

off, by

123460-4, is obtained.

in

shown

as

remaining figures, 246920,

by

cypher

one

of
2

which

the
of

in the

the

dividend

the

of

one

figure

divisor.

examples,

the

divided

are

divisor, the

operation the

the

cyphers

are

will be

there

case

right

there

figures as

in the

2469204

the

from

off

many

there

dividend

and

mark

as

off,because

Having

20

cypher

quotient,

51

DIVISION

The

figure

dividend

figures which

or

in all

are

cases

Divide

Example.

marked

are

off

in

one

by the

the

remainder.

129876347

by

1200.

1200)129876347

After
other
as

before, mark

figures

many

which

cyphers

becomes

all

In

quotient before
the

figures47

In

remainder

off from

the

there

the

which

of

is

figures

347,

j\Vo

or

dividingby
is

and

the

performed

when

other, by the

divisor

and

right of
The

by

arranging

the

dividend

dividend

the

process

dividend

and

the

as

the

divisor,

dividend

then

by dividing

place

dividend,
3 is
were

it in the

which

are

placed before

cut

off,making

Exercise

exceeding 12,
called "Long

process

numbers

to

be

long division,set

in

short

the

the

ation
oper-

Division,"

divided

of

quotient

of 3.

shown.

as

number

place

dividend

remainder

which

for

any

in

12, and

with

of

of the

The

remainder,

dividend

Examples

When

off.

this remainder

case

of the

right

divisor

the

divided

cyphers

are

marked

and

where

off.

be

quotient 108230,

cases

cut

to

also

are

the

numbers

there

as

1298763

obtain

we

xWo

the

arranging

as

108230-347-

one

down

division, and

on

by
the
the

quotient.
are

separated by

curved

52

line similar
and

HAND

BOOK

the

to

FOR

curved

line

MECHANICS

placed between

the divisor

dividend.

Hence

the

numbers

in

division

long

arranged

are

as

follows:

Divisor) Dividend
which

shows

the

(Quotient

quotient placed

the

on

of

the

than

12

right

dividend.
When
into

dividing

another

divisor
the

number

number,

Place

the

in

the

is greater

the

number

least

number

inquire

is contained

left of the

which

of

times

of

the

figures on

dividend.

figure obtained

the

by

in

operation

the

quotient.
the

Multiply
figure and
dividend

the

place
in which

the

under

divisor

by

26

the

by

those

quotient

figuresof

the

operated.

13.

divisor, dividend,

the

Arrange

divisor

the

product

Divide

Example.

of

figures

and

quotient places as

follows:

Dividend
Divisor

13)26(2

Quotient

26

00

Proceed
13.

on

then

saying

into

13

the

the

right

of the

which
Then

by

goes

the

2.

figures

First

place underneath
the

the

divisoi

2 times.

in

the

quotient, which

13

of

multiply

divisor

the
the

figure

quotient figure 2. saying

multiply

by

26

is

dividend.

the

multiply

quotient figure
divisor

26

dividend

the

figure 2 obtained,

Place

Then

divide

to

the
next

figure 6

figure

1 of the

the

of

the

2 times

of the

by
3

are

6,

dividend.

divisor

by the

53

DIVISION

the

underneath

figure 2

product

horizontal
a
multiplication,
the product 26
Subtract
division

2, which

are

place

obtained

26

line thus
from

dividend

that

Showing

the

and

the

"

the

by

26

is contained

13

in

times.

26

completed.

is

dividend.

of the

the

underneath

Draw

times

quotient figure 2, saying

Divide

Example.

15.

by

divisor,dividend, and

the

Arrange

75

quotient

before.

as

15)75(5
75
00

Proceed

then

divide

to

15, saying 15 into

in the

the

multiply

Place
the

the

figure 5

of

the

of the

product

5 and
Place
We

the

have

the

are

dividend
to

Then

by the

divisor

Place

the

figure 5

7 from

the

times

add

product

product
the

by

25.

are

the

of

divisor

the

under

25

left-hand

figure
5

figure
1

when

times

7.

obtained

then

of this

and

product figure 7
now

of

15

quotient figure 5, saying

explained,under
Proceed

right-hand figure 5

multiplied by
are

times.

figures

two

quotient figure 5, saying

the

as

goes

75

quotient.

Then

75

dividend

the

to

the

the

under

the

dividend

product 75,

figures 75

of the

which

Examples

0, and

for

the

division

Exercise

is

placed,

dividend.

subtract, saying 5 from

7 leaves

figure 7.

is

leaves

0.

completed.

54

HAND

When

Process.
the

by

FOR

there

which

product,
the

BOOK

is

remainder

is obtained

underneath

which

place

Example.

it
the

Divide
the

Arrange

the

divisor
tient
quo-

neath
line, underdivision.

13.

by

numbers

in short

the

in the

horizontal

divisor,as
53

subtracting

remainder

short

after

by multiplying

quotient figure,place

and

MECHANICS

before.

as

13)53(4x3
52
1

divide

Then
13

is contained
Place

the

Now

figure 4

the

the

dividend

in 53

multiply

placing
13

the

by

the

divisor

13, saying

4 times.

obtained

in the

divisor

the

13

obtained

product

figure 53

53

of the

quotient.

by

the

quotient figure 4,

by

the

operation

dividend

in which

the

neath
underdivisor

operated.
Proceed

dividend
5 from

53, saying
5 leaves

quotient, with

in the

example.

Arrange

Divide

the

from

numbers

the

by
as

before.

14)69(411

13

the

(remainder)

and

52

figure 1 (remainder)

underneath

14.

56

from

product

leaves

divisor

the

69

Place

nothing.

in the

Example.

the

by subtracting

now

it

as

shown

55

DIVISION

Inquire

14, the

times

dividend,

69, the

in

of

number

the

divisor, is
into

14

saying

69

tained
con-

goes

times.
the

Place

operation

divisor

14

the

place in
shown,

6 leaves

obtained, which

have

we

quotient with
division

the

the

When

Process.

there

it, we

place

there

are

are

in

the

on

the

subtraction

by

the

of

figures in
formed

the

which
is the

shown,

which

the

the

leaves

underneath

14

which

it,as

9424

16

ill

more

figures in the

product
of

divisor

and

152

304
304

obtained

figure or
The

divisor

38.

38)9424(248

182

number

operated.

dividend

76

subtracted

the

the

as

dend
divi-

be

to

the
to

in which

by

572)983(ltH
572

right

dividend

divisor

(remainder),

78

figure next

the

Divide

Example.

Arrange

in

26)94(3M

10

thus

placed, as

Practice

56

28

13

divisor

for

14)58(4t2t

14)38(211

from

is

is finished.

Examples

than

multiplicand, by

dividend

the

as

1.

subtraction

the
and

the

as

it

use

subtract, saying 6 from

to

now

5 from

By

14

figure of

and

quotient

operated.

Proceed
and

is

56

the

underneath

divisor

the

multiplier,with
which

in the

obtained

before.

group

number

operates.

56

Then

HAND

finding

Now
and

it is 2

times,

the

subtract

remainder

The

number

number

next

the

by

it and

In

the
which

Example.

in

times

quotient.

tion
multiplicaright

of the

38

Now

of

the

dividend,

in which

is contained

the

right

of

figure 4

of the

is the

dividend

in

which

the

multiply

product

the

to

formed

which

152,
the

remainder

dividend.
in

is

The

which

proceed, saying

case

the
38

8 times.

the

quotient

subtract,

dividend
case

the

next

in 304

Place

from

quotient.

times.

subtract

operates,

is contained

38

the
thus

304

divisor

dividend,

dividend

is the

many

182, and

down

bring

in

and

obtained, from
30

be

to

placed

by

38

formed

how

inquiring
is

divisor

the

to

figure2

next

tained
con-

operates.

138, finding it
The

the

by

and

is

quotient figure 2,

obtained

76

the

thus

182

now

Proceed,
in

down

the

by

the
the

in

38

182.

divisor

the

38

figures 94,

bring

18

making

product

dividend

the

place

divisor

the

divisor

the

figuresof

left-hand

two

multiply
from

of times

94, the

in the
and

number

inquire the

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

and

multiply

divisor

product obtained

before, the

as

the

[304].
the

Divide

is finished.

division

by

14894

52.

Arrange the divisor, dividend,

and

52)14894(28611
104
449
416
334

312

~22

quotient as

before.

58

HAND

BOOK

Examples

When

Process.
obtained
than

there

there

in the

are

the

group

MECHANICS

Practice

for

by multiplying
are

FOR

of

less figures in the

divisor

by

product

quotient figure

figures in which

the divisor

59

DIVISION

operates, in all

product directly
of

the group

underneath

figuresin

which

instance, divide

For

right-hand figure of the

the right-hand figure of
divisor

the

operates.

85.

by

1256

divisor

the

Arrange

the

place

cases

1256, and

85, dividend

quotient

as

before.

85)1256(1411
85
406
340
66

It is

here

seen

the

dividend

will not

the

number

of times

of three

group

in

the

hand

figure

of

that

divisor

divisor

85

of the

in 125

of

group

the

of

group

inquire

we

in

it and

by

in

the

the

the

in which

the

place

the

set

figures,125,
to

of

dividend.

85 underneath

figures

so

right

time, place

divisor

the

product

85,

left of the

the

the

on

is contained

operates, remembering

85

figure5

the

it is contained

underneath

divisor

the

the

quotient, multiply

product

figures 12

two

contain

figureson

that

Finding

the

that

right-

right-hand
divisor

which

the

the

dividend

operates.
Now

subtract

which

by

of the

Place
and

4 times.

the

4 in the

subtract

remainder
the

the
the

of

Example.

the

number

product 340,

66, which
is

from

obtained

figure 6

the

divisor

by

the

406, by doing which

we

place

as

shown

completed.

Divide

the

20678

by

98.

125,

406, into which

quotient, multiply

dividend

division

85

get 40; bring down

we

forming

goes

from

and

product

operation

dividend

divisor

the

in the

the

by it,
tion,
opera-

get

quotient,

60

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

98)20678(211
196

107
98
98
98

places

the

arranged

Having

before, inquire the

as

divisor, is contained
of the
the

in the

subtract

the

of the

remainder

which

is the

in

quotient,
Note

then

that

group

of

placed

underneath

the
on

placed under

product
the

of the
the

right

operates
the
no

divisor

remainder

of

and

into
Place
98

is left.

by

98,
the
it.

so

the

the
1

107.
is contained

the

After

the

product
the

as

is

of

group

product

subtracting

remainder
the

last

of

9,

figure

before, saying 98.

dividend,
in the

in

case,

8 of the

figure 8,
as

figures than

By
a

of

group

in which

of

the

is

proceed

right

before.
less

dividend.
there

place

the

the

98

as

divided,

the

107

20678,

1 time.

to

dividend,

multiplica-

time, place the

contains

is

it and

subtraction, place 7,

subtract
98

place

we

to

the

from

divisor, goes

and

dividend

and

figures

by

the

right-hand figure of

of which

dividend

98

the

the

98

98, the

times,

by

right-hand figure

form

figures which

of times

be

figures which

stated, the

times

divisor

the

number
to

quotient

operates, making

product

before

is

the

multiply
the

be

the

by

and

left-hand

figures 206,

divisor

inquire

three
to

of the

figure next

and, finding it

107

the

of

10, obtained

the

of

(196), obtained

group

which

next

206, the

finding it

product

cation, from

We

number

quotient, multiply

the

figures in

in

and

dividend,

divisor, dividend,

in

quotient

finding the

which
and

it
tiply
mul-

product,

61

dividend

when

happens,

often

It

and

the

placed

the

on

is taken

from

the

of

the

partial

will

not

contain

right

formed

thus

number

figure

dend,
divithe

divisor.
When

such

bring down

and

place

the

on

is the

another

right

place

case,

of

the

in the

cypher

figure from

partialdividend

till the

dividend, which

the

and

partial dividend,

is

quotient

large enough

to

so

contain

on

the

divisor.
Divide

Example.

7828

by 76.

76)7828(103
76
228
228

arranged
places, inquire how
Having

figures 78
be

on

the

the

left of the

divisor

76

by

operation, from

remainder

by it, and
2

times

many

time, place the

the

divisor,dividend,

place 2,

in

the

the

in

78, and

the

and, finding it

quotient, multiply
the

next

quotient

is contained

dividend

subtract

the

76

and

to

the

product 76, obtained

to

figure

the
of

right
the

of

the

dividend,

62

making

76,

so

dividend.

is

will

22

cypher (0)

the

22

doing

so

MECHANICS

that

the

of

right

By

FOR

seen

place

we

the

on

BOOK

It

22.

divisor

place

HAND

in the

have

we

quotient, and

figure

next

the

contain

not

of

the

partial dividend,

228.

Inquire

how

now

in the
be

number

by it, and

76

the

the

subtraction

Example.

Divide

76

is

tained
con-

and, findingit

to

quotient,multiply the
the product 228, obtained

partial dividend

the

is

divisor

formed

subtract

there

the

the

in

operation, from

by

thus

228

times, place the

divisor

times

many

By

228.

remainder.

no

1197965

by

597.

597)1 197965 (2006W

1194

3965
3582
383

Inquire

the

in the

dividend
1197

least number

and, finding
times, place

divisor

the

have

the

dividend

left,on

The

number

divisor,so
on

will not

Then

in

the

the

right of

left of the
the

figures

quotient, multiply
product, 1194,

figures 1197.

we

39

By

the

obtained

subtraction

the

place the

which

place

the

contain

the

quotient.
bring down

cypher

the

39

Again

divisor,so
the

will

formed

thus

right of
dividend, making 396.

in the

contained

tained
con-

we

figure 9

next

dividend.

of the

place

the

in the

is

597

figures on

be

it to

by it; subtract

597

from

of

divisor

the

times

of

number

next

quotient,and

(0) in the
the
we

figure 6

next

have

number

again place
figure 5

the

contain

not

of

the

of

the

which

cypher (0)
dividend,

63

TABLES

placing it

right

be

contained

Place

the

in

Then

subtract

divisor

the

number

3965, the

in

figures 396, making

of the

partial dividend.

as

and

the

on

thus

597

is

formed,

6 times.

quotient,multiply the divisor

product from the partialdividend

Examples

to

seen

the

the

3965

by it,
3965.

Exercise

for

Divide:

It

will

76298764833

2.

120047629817

3.

9876543216

by

48.

4.

3247617219

by

63.

5.

7141072617

by

41.

6.

329817228

7.

24769876237

8.

2610014723

noticed

be

by

1.

that

by

by 987.

by

three

division,multiplication,and

20.

107.

by

required to perform operations

9.

2406.

arithmetical

in

rules

are

long division,namely:

subtraction.

TABLES

(Tables of weights and

used

measures

by mechanics.)

Capacity

gillsmake

pints make

quarts make

gallons make
The

"custom

long

pint
1

8 bushels

quart.

gallon.

ton

houses,

pecks

make

1 bushel.

make

quarter.
1 load.

quarters make

peck.
of

and

2240
in

avoirdupois pounds

weighing

coal

at

the

is used

mines.

at

64

HAND

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

Length
12

inches

make

make

3 feet

1 foot.

yard.

1 fathom.

6 feet make

h\ yards make
40
8

poles make

furlong.
1 mile.

furlongs make
make

3 miles

5280

feet

6080

feet make

league.

yards make

1760

or

rood, pole,or perch.

1 nautical

geographicalmile.

mile.

Surface
144

inches

square

feet make

9 square

30
40

acres

1 square

make

yard.
rood, pole,or perch

square

1 rood.

perches make
make

foot.

1 square

yards make

\ square

4 roods

640

make

acre.

mile.

1 square

Solidity
1728

cubic

inches

27

cubic

feet

make

make

foot.

1 cubic
1 cubic

yard.

Dimensions
12 inches
144

square

1 foot.

make

make

inches
inches

make

foot.

1 square

foot.

1 cubic

1728

cubic

5280

feet make

6080

feet make

1 nautical

geographicalmile
mile

or

knot.

Time
60

seconds

(sec.)make

60

minutes

make

1 hour

1 minute

(h.).

(mi.).

66

HAND

is

quadrant

of 90
A

FOR

BOOK

of

fourth

MECHANICS

circumference,

or

an

arc

degrees.

sign (')

and

into

divided

is

degree

that

expressed by sign ("), so

circle contains

16 cubic
8 cord

feet

gallon

seconds

60

of any

circumference

feet

of

1 cord

are

(cd.).

Water

of

weighs

10

pounds.

(specificgravity

water

sea

(cd.ft.).

feet

cubic

128

or

foot

1 cord

are

of fresh water

into

Measure

Weights

gallon

the

expressed by

21,600 minutes, 1,296,000 seconds.

Wood

divided

is

minute

each

minutes

60

of

1029) weighs

10j pounds.
1

gallon equals tVo (.16) of

cubic

1 cubic

foot, or

foot

equals 6i gallons.
1000

cubic

35.84

weighs 62| pounds, equal

feet of

weighs

water

sea

weigh

water

sea

cubic
(35t8o4o)

feet of fresh

Weights

Wrought

iron

inch
Cast

iron

Soft

steel
inch

Brass

or

.257

cubic

.2814

metal

3.3

1 cubic

inch

of

of

1 ton.

weigh

water

weigh

weigh

1 ton.

pound;

or

1 cubic

pound;

or

cubic

pound;

or

cubic

pound.

weigh
a

cubic

equals

pounds.

pound.

inches

equals

gun

of

inches

cubic

equals
3.55

.2778

64

Metals

of

inches

3.6 cubic

equals
3.9

inch

to

ounces.

foot of

1 cubic

35

of fresh water

foot

1 cubic

pound.
inches

.3 of

weigh

pound.

pound;

or

67

REDUCTION

REDUCTION

is the

Reduction

denomination

one

general

altering their
is meant

denomination

By
Thus

feet is

36

Also

in

It

hours, 50

possible by the

is

of

number

without
For

example:

Here

feet is

it takes

and

of

3 feet to

by reducing

reduction
to

than

inches

36

inches.

inches,because

make

to

tion
denomina-

36

to

change

to

lower

be reduced

of inches

number

three

are

minutes).

higher denomination

certain

there

minutes,

process

3 feet may

same

values.

higher denomination
alteringtheir value.

of the

name.

(days, hours,

denominations

from

denomination.

days,

numbers

changing

denomination

another

to

without

kind

of

process

But

foot,

is not

the value

changed,
3 feet and
36 inches
as
represent the same
length.
of reduction
It is also possibleby the process
to change
numbers
of a lower denomination
of a higher
to numbers
and

denomination
Inches

may

to

feet,for instance.

reduced

to

feet is 3 feet.

inches

36

Here

inches, the

inches

multiply
be

reduced

lower

by

then

of the

the

to

smaller

next

lower

higher

of units

equal

to

Reduce

Example.

As

number

the

of

one

product

to

lower

as

36

that

nations,
denomi-

which

is to

of the

next

it takes

add

to

equal.

higher denomination

the

the

is reduced

unchanged,

are

before, are

reducing

denomination
and

if any,

stated

When

Process.

values

the

feet, as

denomination,

lower

higher, but

and

values.

be reduced

Thus

feet, the

their

alter

not

higher

ination,
denom-

the given numbers,

denomination.
27

pounds

denomination

to

ounces.

to

pounds

is ounces,

68

will

we

HAND

BOOK

multiply the
of that

it takes

Then,

by
contained

16
in

27

will

27

by

the

(ounces)

make

ounces
ounces

MECHANICS

pounds

denomination

16

as

FOR

give

to

pound,

the

us

number

of units

make

27

pound.

pounds

number

of

tiplied
mulounces

Thus:

pounds.
27
16
162
27
432

Example.
As

by

16

16

How

ounces

many

make

ounces

Ans.

oz.

are

there

pound, multiply

in 25 lb. 7 oz.?
the

pounds

25

follows:

as

lb. 7

25

oz.

16
150
25
400
7
407
The
add

product

the

of which

7 ounces,
in 25

Hence
Example.

is 400

making

lb. and
How

oz.

407

many

to the

product

ounces.

there

are

grains

are

oz.

and

ounces,

407

ounces.

there

in

weight
penny-

(dwt.) troy?
Now

the

24

by

grains make
24

as

pennyweight,

follows:
4
24

96 gr.

Ans.

therefore

multiply

69

REDUCTION

Example.

pennyweights

many

there

are

in

(troy)?

ounces

make

pennyweights

20

number

the
5

How

by

20

of

an

therefore

ounce,

in

pennyweights

to

multiply

ounces,

find
the

follows:

as

5
20

dwt.

100
How

Example.

many

Ans.
there

in

16

ounces

are

pound

(troy),therefore

pounds

(troy)?
Now

12

the

16

make

ounces

by

12

ply
multi-

shown.

as

16 1b.

Example.
10

oz.

15

How

dwt.

12

oz.

192

oz.

grains

many

7 gr.

Ans.
are

there

in

32

lb.

(troy)?
32

lb. 10

oz.

15

dwt.

7 gr.

12

394

oz.

20
7880
15

7895

dwt.

24

31580
15790
189487

Bring
(12

ounces

the

32

pounds

equals

gr.
to

pound

Ans.
ounces

troy).

by multiplying by

12

70

To

the

IIANIj

FOR

HOOK

add

384

product

MECHANICS

the

10

making

ounces,

394

ounces.

bring the

Now

by

394

ounces

(there being

20

to

pennyweights by

20

pennyweights

in

tiplying
mulone

ounce).
the

To
7895

add

7880

product

the

pennyweights, making

15

pennyweights.

Proceed

the

convert

to

now

7895

into

pennyweights

grains.
A

grain equals

7895

by

And,

as

lb. 10

the 7 grains.

add
15

oz.

multiply

dwt.

7 gr. there

are

grains.

189487

Reduce

Example.

Bring the
as

product

in 32

shown,

therefore

pennyweights,

to the

and

24

24

yards

2 ft. 9

yd.

bring the feet

feet, then

to

inches.

in. to

inches

to

follows:
3

yd.

2 ft. 9 in.

3
11

ft.

12

As

shown,

by 3, there

bring the

we

feet

being

yards

3
in

1 1 feet.

product, making

Arts.

in.

141

then

inches

by multiplying by 12, because

in

foot, and

one

shown,

in 3

to

yd.

reducing

divide

first the

units

it takes

of that

next

larger,

divide

next

and

the

add

in. there

2 ft. 9

When

Process.

product

the

given

are

lower
number

denomination

reserve

quotient

the
and

feet by multiplying
add

yard,

one

We

to

bring

the

there

are

the

to

1 1 feet

higher
by

to

as

inches.

141
to

to

inches

12

the 9 inches, and,

the

equal

remainder,
so

feet

proceed

if

tions,
denomina-

of

number

of the

one

any,

until

the

and
re-

71

REDUCTION

denomination

quired

remainders,

the several

In

Example.

How

other

words, reduce

Divide

make

make

quotient

number

407

of

larger denomination.
and

we

divide

407

The

it takes

as

by

ounces,

denomination

pounds,

ounces?

pounds.

to

is

and

sought.

there in 407

are

ounces

of that

next

pound,

one

407

last

will be the

pounds

it takes

larger denomination
to

The

given number,

of the

one

if any,

many

first the
of units

number
to

is reached.

by

16.

16

that

ounces

next
ounces

Thus:

16)407
25-7

Dividing,then,
and

pounds,
The

Example.

Here,
divide

How

as

by

as

ounces,

to

lb. 7

25

there in 179 ounces?

are

the

179

ounces

there

are

16

ounces

if there

is

pounds,

to

in

remainder

it to 25

oz.

bring

16, because
and

reads

reduces

16

ounces.

pounds

many

before,

avoirdupois,

7 is

then

answer

by

ounces

remainder

the

above

the 407

it

pound

is

called

follows:

16)179
Ans.

11-3
Example.
First

How

bring the

yards

many
141

inches

to

in

feet

11
141

lb. 3

oz.

inches?

by dividing by 12,

as

follows:

12)141
3)11-9 in.
3-2-9

By
which

so

are

doing

we

inches.

have

Next

bring the

quotient

of

11

11

and

feet to

dividingby 3, because 3 feet is one yard, as

obtain
the quotient of 3 yards 2 feet.
we

over,

yards by

shown.

And

72

BOOK

HAXD

in full the

Hence
Example.

FOR

is 3 ft. 2

answer

How

MECHANICS

pounds

many

9 in.

yd.

there

are

in

189487

grains?
24)189487

2.0)

7895-7

gr.

12)

394.15

dwt.

32.10
Ans.

oz.

32

lb. 10

oz.

from

the

15 dwt.

7 gr.

FRACTIONS

The

frango,which

fraction, then,

to

perform

arithmetical

kinds

of

of which

vulgar

by

less than

not

t
A

always
whole

and

the

and
denotes

thing.

is
one

are

numbers
two

are

decimal

only.

always represented
of

horizontal

The

and

which
or

is

placed

diagonal line

diagonal line
the

underneath

number

is the

the

or

is above

in

Thus

denominator.

numerator

"

which

number

numerator,
the

line is

horizontal

That

we

Thus:

them.

between

fractions

common

or

short

and

or

represented differently.This

numbers,

other, having

the

over

There

fractions

fraction

two

thing

of fractions

employed.

are

common

or

use

vulgar

chapter pertains to vulgar

A

the

whole

word

parts.

operations where

are

called

fractions,

fractions,each

by

numbers

of

part

And

whole

less than

means

Latin

into

separate

or

number.

part of any
enabled

break

to

means

derived

is

fraction

term

the

above

denominator.

number
numerator

of

line

is called

the

line is called

the

fraction
The

equal parts
always

is /

is the

denominator
there

denotes

are

the

in
num-

74
Third.

HAND

BOOK

Mixed

number

FOR

MECHANICS

is

whole

or

6i

number

with

of

fraction.
As
Fourth.

8$

5|

or

fraction

Compound

is

fraction

fraction.
As
A

Fifth.

| of }, or
fraction

Simple

and

denominator,

one

As
Sixth.
either

number,

has

may

be

or

but

or

|
is

fraction,

denominator,

improper

fraction

mixed

and

numerator

one

or

proper.

or

simple fraction,for

J of \

or
,

either

fraction

Complex

compound
or

f of f

which

number,

either

has
whole

its numerator

or

both.

or

As

"

-"

7
8

of

example

an

fractions

fraction

complex

for numerator

and

having

simple

denominator;
6

or

"

3|
of

example

fraction

complex

for numerator

and

mixed

whole

having
for

number

number

denominator;

or

51

example

of

complex

for numerator

and

fraction

terms

of

of fractions
without

fraction

means

numbers

denominator.

REDUCTION

Reduction

mixed

having

OF

FRACTIONS

is the

process

altering their
its

numerator

of

values.

and

changing
The

tional
frac-

"terms"

denominator.

REDUCTION

reduce

To

and

numerator

divide

fraction

them

to

FRACTIONS

its

lowest

denominator

by

without

both

Reduce

Example.

OF

4 will divide

without

into

three

12

words,

length)as "
a

times.

of

piece of

both

of

the

f,

of the

value
of the

terms

the

of

will

divide

successive
number

results
that

until the
Example.

of

them

ft

number

denominator
is obtained

We

is the

both

J, which
fraction

fractions

without

and

be

cannot

f f reduced

divide

carried

represent the

same

any

remainder,
further.

no

terms.

the
and

further

any

by

the

division

by 3, because

remainder,

and

divided; therefore, J

its lowest
value.

and

numerator

this result

without

to

by

the

,
3

divide

next

divided

are

be

remainder,

The

that

and

remainder,

3 will divide
obtain

both

will

without

number

any

its lowest

to

72
the

by

dividing can

Reduce

terms,

performed by dividing

division

the

8)24

Here

is

without

will divide

operation

apple.

same

altered.

been

(or

represent

T82to its lowest

not

other

inch

an

t82of the

as

and

t82 In

to

apple would

an

denominator

of

times

two

changed only.

both

them

denominator

part of

fraction

were

and

equal

same

fractions,then,

numerator

is

size

the

into

fraction,has

fraction

Reduction

same

Therefore, by bringing

will

Thus:

terms.

8 and

goes

is,or " of

the

apple

an

that

the

2
3

is the

inch

an

Hence

inch

an

number

any

numerator

remainder.

divide

t82 to its lowest

12

12

terms,

remainder.

4)_"_

Here

75

terms,

and

both

76

HAND

divide

and

again divide

the
the

terms

them

and

it becomes

of

tVsV? of

t%

to

its lowest

terms.

Reduce

to

to

its lowest

terms.

Reduce

it

to

its lowest

terms.

Reduce

if

to

its lowest

terms.

Reduce

if

to its lowest

terms.

Reduce

tWs

Reduce

Iff

reduce

its

to

its lowest

to

fraction

of

divide

to

are

the

times

many

sight will
you

its lowest

bring

to

is,to bring

that

fraction

fraction
last

of the

reverse

of the

denominator

rule,

fraction

larger denominator

to

in

which

it.

Bring J

Example.

terms.

is the

the

into

terms.

denominator

any

largest terms, which

how

see

to

greater denominator,

length as

same

Exercise

for

Reduce

having

lowest

inch.

an

Examples

To

is the

will

12

is the

J, which

12,

divide

M.

become

inch

by

Then

1W2.

tW*

an

terms.

denominator

become

terms

Consequently, J

term.

and

and

12

again by

its lowest

to

numerator

division

the

by

the

MECHANICS

FOR

iWA

Reduce

Example.
First

BOOK

to

fraction

denominator

whose

is 8.

Proceed

into

the

by
into

the
8

denominator

four

of

denominator

quotient obtained

denominator
the

greater
and

numerator

2 of the

by dividing the denominator

times.
of the

Then

by

the

8, and
the

multiply

fraction

multiplication is obtained

\ by the
|.

multiply

fraction

division.
the

fraction
the

\ in sight
Here

and

numerator

quotient 4,

goes

and

by

OF

REDUCTION

Multiplying
does

number

both

its

change

not

of

terms

is,J of

Bring "

Example.

same

value, hence,
8-

"

be

to

the

by

would

inch

an

fraction

1
2

That

77

FRACTIONS

equal

to

fraction

| of

inch.

an

denominator

whose

is 15.
Here

into

3 goes

five

15

Examples

then

times,

Exercise

for

denominator

fraction

whose

fraction

whose

if-

becomes

"

is 12.

Arts.

tV

Ans.

if

Bring f

to

Bring J

to

Bring f

to

fraction

whose

denominator

is 20.

Ans.

|".

Bring J

to

fraction

whose

denominator

is 8.

Ans.

When

the

bringing

above

whose

fraction

denominator

be

to

are

changed

which

to

its

to

is 16.

largest terms,

denominator

the

examples,

terms

denominator

of

divide

must

it is to

be

the

in

as

fraction
into

the

without

changed

"

remainder.
reduce

To

the

multiply

whole

fraction, and

place their

sum

55.

are

whole

number

denominator

the

to

8 of the

the

the

by

of the

the

thus

and

fraction.
8 of

denominator

product obtained
55

the

fraction.

7, saying 8 times

sum

of

numerator,

improper

an

numerator

Place

denominator

denominator

6 J to

multiplication the
7

the

add

add

product

improper fraction,

an

the

by

Reduce

fraction,and

to

number

over

Multiply the

and

number

the

to

Example.

the

mixed

obtained

by
6

are

over

the
48

the

fraction,as follows:
55

Then

5gfrepresents the mixed

number

6| when

reduced

78

to

contained

in

contained
For
6

fraction, and

it shows

6J,

in

there
be

would

eighths

55

there

are

just six

times

as

is, there

would

eights,therefore

seven

improper

fraction.

Reduce

to

an

improper

fraction.

Reduce

6"

to

an

improper

fraction.

Reduce

101 to

an

improper

fraction.

Reduce

67f

an

improper

fraction.

right of

improper
the

the

follows, and

whole

number

by

the

it

to

1, obtained

by

or

the

denominator

by

the

denominator
on

the

Reduce

Exercise

whole

number.

Ans.

3.

to

mixed

number.

Ans.

14$.

*"" to

whole

number.

Ans.

15.

Ans.

48t4-

to
-1?2-

Change VReduce

for

Change Vi3" to

mixed

number.

16

right of

^6
1=1

Examples

at

division.

16)24(11

and

denominator,

division.

the

mixed

number.

mixed

remainder

whole

the

over

by

24

the

obtained

number

numerator

place

to

place

Change ff
the

fraction

numerator

remainder,

Example.
Divide

to

an

eighths

more

Exercise

for

an

is

in

eighths, which

many

to

if there

be

inch.

4"

divide

are

eighths.

55

reduce

whole

there

Reduce

number,

the

that

an

add

eighths, to which

48

of

inch

Examples

To

That

eighths.

one

are

have

you

55

inches

6J

instance, in

inches

and

MECHANICS

BOOK

improper

an

FOR

HAND

as

the

reduce

To

Reduce

Example.

all

Multiply
and

obtained

it is

Proceed

the

shown,
for

the

denominators

fraction

the

and

mind

that
the

number

after

it.

which

is

ber
num-

fraction

compound

Ans.

and

multiplied

are

which

is

21, and

We

32.

then

gether
to-

the

for

multiplied together

are

the

follows:

U-

fraction

that

above

new

have

the
the

%\.
Reduce

of

"

J of TV

before, multiply all the

and

numerator,

new

obtained

by

the

to

singlefraction.

together

numerators

all the

denominators

reduce

if necessary,

denominator, and,

new

the

in

new

the

means

numerator,

new

Example.
As

the

and

the

numerator

denominator,

new

reduce

single,fraction, as
I

As

for

Bear

terms.

the

tion),
singlefrac-

together

necessary,

reduce

to

simple, or

of the

numerator

multiplied by

now

for

together

multiplied by"

"

singlefraction:

single fraction.

denominators

its lowest

is read

to

to

numerators

then, if

to

before

to

the

all the

denominator;

J of J

(that is,for the

numerator

sign

fraction

compound

79

FRACTIONS

OF

REDUCTION

for
the

its lowest

multiplication to

for
the

fraction

terms,

as

follows:

U
J_
16~pFl20

17

3X5X
By multiplying all
numerator,

14, and

together

get

be

may

By

we

divided
of

process

fraction

to

multiplying

denominator,

new

by

together

numerators

by
2

without

canceling we

singlefraction.

can

AnS-

get

we

the

new

denominators

240, both

remainder,
also reduce

of
as

which
shown.

compound

80

for

Rules

provided

into

into

divided

be

can

left,and

is

remainder

no

divided

be

Canceling:

numerator

Any

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

HAND

denominator

any

provided

numerator,

any

denominator,

any

can

remainder

no

is left.

| of

Reduce

Example.

Thus:

the

Here

cancels

the

with

2 left as

have

we

Also

left out.

therefore

are

to

4 of

and
into

one

the

the

of

the

as

the

of

other; these

the

first denominator

the

and

last numerator,

and 9

numerator

single fraction.

,4

,2

will cancel

denominator

second

of

first numerator

the

in

"

then
Thus

denominator.

problems

Many

cancellation,

of

process

considerably shortened

be

may

the

as

by the

following example

will

show.

" of f of \% of fft

Reduce

Example.

to

single

Thus:

fraction.

?of^ofMofii
P
3

"
"

_JL

Z
=

3 X

204

34

34

The

process

go into
the

as

follows:

3 of the
9

into the

will go

of

numerator

of

the

denominator
into

the

second
first

last

2, will

first numerator,

fraction, 4 times;

18, of the third fraction, will

denominator

numerator

The

of the second

8, the denominator

90, the

is

quantity, 5

fraction

will go

fraction, 3

times.

into

go

The

times.
into
5

the

the

nominator
de-

will go

170, of the last quantity, 34 times;

twice, and

into

the numerator

14

of the

82

HAND

^1

BOOK

12-341
7 of -z of

f of H

of

'1

Reduce

MECHANICS

FOR

of | to

Arts.

singlefraction.

,16

4_
"

Reduce

_3_

_3^

16

f of J of }* to

12

singlefraction.

Thus:

"4

of

Whole

Placing
reduces

the

Place

under

All

whole

converted
the

Notice
It

in

last

the

underneath

placing 1

"

fraction

and

the

9
3

have

we

whose

into

it for

before

an

nominato
de-

is

together.
7.

whole

denominator,

3 X

as

28
1

lo)28(lTf
15
13

number.

fraction

== =

5 X

be

must

multiplying

improper

an

4X7

fraction

f of f of

of

value

=_

and

denominators

quantity,.7,

converted

is therefore

fraction.

is 7 and

compound

is the

What
that

numerator

together

Example.

number

improper fraction.
number

improper

an

numerators

whole

Thus:

numbers
into

Fractions

improper

an

an

whole

improper fraction, whose

is 1.

under

to

7 to

the

Improper

to

number

Reduce

denominator

whole

Example.

2x3

Numbers

for

"

"

/7

Reducing

of

follows:

by

OF

REDUCTION

first

By

canceling and

then

for

together

numerators

denominator,

the

denominators

numbers

mixed

All

reduced

to

Find

Example.
the

and

to

before

of

mixed

fraction

the

multiplying
together.

| of T4T of H
a

be

must

of

"" of 5|.

number,
is

which,

t3-.

f of t4t of {$ of J" of -"-.

have

we

After

canceling and
the

for

multiplying together the remaining

and
the remaining
new
numerator,

for

the

denominators

ft,

shown,

as

fraction

denominators

improper

an

for the

"

value, 5f, is

Then

numerators

the

then

fraction

Then,

compound

the value

last

reduced

when

in

together

Notice

number.

lit

together

improper

improper fraction

an

numerators

the

mixed

" of f of 7

of

value

to

and

numerator,

new

obtain

we

is reduced

which

multiplying the remaining

multiplying the remaining

new

83

FRACTIONS

denominator,

new

have,

we

as

shown:

Examples

Reduce

f of

Reduce

What

is

Change
Ans.

of

of

tt

if

Exercise

for

singlefraction.

to

of 7 to

tt

" of
to

of

to

1%

mixed

f of f.

numbers.
Ans.

single fraction

Ans.

#5.

Ans.

4J|.

tItof

J of f of 2V of

8.

3T3o.

Find

the

What

is

Reduce

value

of

I of 2|.

tr

of

all mixed

of

J of f of

Ans.

Reduce

numbers,

of

tt

of

li of 5|.

Ans.

f |.

2T\.

ft of if of 9f

Reduction
Process.

"

to

whole

first all whole

to

Ans.

3.

Fractions

Complex

if any,

number.

numbers,

improper

if any,

and

fractions,and

84

then

HAND

reduce

all

fractions.

the

by

division

the

divide

MECHANICS

fractions, if

compound

Then

fraction

FOR

BOOK

the

of

numerator

denominator,

according

the

complex

the

to

single

to

any,

rule

for

of fractions.
3.
Q

Reduce

Example.

singlefraction.

toa
3
4

is

This
both

fraction

is the

divisor, all that

the

a3

dividend

the

that

Knowing

will be

is to divide

problem

fraction

complex

single fractions.

terms

of

of

example

an

and

the

required

the

tor
numera-

denominator
solve

to

the

f by

numerator

for

having

the

is
above

denominator

Thus

4'

34121

33

Am'

'4~83~24~2

Reduce

Example.

3_

to

"

singlefraction.

Thus:

"

3_453jj^24

jf
=

"

5|
The

above

mixed
We

then

shows

example

numbers

45

that

with

the

45

the

first reduced

were

proceed

whole

as

and

fractions.

improper

to

operation

numbers

in former

example.

Reduce

Example.

L
2

As

8
X

proceed

as

n
7

to

"

\ of }, which

single fraction

for

Exercise

to

single fraction

1-fj

1|

21

before.

Examples

Reduce

Thus:

24
=

shown, the denominator

fraction, is first reduced

single fraction.

ioff

to
3

Ans.

".

is

Arts.

compound

and

then

we

REDUCTION

OF

85

FRACTIONS

84

Reduce

singlefraction

to

Ans.

"

11

4
3

33.

Reduce

single fraction ^f of

to

^i,

Following
and

Division

problem

first reduced

Addition
Addition

together
be

of

two

expressed
When

the

one

obtained

the

in

add

to

their

that

adding

value

the

several

reduce

and

can

having
ators
numer-

fraction

the

simplest form.
SIGNS

used

in

performing operations
the pupil should
stand
under-

that

necessary

fractions

of

together

its

followingsignsare

fractions,it is

form.

of

process

number

numerator

new

in this way

the

contained

simplest

is the

ARITHMETICAL

As

note, when

sum.

denominator,
for

which

Fractions

op

adding together

same

their

fractions, so

more

in

And

all fractions

to

fractions

vulgar
or

examples,

Vulgar Fractions.

operations, that

are

"f "

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,

in
of

such

performing

rules, with

the

are

operations

govern

in

now

Ans.

them.
The

sign +

after

it is to

5+

sign
9

The

"

The

sign

number

thus, 7

added

be

is read

"

after it is to

thus,

"

plus,"and
to

the

that

means

the

before

number

number

it; thus,

9.

are

The

is read

sign

subtracted

be

and

means

from

the

that

the number

before

number

it;

is 5.
is read

after
X

"minus,"

it is

are
-7-

"

multiply by,"

multiplied by

and

the

that

means

number

before

the

it;

21.

is read

"

divide

by,"

and

means

that

86

the

HAND

BOOK

before

it is to

number

after

it; thus,

The

sign

-=-

"

it is of
4

it;thus,

Add

and

having

the

thing
how

the

the

the

quantity

of, J, f

sum

in

equals
and

f equals I
Add

Example.

if,

Here

if,

if,

you

have

of

the

numerators

of

the

whole

evident,

the

several

to

ana

i^

again
the

fraction
it is

parts of

evident,

to find

fractions,we

5, the

is the

the

of

sum
rator,
nume-

new

shown,

as

five

have

we

three

find the

to
sum

its
of

numerators,

J"ns.

iif

of

fractions

these

to
as

of

add
each

parts

equal parts,
parts represented

into

of all the

and

number

certain

is divided
sum

or

of,

sum

denominator,

same

that

get the

16

"

number

represents

thing

have

|, which, reduced

Then,

the

part of the whole

we

obtained

together,or

together, all having

shows

1J.

or

ie,

whole

the

Therefore, in

in the

fraction

equals 1J.

stated, the

numerator

all

together,

1, 3, and

9 thus

the

have

we

simplest terms,
I, f, and

third

numerators

The

9.

the

thing. Therefore,

the

together

before

fraction

parts contained

of

As

have.

we

in the

thing, and

add

first fraction

second

the

to

equal parts

many

parts

in the

have

we

8.

into, and

of those

many

number

which

how

us

parts of the whole

by

the

as

find

fractions

divided

been

whole

it is

that

means

Fractions

of

denominator,

same

thing, and

add

number

9.

three

tells

has

example,

the

and

value

same

together, or

have

we

denominator

the

the

by

Here

us

divided

be

equal to,"

Addition
Example.

MECHANICS

2.

are

is read

after

quantity
before

12

FOR

numerators

16

are

simply

ARITHMETICAL

together and

added

and

denominator,
its

to

the

fr,

tt,

tt,

tt,

together t4t,tt,

Add

together f f J-,and

tt,

bring fractions
fractions having one

having

denominator

to

To

cancel

Second,
except

tt-

Ans.

l}f

3t8t.

2.

%\.

Ans.

st-

denominators

down

to

(that is,a

in

denominators
are

row.

that

alike,

are

denominators

three

be canceled

would

duced
re-

fractions):

is, if there

of them

alike, two

Arts.

denominator

all the

all the

That

one.

and

denominators

First, put all the

is

required sum.

H-

different

common

common

and

and

s4t,36t,st,

37,

formed,

is the

Ans.

J.

common

Exercise

t5t,tV,

Add

together

1M

and

for

tt,

the

over

fraction, fi, thus

the

simplestterms

together

Add

is written

sum

Examples

Add

87

SIGNS

and

would

one

be

left.

instance, if in

For

be

to

would

one

them

would

divide
the

another

without

canceled,

For
the

the

larger one

will divide

the

of them

two

four fives,three

were

denominators

remainder.
that

By

will divide

which

being

ones

the

instance, if

numbers,

divide

denominators

altered,the smaller

they

If there

all the

cancel

smaller

follows, 5, 5, 5,

pened
hap-

of

canceled.

then

Third,

there

Thus:

be left.

be

of denominators

row

fives, as

be canceled.

would

and

three

left out

will

that

is meant,

the

larger are

divided

is not

(canceled),because

larger.
a

row

of

denominators

2, 3, 7, 5, 10, 11, the

10, would

be

can

that

be

canceled, as

% 3, 7, f",10,

11

and

shown:

consisted

5, which

of

will

88

Having
and

one,

HAND

canceled
struck

without

off the

all the

MECHANICS

FOR

all the

numbers

that

numbers

thing

numbers

remaining

alike,except

are

will divide

that

fourth

the

remainder,

Take

BOOK

to

and

do

is

others

"

them

place

in

row.

Fifth, then
of them

if any

see

(not less than

in the

instance,

For

would

they

be

two); if

those

quotient

will divide

number

numbers

if the

which

more

be

place

divided.

12, 7, 16, 5,

were

follows:

as

row

or

it and

by

cannot

left

numbers

placed in

divide

so,

two

12, 7, 16, 5
It is

numbers,
it and

by

which

that

seen

and

12

also

place

in the

divided

will divide

16, without

be

cannot

number

the

remainder,

any

quotient the
by

of these

two

divide

so

numbers

7 and

5,

Thus:

4.

4)12, 7, 16, 5
5

3, 7, 4,
And

no

two

be divided

by

as

Multiply

of these

quotient numbers, 3, 7, 4, 5,

number,

any

all the

numbers

in the

multiply their product by

In

this

together,
divisor
The
That

the

case

and

product
is, 1680

numbers

is

420

the

case

obtained

is the

be

multiplied

multiplied by

the

in

would
the

two

be

to

remaining
the

the

numbers

by

divide

and
10

5.

quotient
number.

some

before.

as

numbers
12

number

of the

more

or

divided

first divide

quotient

of

12, 7, 16,

are

such, proceed

instance, if the
we

that

turn,

denominator.

common

denominator

denominators

in
is

is the

common

happen

may,

10, 35,

place

quotient together and

3, 7, 4, 5 would

product

1680

whose

It will often

For

further.

4.

of fractions

When

no

divisor.

the

numbers

the

divide

we

can

12, 16,

were

16

and

by

and

35, which

90

HAND

Then
their

BOOK

all

multiply

the

product by
denominator

the

fraction

and

product

is the

MECHANICS

for all the

the

together

result

will be

fractions.

the

by

multiply

Then

quotient by

the

of

and
mon
com-

divide

denominator

the

the

first

its numerator;

its

this for

required. Repeat

numerator

new

numbers

prime

divisor; the

denominator

common

FOR

fraction.

each

J, f, ", f, i, f, T72,A,

Example.
these

fractions

other

to

fractions

i,

and

having

Bring

f.
a

common

denominator.
All

denominators

the

placed

in

row:

2, 6, 3, 8, 3, 8, 12, 16, 8,
There
the

are

2 and

two

figures 3, cancel

one

(two of them) and

the

the

16, therefore
because

they

will divide

they

two, 12 and

4, because

be

must

16; place them

below

as

them

4)12,

the

multiply
by

12

fraction

to

3,

the

equals

equals 48, and

15

3
8)

2
3)

1
3)

_7_
12)

5
8?

also,

remain

them

by

remainder.

12

and

the

48

multiply
thus

Lastly, bring

the denominator

6)

16

having
2)

the

12, 16, ft i

denominator.

common

one

by

divisor

the

is the

the

into

only

divide

without

Next

and

there
and

both

them.

will go

Then

12.

% % ^ " 0, "

Then

of

canceled; the

the

4 will divide

each

48.
1
8)

1^)

tained
ob-

3
4

Answer:

This

is

24

40

48)

4?;

done,

denominator
and

as

32
48"

18

16

30

28

15

_6_

3fi

48)

48)

48)

4")

48)

48)

48

before

by

the

explained, by dividing the

denominators

multiplying the quotient by

of each
the

mon
com-

tions,
of the frac-

numerator.

ARITHMETICAL

denominator

The

2 of the

the

by

the

its numerator,

the

denominators

brought
tor

other

to

product
the

of

each

multiply

the

fractions

the

having

which

are

denomi-

common

denominator"

"common

into

numerator.

new

tions,
frac-

quotient by

of

several

is the

24

fraction

the

the

ator
numer-

remaining

product being
fractions

divide

must

the

with

and

into the

J goes

Multiply the

denominator

denominator

common

The

likewise

Do

dividing
the

and

quotient 24,

numerator.

new

first fraction

48, 24 times.

denominator,

common

91

SIGNS

an

even

of times.

number

add

To

fractions

together

different

having

nators
denomi-

First

them

bring

denominator,

then

by dividing the
denominator

and

fractions

the

obtained

which

place
it

underneath

by

with

common

found

the

common

the

quotient by
addition

the

the

on

one

numerators

denominators

multiplying the

Add

Example.

having

together all

several

number

numerator,

new

add

and
the

fractions

to

right of

place the

together, |, ", f

being
the

and

the

several

nator.
denomi-

common

tu,

merator,
nu-

J.

2)0, 3, 4, 10, %
3, 2,

_2
10

J5
30

_2
60

48

40

45

205

42+30

o25
3f*

60

60

Add

together ", ", f

and
,

denominator.

common

\.

3AAns.

92

HAND

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

ft 3

2)2, k

" "" 6,

2)6,

3,

J3
12

24

16

18

20

21

75

24

single

to

Add

Example.

the

Showing
to

then

all

mixed

to

to

their

denominator.

common

and

7.

whole

and

numbers

reduced

are

together 4f, 5f

reduced

be

must

mixed

and

finding the

before

terms

reduced

numbers

fractions, and

improper
lowest

whole

ones,

Ql

fractions

before, compound

stated

q3

-24-^24-^s
_

As

denominator

common

$9, V,

numbers,

t,

improper fractions,
7

_7
7

_4
28
133

164

493

196
__

"

shown,

whole

number

_.,
1 7JL1.

__

"

28

28

28
As

denominator

common

numbers

mixed

the

7,

are

first

reduced

the

to

the

5f, and

J and

improper

fractions,V-, \L, tThe

denominator, 28,

common

different

denominators

obtained

By

common

4, and
numerator

19,

we

the

product

the

it and

by

tients
quo-

numerators.

nominato
first de-

the

quotient

133.

the

found, and

the different

denominator

multiplying
get the

into

divided

multiplied by

are

dividing the

are

is then

by

the

By dividing the

ARITHMETICAL

and

quotient

get the

we

denominator

common

into

1 goes

by the

the

their

it is

and

which

sum,

placed

the

on

common

which
it,thus, 429s3,

underneath

denominator,

Add

Example.

J of f
-

When

reduced

to

singlefraction
Common

of

196,

are

the

denominator,

28,

is then

the

reduced

6|

J^

51

16

16

When

shown, the

reduced

to

im-

fraction

proper

102

105

6T^

an

is 196.

equals 493, is
the right of

fraction

to

16

the

1, and

6|.

to

denominator,
3 +

to

the

simplest form.

its

As

merator
nu-

is multiplied

28

products, 133, 164, and

fractions, with

several

last

7,

divide

7, the product of which

three

numerator,

new

Then

164.

the

by

just 28 times, the quotient

28

together and

added

the

by

denominator,

next

obtained

product

numerator

shown,

As

to

the

the

multiplying
41,

as

28, by

denominator,

common

93

SIGNS

16

fraction

compound

single fraction ft,

and

the

| of f is reduced

mixed

number

6|

to

improper fraction %1-.

As

shown,

we

then

ft and

have

Examples
Add
Add

together J, J, \, and

and

together f, f f

together f, ft, ft, and

Add

together \

Add

together f

I +

f +

Add

to

together

f
"

-~

lZ"

together.

Ans.

Arts.

2J.

Arts.

2f

Ans.
.

It +

t3o +

4"
+

add

Exercise

for

Add

1"|".

3"j|y.
ft. Ans.
Ans.

4J.

5ififo.

94

BOOK

HAND

Add

" of f
Add

Add

18|

to
to

of

Subtraction
the

difference

fractions, and
to

reduce

the

to

reads

as

of different

fractions

Example.

in

others
and

Bear

minus, and

that

from

From

First, find the

means

the

TV take
common

the

having

in mind

bers
num-

other
a

that

are

common

the

number

before

number

single

denominators

subtract

the

to

mixed

from

one

to

addition,

the

rinding

values.

and

when

subtracted

of

fractions

numbers

largernumerator.

be subtracted

Fractions

compound

all whole

be

to

17iK

Ans.

is the process

improper fractions, and

denominator,

7.

Vulgar

fractions
all

different,bring the

"

and

36J.

vulgar fractions

between

of the fractions

from

Ans.

17TV

of

Reduce

Process.

Arts. 3|.

| of J.

together, 4j, 5f

Subtraction

MECHANICS

FOR

smaller
the

sign

after

it is

it.

#V.
denominator

as

in addition.

Thus:

Example.

126

common

denominator.

Divide
denominator

of the

18

quotient 7, obtained
you get a product
that

fraction,and

multiplying
the

smaller
is the

being

then

is the

have

subtracted

for

denominator,
fraction, and
3, you

numerator

for

numerator

77

the numerators

and

get
that

18; the

larger leaves 59, which

the

shown.

as

77

11,

numerator

next

new

from

numerator,

new

its numerator

new

the

quotient by its

the

multiplying

common

of

21

18, which

You

fraction.

is the

by dividing the

the

product

fraction,and

77, which

denominator

the

126, by

first

by the divisor, by
of

126, by the

denominator,

common

new

now,

95

SIGNS

ARITHMETICAL

18

59
__
~~

126

difference

the

Then

Example.
the

Reduce
Proceed
found

to

follows

From

Reduce

tt

having
take

above

to

single fractions.

before,by bringing the

as

others

f of

fractions

compound

then,

tV of f.

take

tt

#V equals AV

and

between

f of

From

126

to

tV of f

thus

denominator,

common

fractions

as

"

singlefractions.

From

if take

tt^-

112

55

55
560
560

6160,
New

of

numerators

the

denominator.

common

above

fractions, found

denominator
dividing the common
by the numerators
and
multiplying the quotient by the numerators:
20166160

110

J9W._953
0100

3080

by

96

Example.

HAND

MECHANICS

FOR

6| take

From

reduced

Above

BOOK

J of T92-

to

its simplest

27

terms:

Ttakeiof12~16
_

?-

"
"

16,

denominators.

New

108

99

~16~b^-

16

From

Example.

The

above

take

12

reduced

improper fractions:

to

48

27

*/-.
21

6f,

shown,
are

fractions

the whole

reduced
are

denominator,
thus

to

then
and

others

to

smaller

is the

the
as

greater, J of

3
3

ft

J3

Compound

10

10

fractions

27

reduced

to

t3o and

f.

90

of

common

larger, and

13

40

~90

j% is the greater by If.

the

shown.
to,

or

| of t%?

_4
9

simplest forms:

Then,

resulting

19
p

number,

of the fractions

numerator

from

The

having

numerator,

new

Which

the mixed

fractions.

improper

brought

difference,21, is the

"4~

12, and

is subtracted

obtained

Example.

number

the

Ans-

6J.

-V-take

As

denominator.

common

98

denominators

the

its

example

same

for

the

new

resulting fraction, tt42,is reduced

the

simplest terms, f

This

MECHANICS

FOR

multiplied together

are

and

denominator,
to

BOOK

HAND

is the

which

answer.

be worked

can

by canceling

out

as

follows:

Multiply f by 1T5F.
1

The

the
Ans.

times

three

21

into

cancels

the

1x3

Then,

times, and
3, and

the
1X4

7 into
=

4.

Multiply f by

Example.

-3-

9^10
or

four

16

15

"

"

as

to,

"
"

90

follows:
ArtQ

"tltt'O.

by canceling:
1

^-X^
x

It

is

multiplying

;p

fraction

one

The

fractions

being

is the

example that
same
thing as

ones.

3f by 61 of 28t.

numbers, when

mixed

reduced

to

improper

f* Of "

The

of

above

simple

to

Multiply, 2TV

above

the

by another

fractions

reducing compound
Example.

s'

referringto

by

seen

l-Ans

above
reduced

compound
to

simple

-4# Of *.
7

fractions, after
fractions:

canceling and

or

171

105

15V

^Xg

99

SIGNS

ARITHMETICAL

Ans.

17J. Ans.

y=

Then:

2TV of 3*

6^ of ft

4.

Multiply 8| by

Examples.

67
xy
X

j*

268

-77-

=
__

"

_9_
1

-W-

Examples

Multiply5f by 2f

33". Ans.

Multiply 82 by

Example.

17J

Exercise

for

Ans.

Ans.

67TV

15g32.

|of|of|x|of|off.
Arts.

M
I of 2i

fraction

numerator

or

Example.
Here

we

one

Ans.

235.

Ans

Vulgar

of

is the

fraction

1J.

^5

Fractions
of

process

is contained

divided

be

may

Ans.

X5'

of fractions

of times

number

2JLf.

12

Division

Ans.

I of 4|.

lio-

4y X

28'

43h

I of 3i

I of I of B

Division

Ans.

48.

by

obtaining the
in another.

either

dividing

its

by multiplying its denominator.

Divide

have

t4t by 2.

t4t of
L OF C.

whole

thing

which

is composed

100

HAND

BOOK

of

11

equal parts,

to

be

divided

the

by

quotient

and

of the

evident

that

the

placing

resulting

t4t divided

Thus:

(i*r)are

by dividing

t4t by 2, and

fraction

requiredanswer.

will be the

one-elevenths

four

denominator,

the

over

those

It is here

2.

numerator

MECHANICS

FOR

the

fraction
2

by

tV

Ans.

dividing the

of

Instead, now,

denominator

the

by 2, multiply

tt,

place the product underneath

will

be

obtained

by

as

ITx2

numerator

Ans-

dividing the

either

that

divides

denominator

convenience, operations in division

for

that

is, by placing the

line

and

the

merator
nu-

ir

?2

the

by inverting

performed

result

same

multiplying the

fraction; however,
are

reduce

dividing the

by

fully demonstrated
or

and

Thus:

2.

It is here

and

The

terms.

obtained

was

by

11

numerator

to its lowest

resultingfraction

the

the

tion
frac-

of the

numerator

below

it, as

division,

the
the

above

denominator

numerator

of

terms

horizontal

in

shown

following

examples.
remembered

It will be

by,"

and

means

by the number
_4_

that

the number

after

it.

~
"

Example.

y y

Divide

t8t
Example.

Divide

Divide

X.

before

"

"

""

11*

22

reads

-=-

AnSm

Ans.

Thus:

f by 6.
=

ft.

_2_

by f.

"iy" AnSt

Thus:

"

divide

it is to be divided

Thus:

5.

by
ty

14

sign

Thus:

tt

2^6=2x6
Example.

the

that

ARITHMETICAL

14

14

101

SIGNS

98

3)98(32|.

Arts.

9^
8

A
2
3

Divide

Example.

by t9t-

32

Thus:

~9)352(39".Arts.
27
82

81

1_
9

to

singlefractions,before
Divide

Example.

Reduce
then

whole

improper fractions,and

to

reduced

and

numbers

mixed

All

proceed

numbers

divide.

to

reduced

to

compound

be

duced
re-

fractions

dividing.

to

improper fractions,

Thus:
13

Above

all

must

If by 1J.

mixed

first the

numbers

11

_^

improper fractions.
1

"L

-J-

"

Then

7^?

x8

56
=

'

Reduce

f of

first all whole

Avtd

24--2

"

Divide

36

f by 1|, that is:

Divide

Example.

Example.

by f

numbers

of 7.
to

improper

fractions.

102

HAND

FOR

BOOK

MECHANICS

Thus:

| of f
Reduce,
fractions.

then,

above

the

to

single

Thus:

reduced

Canceling,
and

fractions

compound

| of f
Above

| of 1

as

divisor

to

| of 1

single fractions:

above, reduces

shown
to

the

dividend

V.

Examples

-T-

-f-

3J
of 12i

Exercise

for

Ans.

Ans.

2.

Ans.

1J.

-s-

"

Ans.

6J.
Ans.

of 84.
81.

1031.

3
"

'5 2

TT

5#

~^"

4f of if
" of |

| of f of f

^5-

-s-

Ans.

^6ff"

3| of 3J.
Ans.

-^

| of |.

f of f of TV

Ans.

f".

18|.
Ans.

3ff.

to

DECIMAL

The

deci, or

decimus,
decimal

The

FRACTIONS

"decimal"

term

is derived

which

It is

525,

1200, when

system
it

According

of

and

in

all

fingers as

ten

till about

Europe

through" the
ten

or

denomination

Arabians.

multiple

some

make

unit

one

of

denomination.

higher

present

in

early

as

present decimal

our

used

system,

lower

in use,

was

of

form

not

was

decimal

there

introduced

was

the

to

units

next

Our

imperfect

an

The

system.

the

in India

supposed that

of ten

old

very
of the

use

word

count.

a.d.

as

the

Latin

tenth.

or

figures is

of

system

the

from

ten

means

probability originatedfrom
helps to

103

FRACTIONS

DECIMAL

system, for instance, is

money

decimal

system, because:
10 mills make

make

10 cents
10 dimes

According
called

fractional
decimal

decimal

the

parts of

an

dollar.

one

make

eagle.

one

decimal

the

to

dime.

one

make

10 dollars

cent.

one

system,

point, separates the

expression. Thus,

dot,

thus

(.),

unit

from

the

in the

following

expression:
354.5

the

354

parts of
denominator

is

unit.

always

A
10

the

.5

decimal
or

100

tional
frac-

represents the
is

fraction
or

(as it is called) of 10, but

power
any

and

represents units

1000,

or

its numerator

one

whose
other

some

may

be

number.
For

example, TV, T"o, Woo,

to,

too,

are

all decimal

fractions.

Strictlyspeaking,

there

should

be

as

many

figures in

104

the

numerator

and

if there

BOOK

HAND

there

as

not

are

attaching cyphers

This

with,

of

having

is written

whole

of

the

away

numerator.

represented by

it ; that

is :

is in value

equal

to

one

.7, and

is in value

equal

to

seven

it will be

place

.001, and

tenth

of

tenths

equal

to

hundredth

one

.1 is

tenth

whole

have

fractions

tenth

one

of what

figure
it

was

Thus:

whole

thing.

whole

thing, etc.
other

numerator

.5, TVo is written

is written

to

thing.

thousandth

one

equal

thing.

hundredth

one

is

.001

it

numbers.

whole

one

value

decimals, by placing

in

makes

in whole

is

.01

right

one

is in

number.

that,

seen

the

to

1. is

If the

is in value

whole

before, just as

T%

be done

can

number.

thousandth

one

100*

.1 and

is written

toVo

So

be:

J)_6_

10)

before

dot

.01, and

tVo is written
of

would

denominator

the

by

number.

whole

so

number.

whole
to

above

made

numerator.

(.),being placed before

is written

"to

given

fraction, then, is always

number

one

100)

case,

dot, thus

decimal

the

being

001
1000)

JUL

10)

denominator;

be

may

left of the

five fractions

JL

in the

they

many,

the

to

MECHANICS

cyphers

are

as

the

example,

For

FOR

.27, and

1, thus:

than

f\7o2ois written

.372.
The

first

place

on

always

tenths, the

decimal

point

on

the

right of

Knowing,
without

is

its

the

right

second

of

place

on

decimal

then, that
denominator,

point
decimal

by

means

the
and

always hundredths,

the

decimal

the

is

point

right
the

third

of

is

the

place

always thousandths.

fraction
of the

is

expressed

decimal

point,

106

BOOK

HAND

Examples

Exercise

for

Bring the following decimal

To

Bring

Vulgar

MECHANICS

FOR

fractions

Fraction

to

vulgar fractions.

to

Decimal

Fraction
Annex

and

divide

the

by

decimal

figures in

annexed

to

the

Example.

Proceed

the

and

denominator,
the

Bring J

quotient

to

divide
4

cypher

5 times.

quotient

to the numerator

point

off

there

are

as

decimal

by placing a cypher

follows, saying

goes

cyphers

as

many

cyphers

numerator.

1, then
another

of decimal

number

any

into
and

Then
as

this

by

10 goes
divide

the

the

and

right

of

the

denominator
2

over.

off

as

many

decimal

cyphers annexed

were

Annex

into

Bring II

to

to

the

Ans.

decimal

16)15.00(.9375
144

60
48
120
112

80
80

fraction.
Ans.

20

figuresin

4)1-00

Example.

as

then

Thus:

.25

merator
nu-

4,

by 4, again saying, 4

mark

there

on

fraction.

Thus:

merator.
nu-

DECIMAL

Sometimes,
fraction, the
same

written

quotient

end.

This
The

.16.

vulgar

never

fraction
to

comes

is called

dot

the

over

the

.16666, etc.,

repeating decimal
6

decimal

end, but

an

to

and

is

represents that the 6 is

repeater.
above,

of

instead

Sometimes,
as

reducing

figure keeps repeating itself,as

without

in

107

FRACTIONS

you

find

will

.142857142857142857,

figure repeating itself,

one

two

or

more

doing

Thus:

etc.

+)1.00000000000(.142857142857

7_
30
28
20
14

60
56
40
35
50
49
10

7_
30
28
20
14

60
56
40
35
50
49
10

so,

as

108

Here

it

coming
end.

IT AND

will

be

and

over

and

over,

figure of
Then, \

the

set

the

this

figures

would

dot

of

placed

and

keep

without
is written

the

over

figureswhich

first and

keep repeating.

etc., and

.142857142857142857

142857

continue

circulatingdecimal

thus, .142857, having

last

MECHANICS

that

seen

is called

This

FOR

BOOK

is

expressed,

.142857.
often

It is not
six

(2)

.5; (3) g Ans.

Ans.

Ans.

.125; (6) H

Ans.

.32; (9) f Ans.

To

fractions

to decimal

Ans.

decimals

carry

than

more

.534678.

places, thus,

Reduce

to

necessary

Reduce

the

following:(1) "

.375; (4) | Ans.

Ans.

.83; (10) H

Number

Mixed

.75;

.875; (5) A

Ans.

(7) M

.6875;

Ans.

.7; (8) ft

.916.

to

Decimal

Fraction

First, reduce
then

mixed

the

reduce

the

number

improper

to

an

fraction

improper
to

fraction.
Reduce

Example.

4^? to

decimal.

4^)257.000000(4.015625
256

100

360
320
400

384
160

128
320
320

Then,

4"

2 5J
=

V64

4.015625.

Ans.

tion,
frac-

decimal

DECIMAL

Reduce

Example.

109

FRACTIONS

11"

11J

to

decimal.

23

2)23.0(11.5
22
10

10
Then

11J=
reduce

To

V
a

11.5 Ans.

decimal

fraction

fraction,multiply the given

you

wish

bring it to,

rightto left,as

from
and

to

whatever

is the

then

there

are

mark

particularvulgar

any

by the denominator

decimal

off

as

places in

is to the

number

to

decimals,

many

the

left of the

given decimal,
decimal
point

required numerator.

Example.

How

sixteenths

many

are

there

in .198?

.198
16

Addition
Process.

the decimal

Place

point of

the
one

of

Decimals

quantitiesin
line shall be

such

manner

directlyunder

that
that

110

of every

under
as

HAND

other

FOR

line, and

whole

numbers,

Add

Example.

units

under

placing

directlyunderneath

sum

MECHANICS

arrange

hundredths

tenths,

in

BOOK

those

units, tenths

hundredths.

add

Then

decimal

the

point

in

the

above.

together, 18;

15.0071; .04527.

under

74;

3.98046;

273.4;

Thus:
18
74
3.9S046
273.4

15.0071
.04527

384.43283

Examples
Add

Exercise

for

together:

(1) 30.034; 2135.2; 27.03; 2.34071.

Ans.

is the

What
Ans.

one

decimal

16.25

642.75

491.12

25.16

less number

point

under

decimal

the

end

equal, then
point off as many
are

which

Fractions

Decimal

of

the

more

at

5.0327

Place

line has

noughts

number

267.715.

596.5127.

Process.

If

12.491

of

sum

Subtraction

with

433.25864.

998.541.

(5)
75.2.

of 327.05

sum

Ans.
Ans.

(3) 246.03; 00.674; 5.012; 15.999.

the

2194.60471.

12.5.

(2) 15.17; 2.3876; 403.20104;

(4) Find

Ans.

decimal
of the

subtract,

as

places for
contains

the

point,

that
in

as

in

the

figuresthan

one

the

under

greater,
addition.

other, put

is deficient till they

single subtraction,

decimals

greater

as

there

number

are

and

in the

of decimals.

DECIMAL

From

Example.

11 I

FRACTIONS

76.8973.

take

232.5003

'

232.5003

76.8973
Ans.

155.6030
As

is written

shown, the less number

arranging

units

under

under

units, tenths

hundredths,

is subtracted

from

Example.

the

From

under

Then

etc.

greater,
take

4.17

under

greater,

dredths
tenths, hun-

the

less

in whole

as

the

number

numbers.

2.893652.

4.170000
2.893652

1.276348

Here,
the

as

shown,

other, and

noughts
made

line of decimal

one

end

the

at

of the

placed tillthe

were

equal

in each

Example.

figuresis greater

line that

Then

100 take

subtract

we

than

deficient,

was

of decimal

number

line.

From

Ans.

places were
as

before.

.001.

100.000
.001

Ans.

99.999

Examples

16.054267.

Ans.

8.305733,

.1360076.

Ans.

.2845124.

1.

From

24.36

2.

From

.42052

3.

Find

the

value

of 467

4.

Find

the

value

of 12.036

5.

From

43.123

take
take

Multiply

taking notice
get the product.

43.6054

8.58195.

take

Multiplication
Process.

Exercise

for

as

of the

in

of

common

decimal

5.61.

Ans.

Ans.

423.3946.

Ans.

6.426

34.54105.

Decimals
out
withmultiplication,
points. Add up and so

112

Point

off

there

as

There

HAND

as

be

places in

decimal

many

in the

product

multiplier.

product

the

and.

multiplicand

Multiply 45.32

Example.

in the

multiplicand and

in the

decimals

of the

sum

as

MECHANICS

FOR

figures for decimals

many

decimals

are

must

BOOK

the

as

multiplier.

by 6.531.
45.32
6.531
4532

13596
22660
27192
295.98492
first stood

product

The

decimal

altogether five
the

multiplicand

five, beginning

point
The
It

before

the

last

question (two in
count
we
multiplier),

figure 2,

figure that

are

the

in the

three

the

found

is sometimes
the

product

multiplicand
number
the

make

figuresin

there

as

and

stands

place

at

decimal

fifth

the

place.

is 295.98492.

answer

figuresin

the

at

and

but

29598492,

and
of

number

decimal

Example.

that
there

as

are

In

multiplier.
cyphers

the

on

of decimal

places

in the

Multiply

there

not

are

the

places equal

multiplicand

.00052

by

put

cases,

left of

many

figuresin

decimal
such

as

and

to

the

cient
suffi-

product
the

sum

to

of

multiplier.

.0402.

.00052
.0402
104
208
20904

Here

it is

seen

figuresonly, and

that
that

the

there

product, 20904,
are

nine decimal

contains

places in

five

the

114

this

make
60

and

MECHANICS

8 into

4 over,

Divide

Example.

FOR

70; 8 into 70 goes

7 into

7 times

goes

BOOK

HAND

by

144.144

8 and
40

8 into

6 over;
5 times.

goes

12.

12)144.144
Arts.

12.012

Here
in

we

the

decimal

point.

place in

the

on

in the

say,

12

Divide

12

place
neath
under-

dividend, place the

decimal

right
1

into

of

times, which

no

goes

by

38.4256

times, which
it, and

into

the quotient, then

Example.

12

goes

point

then

We

144

Then

quotient.
the

into

12

say,

144

12

goes

times.

12.

12)38.4256(3.20213
36
24
24

25
24

16
12

40
36
4

figurein the dividend,

Here, after the 6, the last decimal

is
to

brought down, it goes 2

this attach a cypher and

thought

necessary.

Note

times

and

let it go

here

on

the remainder

again

before

stated,a decimal

repeater and
over

When
less than

is

the
the

the

figurethat

and

number
number

quotient

of decimal
of decimal

is

as

4,

it is

figure,

over,

and,

repeats is called

expressed by placing a dot

3 in the

far

the last decimal

that

3, of the quotient, will keep repeating over

as

as

is

it.

over

placed

figuresin

fore,
There-

dot, thus,

figures in the
the

divisor

3.
is

dividend,

DECIMAL

divide

without
the

decimal
the

the

of

of

of the

decimals

figures in the

number

That

notice

taking

number

in

decimals

after

and

three

of the

divisor

the

and

decimal

from

places

decimal

three

in

the

the

decimal

two

mark

off in the

153.4036

figure in
dividend,

decimal

figures of

would

be

be

quotient.

the

one

the

will

decimal

one

tract
sub-

from

remainder

figures in

subtract

the

Divide

Example.

divisor

off

was

remainder
to

the

mark

to

would

dividing we

decimals; then

dividend; the

is, if,for instance, there

divisor

115

FRACTIONS

the

figure

the

dend,
divi-

number

of

quotient.
.4.

by

.4)153.4036
383.509

four

decimal

When

given
places
decimal

those

divisor

figures
will

dividend.

decimal

places

in the

in number

So

with

dividend.

quotient
to

the

and

is, the

number

divisor
of

the dividend.
Example.

Divide

182.6025

by

.25.

.25)182.6025(730.41
175
76
75
102
100
25
25

1 from

quotient,
of

places

number

That

and

answer.

in the

decimal
the

say,

number

sufficient
the

divisor

we

in the

places

together equal

given

equal

place in the

off 3 decimals

off the

the

in

in the

right to left

off from
that

decimal

mark

marking

mark

be

one

places

3, then

4 leaves

so

is

there

Here

figures
in

the

of decimal
number

of

together must
decimal
places in

116

Here

HAND

have

we

decimal

two

the

in

four

places

have

number

same

places in

the

FOR

decimal

in the

quotient, from

then

We

BOOK

places

the

of

decimal

in the

dividend

divisor; therefore, we

right

in

MECHANICS

and

quotient

places

divisor

off

places.

together

there

as

mark

decimal

left, two

to

and

the

decimal

are

dividend.

Example.

Divide

136.875

by

37.5.

37.5)136.875(3.65
1125
2437
2250

1875
1875

Example.

Divide

136.875

by

3.75.

3.75)136.875(36.5
1125
2437
2250
1875
1875
It will sometimes
in the

quotient

number

of

prefix
the

that

happen
and

decimals

together

in

dividend.

the

to

supply

of
the

of decimals

number

divisor

sufficient number

quotient

the

will

cyphers

deficit,as

not

such

In
to

equal

the

the

case,

figures in

shown

in the

lowing
fol-

cypher

before

the

example.
Divide

.525

7.5.

by

7.5).525(.07
525
In

the

above

example

we

which

removes

quotient figure 7,

place

it to

the

place

of hun-

DECIMAL

and

dredths

then

makes

FRACTIONS

117

decimal

places of the divisor

the

quotient together equal

and

the

to

decimal

three

places

dividend.

of the

Divide

Example.

.75.

by

.0123825

.75).0123825(.01651
75
488
450

382
375
75
Here

quotient
that

so

the

divided

we

four

the

decimal

decimal

decimal

places

places

of decimal

of the

places of the

as

dividend
decimals

of the

divisor.

by attaching cyphers
and

dividend

Then

leave

in

as

If there is

it and

figure of

the

quotient ;

cypher; again divide

on,

far

as

as

Then

Divide

equalize the

leave

this

that

of

for the

second

be

divisor

divide
whole

a
a

cypher

first decimal

again

decimal

of

of decimals.

the

remainder

the

decimals

the

this,attach

give

dend,
divi-

number

quotient will
will

the

to

the

number

after

more

attach

figure,and

a
so

it is thought necessary.

Example.
First

remainder

again divide;

decimals

to

so

are

in the

are

is, equalize the

same

the

with

number

points altogetherand

decimal

the

the

dividend,

the

simple division,and

number.
to

to the

there

there

to

the

equal

When

equal

That

will contain
out

will

than

them

in the

quotient together

dividend.

make

have

prefixed a cypher

we

divisor

cyphers

many

will

as

of the

divisor

figuresin the
annex

to which

figures,1651,

and

numbers

in whole

as

out

the

2.2

by

decimal
decimal

.550.

figures,thus,
points, and

2.200

divide

by
thus:

.550.

118

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

Ans.

550)2200(4
2200

Ans.

Divide

Example.

equalize the

First
dividend

by

divide

as

decimal

in

simple

places

leave

numbers.

.00025.

cyphers

annexing

by .00025;

1562.50000

by

1562.5

4 whole

to

the

out

of

the

the

divisor

and

dividend, thus,

decimal

points

and

division.

00025)156250000(6250000

Ans.

150
62
50
125
125

Divide

Example.

Equalize

by

147.24

147.24000

.84625.

.84625.

by

84625)14724000(173.99,

etc.

84625
626150
592375
337750
253875
838750
761625
771250
761625

Referring
goes
3

into

the above

example

dividend

once,

the

times, and

down,

to

these
attach

as

173
a

there
are

are

whole

cypher

to

no

we

then
more

numbers.
the

that the

see

divisor

times, and

figures left
To

remainder,

find

then

to

bring

the

mals,
deci-

83875, and

it

DECIMAL

goes

9 times.

This

is

decimal

point); to

another

cypher
former

after the

if

put in the quotient as

the

and

to

necessary

decimals

carry

six

than

72.348

Divide

468.6520

Divide

144.12

Divide

33.9316

Divide

176.24

Divide

983.

Divide

1562.5

by

.0025.

Divide

2944.8

by

.21312.

Ans.

13817.567,

Divide

144.144

12.12.

Ans.

11.8939,

Divide

147.24

.84625.

Ans.

173.99,

Divide

87916.05

Divide

2.28125

by

Divide

.228125

by

by
by
by

by

Ans.

2.069.

.6725.

Ans.

262.0669.

Ans.

thing
or

degree.

and

with

fourth,
the

rule

the

which

third

second.

In

.0365.

62.5.

Ans.

.00365.

proportion
three

which

to three

as

is to
the

according
we

are

given

finding the

are

enabled
numbers.

one

quantitiesgiven,

three

bear

first
to

of

relation

size, quantity, capacity,

to

there

etc.

THREE

OF

given quantitieswe

quantity

Then,

by

RULE

of

process

quantity

etc.

Ans.

THE

etc.

etc.

62.5.

another, in respect

to

625000.

99904.6022,

OR

is the

Ans.

.88.

PROPORTION,

Proportion

148.93.

Ans.

by

usually

not

12.01.

16.4.

by

as

93.7304.

Ans.

6.6.

far

as

12.058.

Ans.

12.

by

by

Ans.
5.

mainder,
re-

Exercise

foe

6.

the

places.

Divide

by

this

to

continue

stated, it is

more

Examples

cypher

and

before

as

attach

Put

again.

another

necessary,

please. However,

you

9 times

attach

one,

(note the

.9

remainder, 77125,

next

it goes

thought

119

FRACTIONS

the

same

quantity

are

find

to

relation
bears

to

theory, proportion
to

find

That

the

fourth

is,a fourth

to

the

is the
tional
propor-

number

120

HAND

will bear

which
number

problems

the

ratio

in

between

times

like

two

so

contains

quantity

from

arising

the

the

is called

the

is the
A

is when

be

may
the

and

example,

either

direct

the

first term

ratio

is when

the

by

the

the

the

first.

Then

inverse

ratio

there

ratio

three

are

ratio to the

third
is

The

sign

reads

And

the

same

form

to

last the

is the
one

have

to

quotient
another.

ratio, the first

consequent.
antecedent

8 is the

the

sign

by

and

by

us

given
the

second; and

is divided

to

by

is divided
is 8

the

is to the

dots, thus

two

number

fourth
will be

that

first term

usually expressed by
"is

the

8.

-~-

find

to

ratio

consequent,

term

of

ratio

direct

the

second

4 is 4

numbers
that

inverse.

or

usually expressed by
is

when

of 8 to

term

proportion

Then

many

times

is the

of

tion
rela-

how

to

by

consequent

direct

enables

Proportion, then,

similar

is, the

number

is divided

is, when

two

many

ratio

is divided

antecedent, that

when

rule

it is necessary

the

the

and

the

other, and

how

out

is 2.

antecedent

is,when
inverse

an

the

one

required

above

respect

working

consequent.

ratio

that

of

to

antecedent

in the

Then,

in

Then

division

numbers

two

between

ratio,because

or

size; that

or

third

second.

proportion

expresses

another.

Thus, the ratio of 8

Of

less in

times

many

to form

numbers

or

things,

quotient, which

as

same

more

quantity

to

makes

one

the

relation

the

to

to

of
the

means

ratio

or

bears

is used
process

respect

MECHANICS

relation

first number

by

three, and

FOR

same

"ratio"

term

things

the

the

as

The

two

BOOK

four

same

second.

(:),and

dots, thus

(::).

to."

reads

"as."

performing examples

thus:
3:6::6:

12

in

proportion,

write

122

HAND

Example.

BOOK

FOR

8: 14:: 5: what
Thus:

MECHANICS

Arts.

8:14::5:8|
14

20
5

8)70(8|
64

J5

3_
~

Example.

10

Thus:

20

:20

10

::

12
12

::

what

24

20

10)240
Ans.

24

Example.

20

10

::

Thus:

24

20:

what

10:: 24:

12

10

Ans.

20)240(12
20

40
40
It

is

given,

as

find

to

by multiplying

all

the

there

cases

before, and

stated
are

we

in

seen

now

with

second

the
And

fourth.
term

by

three

are

three
we

the

quantities

given

have

tities
quan-

that

seen

fourth

term, and

dividing the product by the first term, the quotient

in all cases,
the
two
Now,
required fourth term.
the

three

given

terms

of

that is, two

the

kind

same

denomination
terms

of

of

the

thing,

be

of

will

terms

and

the

the

always

two

first

proportion, and

the

other

represent
of

terms

the

always

of

tions;
denomina-

same

be

will

the

will

is

and

like

second

given

term

will have
and

the

will

know

To

of

If the

is to

the

be

is to

greater of the like

if the

but

of the

will 8

men

and

the

is to

men

second
be

portion.
pro-

the

ond
sec-

the

term,

of the

term

smaller

than

the

be the second

must

of

different

denomination

unlike

proportion,

time?

denomination,

same

term

one

week, how

per

length of

of the

and
The

$10

earn

same

terms

men,

of the

can

in the

two

are

$10.
term

which

the third

of the like terms

earn

men

there

third

be

must
answer

If four

Here
4

the

in

term

answer,

proportion.

Example.
much

third

greater than

terms

third term, the smaller

term

required

first and

the

be

the

proportion:

answer

proportion,

the

123

THREE

OF

as

be

always

which

term

RULE

denomination

same

this term

THE

OR

PROPORTION,

the

$10

being
be

must

nominat
de-

the

the

third

term.

find the second

To
4

term

will 8

"

men

earn

than

more

men?
Yes.

the

Then

the

first term.

second

8 is the

The

term, consequently 4 is

proportion, therefore, is
4: 8:: 10:

Ans.

4)80
20

If

it take

man

him

must

of dollars

Then,

as

the

be

the

second

first term
:

the

than

more

17

be

will

days
be

days

many

will

$170?

earn

must

answer

$17 in 7 days, how

earn

to

the

Here

dollars

can

Ans.

dollars.

170

that,
term

of the
::

third

the

term,

the

and

larger

the

as

the

number

smaller

proportion.
answer.

and

number

of

124

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

17: 170::
7

17)1190(70 days
119
Arts. 70

Example.

long

If

will it take
the

Here

longer

to

the

proportion

term

is $2.50.

can

him

third

earn

man

to

is 1

$170

than

must

be

Then:

2.50:

day,

one

how

$170?

earn

term

in

$2.50

earn

days.

day,

$2.50

and

(2.50), the second

$170, and

170.00::

it will take

as

the

of

term

the

consequently

1:

him

first

answer.

Arts.

days.

250)17000(68
1500

2000
2000

Example.

long will
Here

If

sails 26

ship

her to sail

it take

the 4 hours

650,

will be the

must

be

more

than

must

be

the

second

at the

in

the

hours,
of

smaller

how

sailing?

the

as

number

larger

and

4
rate

same

term, and

third

that, the
term

knots

answer

of
number

knots
the

first term.
Then

26: 650::

as

4: the

answer.

hours.

26)2600(100

Ans.

26
00
or

days, 4 hours,

Example.
in

18

do

it?

If 8

of 24
can

men

working days,

how

hours
do

per
a

day.

certain

long should

of work

amount

it take

12

men

to

OR

PROPORTION,
It is

that

plainlyseen
the

accomplish
less number,

8,

RULE

THE

work

than

must

be

OF

it will take

12

it would

8 men,

the second

less time

men

to

therefore,the
Then

term.

12: 8:: 18: the

125

THREE

answer.

12)144

buy

less to

manifestly take

It will

the

yards

of

cloth,how

will 8 yards cost?

much

to

$3 for twelve

If I pay

Example.

Ans.

days.

12

10

yards, therefore, 8

proportion.

buy

be

must

it takes

yards than

second

the

of

term

Then

the

12: 8:: 3.00:

answer.

12)2400

Examples
1.
wages
2.

If

12

of 3

men

3.

$465
4.

cords
5.

days,
amount
6.

work

for the

men

If 6 paces

the length of
If

my

taken

Ans.

If 72

cut

If 10
how

men
men

Exercise

is 240

$12

cords
Ans.

cut?
do

can

long

will

men

in 50

days, but

engage

will it take the rest to

Ans.
how

200

yards.

long

will

271J days.

or

of wood

certain

71y
to

is

yards, what

week,

per

the

$24.

paces?

be

per

day,

how

many

6 J cords.

it take

Ans.

If 10

would

Ans.

equals

man

38f weeks,
96

Ans.

week, what
time?

are

men

of work?

for

same

by

expenses

dollars.

per

plank that

last me?

will 5

$96

earn

2.00

of work

amount

for

to

men

do

the

in 50
same

days.

complete

3 of them

are

complete the

certain

taken
work?

amount

sick, how
Ans.

of

long

71y days.

126

HAND

7.

If

days

of

If

house

of

days

will

hours

per

Ans.

8 hours
if

is

how

work

matter

future

work

are

togethertwo
require two
by

the
In

or
or

process

compound

elements

to

instance.
an

be
We

work

12

work

in

hours

14

will

days

many

in 90

per

Ans.

days by working
them

of the

sense

to

solve

them,

and
and

examples

taken

be

must

it

days.

60

and

build

to

examples thoroughly

the

it will

in order
that

fully.
care-

to

this

plify
sim-

chapter

understood.

Proportion

is the

anything

elements, and
we

they

day?

per

care

compound

more

how

will it take

Compound

or

if

house

these

over

simple

To

many

work

they
of

amount

day,

per

long

hours

12

thoroughly

it if

certain

how

day,

per

complete
certain

build

Understand
be

days.

day,

Go

Note.

many

8 hours

days by

14

hours

10

the

can

they work

in

hours

do

men

per

built

how

work

they

certain

11" days.

12

to
21

If 8

10.

it if

to

do

can

men

Ans.

day?

be

them

day?

them

day,

build

working

men

days by working
it take

days by

14

hours

12

to

can

it take

If 6

in

days.

21

number

9.

them

MECHANICS

built

working

men,

Ans.

FOR

be

can

will it take

day?
8.

house

number

BOOK

by

enabled

to

portion
pro-

that

perform

if

would

performed

simple proportion.

proportion there
considered,
will

element.

compound

(compounding)

operations

more

of

process

perform questions by putting

elements

more

of

to

the

putting together two

as

call each
In

are

men,

always

dollars, and

denomination,

arranging

two

numbers

for
in

or

more

days,

for

ience,
conven-

the

pro-

portion, the

third

the

(the

answer

Only

below)/
at

be

must

men

can

earn

in 6

the

Now

be

can

or

different

earned
of

is the

elements

by

certain

in

given

the third
take

take

and

men

depended
$128, how
24

24

can

men

of

of the

dollars

and

as

is like the

of

the

know

we

can

number,
is

answer

128

as

if 8

if the
men

be

the

answer

can

earn

More.

fore,
There8 is the

and

proportion
to

First

question.

earn?

men

of the

term

men

Therefore, dollars

proportion
24

can

of

that

certain

above, that

only, saying,

second

is the

number

which

days.

proportion.

the

men

upon

in

men

days.

elements

arrange

of

stated

as

and

of dollars

number

certain

question

other

many

first term,

much

number

number

term

the

the

term, because,

element, of the

Now

answer

instance, if

dollars,men,

are

find

days, knowing

third

made

this element

days?

$128

earn

shown

considered

if the

as

For

how

days,

in

like

always

be

quantities
alone.

16

is

fully

must

element

question is, to

number

elements

127

THREE

more

proportion

in

$128

is

the

in

this

earn

this

different

the

upon

the

Here

of the

OF

proportion

for

reason

arranged

depended

RULE

of the

term

one

and

time

THE

OR

PROPORTION,

third

term

we

have:
8:24::
Now

take

days,

and

the

in the

of this element

saying, if $128
be

earned

16

days, consequently
in

in 6

earned
Less

days?

arranging

this

in 16

days,

will be

earned

is the

element.

different

depended

answer

second

is

question, which

proportion, the

if the

as

be

can

in the

element

next

arrange

128

term

how

on

tities
quan-

it

only,

many

in 6
of the

than

can

in

tion
propor-

Thus:

16:6::

Now

arrange

the

different elements

as

follows, placing

128

first and

the

first and

BOOK

HAXD

second

second

of the

16:

find

third

by

multiplying

that

is,8

16, and

the

Thus:

$144

answer

the

of

the

24

product
128

continued

the

under

6::

continued

product by

the

other.

the

terms

element

each

$128: the

8: 24::

Now

of

term

term

MECHANICS

FOR

product

quotient

and

of the

is the

and

second

divide

first terms,

required

answer.

Then:

If 4

Example.

days, how

horses

of

bushels

will last 16 horses

bushels

many

21

eat

grain

in

12

days?

24

4: 16::
12:

16

24

24::

the

third

the

as

16

will eat
and

term

only

the

in 12

days,

days.

before,

we

the

more

the

the

on

larger than
24

bushels,

larger than

than

4 horses.

first term,

divide-

the
the

of

and

days,

because, if

greater number

Hence,

Ans.

bushels

21

depended only

be

number

answer,

the

make

we

answer

horses, it would

horses

second

If

term.

of

number

is in

answer

bushels.

168

As

bushels

48

12

4 X

168

answer

8064

21

21:

21

product

if the

term,

16

is the

bushels
will be

two

pended
de-

answer

it would

ratio, 12:24.
of the

third

Then

of bushels

second

the

the

on

also
are

be

eaten

eaten

Then,

second

terms

in
as

130

in

Then,

HAND

BOOK

short, the

First.

Make

Second.

that

the

Then

if

less than

Third.

Then

denomination

depended

the

only,
the

third

term

quotient

Examples
1.

If 15

hours

15

the

men

if

house

how

day.

per

15 X

long

work

they

15

2.

much

If 30

horses

in 60

will

it take
per

15:: 60

10:

15::

hay

will 15

of like
answer

used.

are

second

terms,

of the

first

answer.

days by working
20

day

men

to

build

13500
"

10

200
12

eat

all

or

ingly.
accord-

if the

as

product

house

20

greater

Exeecise

20:

60

the

numbers

of the

required

hours

10

be

until

on

the

by

numbers

numbers

before,

product

foe

build

can

other

so

answer

whether

would

of the

and

the

remaining

the

is the

proportion:

consider

as

working

term.

arrange

them

divide

the

third

of the

two

any

when

is like

alone,

and

them

multiplied by
and

the

them

arrange

Then

compound

and

term,

and

of

two

any

on

take

upon

Fourth.

terms,

take

third

followed

which

always

depending

the

be

number

denomination

same

answer,

to

MECHANICS

process

denomination)

(same

of

rule

the

proportion by

out

FOR

horses

of

tons
eat

in 8

30: 15::

62"

hay

in 3

yS'

months,

how

months?

12

3:8
15

8 X

12

1440
16 tons.

30
3.
men

If
earn

10

men

earn

in 4 days?

90
S120

in

Ans.

S48.

days,

how

much

will

If 15

4.
acres

men

27

can

If 20

5.

how

the

will be

interest

If it takes

will it take

$300

boys

and

acres.

in

weeks,

12

in

earn

men

If

9 hours

How

10.

walks

each

if he

miles

walking

9 hours

walk

207H

in 35

if

days

miles.

will it take

to

man

in 30

miles

200

days by

34T469odays.

Ans.

day?

per

days

days by walking

30

will he walk

of 8 hours

can

14

in

$160.8.

Ans.

day?

days

many

207

walk

Ans.

miles

many

long

$10, how

earn

in

$40.

8 months.

men

miles

200

how

day,

8 hours

walks

12

can

$67 in 10 days?

man

per

Ans.

$40?

dollars

earn
a

make

Arts.

make

to

what

months,

12

for 8 months?

months

12

for

is $10

$1200

on

to

many

can

men

if he

earn

$200

on

$200

$1200

How

9.

can

men

will 20

interest

If the

8.

Arts. 486

many-

Arts. $75.

weeks?

7.

15

dollars

many

6.

and

weeks, how

in 8

acres

131

THREE

OF

in 6 weeks?

plow

men

boys

360

plow

can

RULE

THE

OR

PROPORTION,

INTEREST

order

In

of this

John
William

pays

interest

paying
and
or

the

paid

sum

of

the

is called

the
is

money

head
names

meanings.
the

payment,

one

or

the

the

base,

principal, or
the

interest,
for

charged

specific rate
called

be

him.

of it is called

use

and

year,

$105, he would

time

lent

money

for the

and

the

know

for

$100

of that

end

is lent

percentage,

use

William

the

on

which

That

the

at

their

the

of money.

use

from

hires

and

generally understood

for the

paid

sum

If

is

interest

to

necessary

used,

different terms

By
the

it will be

chapter,

of the

under

perform examples coming

to

rate

cent

per

the

("per

centum").

Percentage
Latin

words

and

per

per
and

cent

centum,

are

both

which

derived
means

by

from
the

the

hun-

132

dred

HAND

hundredths.

or

hundredths

of the

article is

is 3 per

if

five

means

one-

twelve

means

one-

for $100

and

$3 is three

sold

for

$103,

one-hundredths

is used

sign %

the

percentage

per

cent

how

the

rate

percentage

The

are

Examples

with

and

sold

The

when

principal

3 per

cent.

for

for

$97,

performing
shows

examples

when

the

third

set

is found

ations
oper-

how

principal and
of

set

the

Thus, 5%

examples

the

second

and

cent.

of

is obtained

cent

per

rules

first set

given,

the

words

means

is obtained

per
are

how

3%

examples

given.

are

percentage

for the

cent, and

5 per

for $100

bought

cent.

in interest.

shows

cent

bought

article is

an

Following are

cent

per

per

cent, because

the loss is 3 per

means

originalcost.

Again,
The

12

MECHANICS

(tVo).

Then, if an

gain

FOR

Thus,

(100) and

hundredths

the

BOOK

when

rate

shows

principal and
of

the

examples
and

rate

given.

Showing

the

how

Percentage

is

Obtained
Example.
Process.

What

is

Multiply

of $12?

3%
the

principal by

cent.

Thus:

$3.75

the

rate

per

133

INTEREST

What

Example.

is

of 400

8%

$400
.08

$32.00
Example.

is

What

of 126

7%

yards?

126
.07

yards

8.82

Examples

Exercise

for

1.

What

is

5%

of $350?

2.

What

is

7%

of $72?

3.

What

is

12%

4.

What

is

6%

of 60

yards?

5.

What

is

6%

of 36

inches?

6.

What

is

12%

7.

What

is

8%

8.

What

is

10%

Examples

Ans.
Ans.

of $100?

of 12

Obtained

the

Process.

Divide

extending

the

the

division

to

72
180
180

hours.

$100.

Rate

Per

Cent

is

and

Given

of $36

is $9?

percentage
hundredths.

36)9.0(0.25

1.44

$40.

are

cent

inches.

Principal

the

per

yards.

2.16

Ans.

Ans.

how

3.60

Ans.

Ans.

Percentage
What

$12.

Ans.

hours?

of $1000?

when

Example.

$5.04.

Ans.

of $500?

Showing

$17.50.

25%

by

the

Thus:

principal,

134
Example.

HAND

FOR

BOOK

What

cent

per

MECHANICS

of 21

21)11. 0(0. 52ft

miles

is 11?

Thus:

5228T%

105
50
42
_8_
2

Example.

What

of $50

cent

per

50)25.0(0.50

is $25?

50%

250
0

Example.

What

cent

per

of $100

100)45.0(0.45

is $45?

45%

Ans.

400

500
500

Example.

What

per

cent

of 350

bushels

Thus:

350)75.0(0.211

21f%

700

256

128

32

is 75 bushels?

135

INTEREST

What

Example.

of $105

cent

per

is $100?

Thus:

Ans.

105)100.0(0.94?%
945
550
420
30

105

Examples

Exercise

for

1.

What

per

cent

of $365.50

2.

What

per

cent

of $293

3.

What

per

cent

of $76

is 39?

Ans.

51T69%-

4.

What

per

cent

of 367

is 38?

Ans.

10Mt%

5.

What

per

cent

of 245

is 103?

6.

What

per

cent

of $5000

7.

What

per

cent

of 45

8.

What

per

cent

of $367.95

Showing

Examples
when

Rate

the

Example.

Divide

multiply

the

obtained

is the

is 67?

Ans.

Ans.

42?29%
Ans.

is $37?

Per

Cent

are

Given

and

of how

much

rate

per

Ans.

money?
cent

5)100
20

$75
20

$1500
Example.

12

is 40%

of what

Found,

Percentage

required answer.

Then

11|%.

lOyW^o-

is

into

percentage by the quotient,and

Thus

10%.
Ans.

Principal

the

94fff%,

22ff|%.

is 5 tons?

tons

the

Ans.

is $500?

how

$75 is 5%

Process.

is 346?

Ans.

number?

the

100

and

product

136

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

40)100(2^
80
20

40

Then

"

12
z2

Ans.

333?

Examples
1.

$2780

2.

$372

3.

79

is
is

of how

25%

of how

6%

yards

is

much?

much

Ans.

$11,120.
Ans.

money?

how

of

7%

Exercise

for

Ans.

yards?

many

$6,200.

1.128f

yards.
4.

is

bushels

32

of

7%

how

bushels?

many

Ans.

457} bushels.
is

5%

of what

Ans.

number?

560.

5.

28

6.

100

7.

What

number

is 100

10%

of?

Ans.

1000.

8.

What

number

is 250

16%

of?

Ans.

1562J.

9.

12

how

many

inches.

is

10%o of what

inches

is

6%

Ans.

number?

of

1000.

inches?

Ans.

200

138

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

12
12
144

square

12

1728

cube

12

fourth

20736

power

12

248832

fifth power

12

sixth power

2985984

EVOLUTION

Evolution
any

is the
of

power

of

process

number

is

finding the

given,

and

"root"

is the

when
of

reverse

Involution.

There

only

are

the

findingthe

two

finding the
cube

where

cases

the

find
two

the

equal

Example.

of

root

square

quence:
conse-

number

and

root.

Square
To

this is of much

of

square

root

factors

which

Find

the

Root
a

number

produce

square

root

is to

find

one

of

it.
of 589824.

58,98,24(768

Thus:

Ans.

49

146)998
876

1528)12224
12224

Process.

Mark

left,beginning,as

the
we

figures off

did

in

in the above

two,

from

example,

right to
with

the

139

EVOLUTION

last

figure,4;

shown,

are

figures;then

more

that

small, and

8 X

one

that

small

is too

the

next

multiply the
divisor

and

after the

and

into

14

in the

subtract

and

get the

next

in

152

the

the

99

quotient

To

into

and

also

the

product

next

the

take

Find

square

and

and

bring
divisor,
in the

14

of

the

6 in

the

998;
To

figures,24.
2

152,

and

in

the

how

see

the

after

divisor

by 8, and

1528

the

eight times, place

12224, then

the

the

quotient,

divisor,by

by

divisor

the
the

76

is

49

get the

two

is

1222, which

now

under

Example.

We

after the

in the

the

after

quotient

2; multiply

is

times, place the

divisor, multiply 76

the

7 X

14, place the

goes

find

There

58.

place the product, 876, under

bring down

goes

figure, or

58, subtract

now

for

as
on

so

58, and

case

it in the

place

quotient 7 by

quotient and

often

the

large.

figures, 98.

two

say

is too

64

divisor;multiply the 146,

the

this

exactly,

so

second,

figure,and

take

dot, in

49, under

its square,

down

do

will

too

place

the

multiplied by itself will give

number

number

no

the

mark

left of the last

the

figures,to

and

more

no

mark

figuresand

two

two

count

till there

what

count

place

subtract.
of 835.

root

8,35(21.58

Thus:

Arts.

41)435
41

425) 2500
2125
37500

4308)

34464

We
and

be

proceed
we

taken

see

as

before

it is not
to

two

or

till

we

get

to

perfect square;
three

places

of

the remainder, 25,

we

wish

the

root

decimals; there

to
are

140

figures

no

attach

proceed

two

attaching
be

carried

instead

of

to

Find
is

the

counting

preceding examples,
count

two

proceed

then

toward
as

from

begin

we

the

in the

left
other

right
at

and

remainder

this

way

places.

of 688.0625.

quantity.

two

In

of decimal
root

two

before, by

as

remainder.

square

decimal

to the

proceed

number

any

bring down

example;

and
the

to

MECHANICS

therefore

in first

as

cyphers

two

this

FOR

cyphers

more

Example.
Note

BOOK

bring down,

to

and

cyphers

it may

HAND

the

In

all such

to

left, as

decimal

toward

the

cases,

in

point

6,88.06,25(26.23

Arts.

46)288
276

522)

1206
1044

5243)

16225
15729

Example.

What

is the

square

root

of 17640.73205?

ThuS:

1,76,40.73,20,5(132.818
1

265628)

2235950
2125024

and

right;

Thus:

examples.

the

Arts.

we

141

EVOLUTION

in

Notice

bring down

this

figuresat

two

the

example

last

figure

time, therefore

Examples

is

5; always

bring down

Exercise

for

1.

Find

the

square

root

of

186624.

Arts.

432.

2.

Find

the

square

root

of 3998.64.

Ans.

63.234.

3.

Find

the square

root

of 49.434961.

4.

Find

the square

root

of 588.0625.

5.

Find

the square

root

of 7986.57246.

CUBE

find the

To

the three
of

cube

equal

extracting

number,
will

factors

from

which,

when

Example.

there

46

are

to

46,

or

the

Mark

off three

left.

Find

we

therefore

must

be

somewhat

take

produce

it.

89.367.

find

of

one

The

process

certain

specific

itself three

times,

figures from
number
2

cubed

64,

it

46,656(36

right,and
will

come

8, that is (2

than

Arrange

the

cubed

cubed

more

the 3.

of 46656.

root

what

27,

need

is to

cube

cubed

we

24.25.

Ans.

number

number

given

Now

which

less than.it.

8),

7.034.

number.

Extract

Process.

Ans.

multiplied by

equal the given

Ans.

ROOT

of

root

50.

so

3 but

as

the

number

less than

4,

follows:

Ans.

_27
96)2700)19656
576)
3276)19656
The
and
three

three

cubed

is

27; put the 27 underneath

subtract; the remainder

is 19.

figures (656); multiply

quotient by

3 and

now

Bring
the

put the product well

down

the

the next

figures
out

46

to

in

the

the
left.

142

it is 3 X

Here

shown;
and

the

place

BOOK

9.

multiply

next

and

placed,
in

HAND

FOR

MECHANICS

Put

this 9 well

this

result, 27,

always put

the

by
the

to

the

to

left,as

quotient figure 3,

right of

where

after the

cyphers

two

out

the

is

product,

as

example.
This

it will

often

that

close

into

go
had

we

the

after

called

is

2700

and

96; then

making
figure 6

together and
this

the

the

the

figure 9

divisor

by

the

shown;

as

the

the

3276, is the

how

this 6 in the

by

96

See

times, but

go

place under

sum,

product

divisor."

Put

6.

after

multiply

correct

place the

take

also

576, which

trial

19656; it will

better

"

the

on

tient
quo-

the

left,

quotient

new

2700; add

them

tiply
divisor;mul-

correct

quotient figure 6

subtract,

so

there

and

being

no

remainder.
The

cube

Find

Example.

is found

of 46656

root

the

cube

to

be

36.

of

root

146863664576.

Thus:

146,863,664,576(5276
Column

Column

125

7500

152

)21863

304
7804

1567

15608

811200

6255664

10969
5755183

822169
83318700

15816

500481576

500481576

94896
83413596
Mark

Process.
and

there

are

146

off in threes

them
to

the
be

left; 5, which

the

quotient,

is found

the

of 5 is 125; place the

cube

subtract, and

to

bring down

from

placed

less cube

next

125

the next

under

three

right to left,
of
the

in

the

146, and
146

figures.

and

CUBE

Multiply the

by

Multiply the

cyphers annexed

two

twice.

it goes

the

right of

15

together and
this

by

and

down

52 in the

the

the

quotient figure 2

third

together

and

of

of 2 is 2 X

right

of

the

on

304,

add

them

divisor";

tiply
mul-

put

difference,

304

add

sum

multiply the

answer,

this well

at the middle

numbers

15608, which

Place

figure in the quotient( which

square

"real

the

156.

their

to

with

figures,664.

figure

the

see

the

on

three

1). Look

will

you

is the

7804

by

152

divisor, 7500;

sum

quotient by

left (column
and

trial

subtract, and

find

this down

left;multiply

the

next

Put

the left.

to

quotient, also place it

the

6255, place the

To

75.

in the

the

on

out

7500, for the "first trial divisor;"

place under

which

the

the

Put

the

15; put this well

by

15

143

ROOT

column
and

the

is 2

out

to

(column

7804; add
of

2),

these

the

last

case) and

the

square

in this

the

4.

304
7804
4

8112

and

this

811200, is the
the

with

number,

7 in the

two

"trial

new

divisor;" it

quotient and
1567

now

multiply

trial

divisor; add them

divisor, and

is

by

cyphers annexed,

also
=

after

the

10969, and

together and

822169, which

goes

7 times.

find

quotient

the
527

fourth

put this under

the

is the

sum

multiplied by 7,

by

well to the left. Now

and

add

figure of the
=

1581, which
look

place

the

in

column

822169, and

1;
the

correct

and

the

on

the

Multiply

answer:

at the middle

together the 10969,

Put

in column

156

and
subtracted, leaves 500481,
product put down
right of which place the next three figures,576.
To

equals

column

the

1,

(column 2)
the square

144

of the
of

last

HAND

BOOK

figure in

the

FOR

MECHANICS

in this case,

quotient

the square

7, equals 49.
^
822169
49
833187
This

number

with

divisor;" it goes
after

also

the

by

the

by the

Put

6.

there

is

given

number

which

Find

the

this

15816

under

the

multiply the

and

and

quotient

place

down,

sum

subtract,

cube

Therefore, the

"

of the

root

is 5276.
of

method

perhaps,

cube

trial

new

multiply

500481576

product

is another

may,

6 in the

now

together

"

it is the

94896, which

them

the

1;

146863664576

Following
root

quotient

remainder.

no

the

Put

in column

1581

divisor; add

trial

times.

in the

C3'phersafter

two

considered

be

cube

the

extracting

simpler.

of 1728.

root

Arts.

1,728(12
I

(10)2

3 x
3 X

10

22

728

300)

60

728

364)
The
has

advantage

mastered

quotient,the
is the

process

for

twenty

as

the
rest

of the

same

number

of three

is at

sum

for any

first

the

number

his
of

the

when

figure

pupil
of

the

as

the

command,

figures,the

same

for two.

by

The

of

workings

Explaining

Process

is that

of this method

1728

figures as

how
the

was

Examples
Above

PERFORMEd

Method

first marked

before, and

are

off into

selectingthe

quantities

next

lowest

146

Examples

Find

the

cube

1.

16934.994432.

2.

134217728.

3.

80677568161.

4.

15069223.

root

for

of

the

Ans.
Ans.

512.

247.

Exercise

following
25.68.

Ans.
Ans.

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

HAND

4321.

numbers:

PART

ARITHMETICAL

SIGNS

EXPLANATION

II

AND

CHARACTERS

OF

FORMULA

AND

ARITHMETICAL

By

and

signs
enabled

sign

before

and

sign

The

sign
before

number
2

thus,
The

The

sign

-7-3

The

the

value
6

3
The

be

or

52

multiplied

called
=

reads

the

sign

the

125,

four

and

means

the

to

way.

number

signifying subtract,

2.

and

by,"
by

subtracted

leaves

"

be

the

the

means

number

after

it;

and

by,"

that

means

by the

number

the

after

it;

divided

that

means

the

by

and

by 3,

"equality,"
after

it

is the

number

thing

same

reads

by

equal

it;

that

of

or

thus

and

squared,

5.

to

means

the
6

same

9,

or

16.

itself; thus,
of

means

is

to," and

"equal

or

before

quantity
6

divided

be

to

and

also,

6.

square

54

is

by,"

is 2.

reads

3,

and

it is to
5

divided

be

it

quantity

as

4:

equals

sign

it; thus,

"divide

after

sign V

18

that

reads

it; thus,

The

after

"divide

it is to

number

before

brief

is 2.

"less,"

multiplied

reads

-f-

before

thus,

are

8.

"multiply

is

we

4.

are

sign

number

the

it

in

added

metical
arith-

same,

"more,"

be

to

number

reads

and

is

are

before

number

of

problems

"minus/'

the

that

the

from

reads

"

means

as

it

different

the

use

proper

"plus/'

after

it; thus,

The

the

reads

of

meaning

arithmetical

number

the

the

by

perform

to

The
that

of

knowledge

SIGNS

And

53
5

times.
149

reads,

is to

be

that

means

25;

then

cubed,

multiplied

is

25

to

is

5X5x5

by

itself

150

HAND

sign V

The
the

BOOK

reads

the

of

the

root

square

considered; thus, \/36

that

means

number

gives 36; thus,

of

root

"

number

which,

when

the

is

equal to
sign fy reads

The
cube

of the

root

thus, ^/216
number

reads

the

"cube

the

cube

Example.
what

is the

root"

when

number,

and

of 216

be

the

considered;

and

that

means

itself three

216, hence

that

means

it is to

multiplied by

as

The

sign

that

the

the cube

times,

is the

"

The

cube

within

7)

"

each

treated

that

3 is to

the

quantities

be

in

brackets, which
=

before

greater

number;

and

after

or

30. Ans.

between

means

it, is

thus,

of

root

be

to

3,

8.

"brackets."

Brackets

of

are

used

set

of brackets

the

it is meant

that

whole; thus

(12

is to

added

be

the

first set

be

to

are

of

all the

3)
12

to

"

together

put
"

tities
quan-

(12

"

16, and

13, hence

brackets, when

put

13.

the

now

cube

5 X

subtracted; therefore, 16

together, become

"

6, then

difference

are

as

that

means

Take

the

is

(), {},[].

thus:

brackets

first and

is

whether

called

is

shapes,

Where

question here

3.

sign ()

various

the

the

The

multiplied by
of 216

root

number,

from

is what?

of 5

reads

less

subtracted
and

^/216

product

216, and

15

is represented

root

of 216.

root

square

36.

root

gives 216; thus, 6X6x6

and

itself,

the

square

what

alongside

when

which,

reads

number

number

of

be

to

of 36

6 is called

sign

the

is

multiplied by

36, hence

it

root

square

that

means

alongside

the

thus, -\/36, which

squared,

root," and

square

Sometimes

36.

MECHANICS

reads

FOR

in the

treat

Here

between

quantities

we

have

same

as

the

way;
a

result

next

thus,
of

12

set
+

putting

of
=

the

ARITHMETICAL

quantities together
is

13

now

"

Sometimes,
is drawn

the

Thus,
of

3x2

6, and

of

signs.

is

to the

be

The

sum

vinculum

treated

that

means

added

of the

sum

be

is to
1

to

line called

which

3x2

+
24

brackets,

expression

6X4

by the

Arts.

5.

instead

over

whole.

directed

as

151

SIGNS

the

the

duct
pro-

product

of

is to be added

1.

to

products

as

Thus:
24

_1
Ans.

31

in

Thus,

the

equivalent

above

(6

to

sign

"."

reads

The

sign

.-.

reads

The

sign

"

The

The

than

the

2)

that

the

number

number

which

reads,

"hence."

or

number

which

that

which

follows

the

follows

is before

it.

number

before

it is

it.

stands, for

or

is

"since."

or

"therefore,"

3x2

+
1.

because,"

indicates

6x4

the

words

"is

not

to."

equal
The

sign

"

stands

The

sign

"

stands

Examples

on

The

addition

placed

before

"added"
that

"

the

"

sign

(3

indicates

sign

less than

to

9 is to

is to be
in

4)

The

it is greater

example,

what

right.

words

for the

number
has

of

to

3 and

order

it
gone

to

of

"is

before.

2 added

less than."

greater than."

not

that

Thus,
+

Sign

notice, because

indicates

not

Addition

the

little

3, and

then

"is

words

Use

the

added

be

addition, the

left to

the

sign requires
a

added

for

to the

when

it

is

means

result.

performing operations

to

be

means

that

Thus,
is from

152

HAND

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

Examples

Exercise

for

What

is the

sum

of 2 +

What

is the

sum

of 15

What

is the

sum

of 7 +

8?

Arts. 30.

What

is the

sum

of 8

3 +

1?

Arts.

What

is the

sum

of 6 +

3 +

Examples
This

from
that

2 is to

that

Then

subtracted

be
from

in

from

left to

is the

What

is the

result

of 19

What

is the

result

of 16

What

is the

result

of 100

What

is the result of 300

Examples

result

of 25

Performed
Minus

when

be

it is to
4

"

"

"

then

16

when

means

means

is to

"

tracted
sub-

be

12, and

3
2

10?

Ans.

7.

Ans.

Ans.

25?
100

0.
25.

100?

Ans.

Addition

the

50.

and

Involved

are

of

first term
+

18.

50

Ans.

8?

50

4?

tions
opera-

Exercise

performing

in addition.

was

where

Signs

the

it the

it

for

What

sign before

and

of

order

right,as

Examples

Note

16

Thus,

subtraction, the

is from

Sign

Thus,

16

result.

21.

Ans.

9.

the

that

4, and

from

Ans.

also, because

before.

gone

be subtracted

is to

subtracted

has

what

14.

Minus

it indicates

number

19.

7?

the

notice

sign requires little

placed before

12

of

17.

Arts.

1?

Use

the

on

Arts.

9?

6 +

(plus) sign

quantity

any

is

always

has

no

understood

to

be there.
Example.
Here

we

What
add

sign actually

is the

together
before

sum

all those
them

as

of

12

which

terms

+4

have

7, and

the

4.

the

term

154

Note
the

"

HAND

BOOK

that

the

sign

before

after

the

FOR

of

answers

"

do

1.

the

because

signs are

the

2.

-4

3.

5-17

4.

25-6-2

5.

10

25

Examples

"

is

4)

"

each

7.

Ans.

15

problem
bracket

to

14.

(5

()

Used

are

6) +8-

(9-3)

what?

each

brackets

set

of

proceed

together so

Then

deal

to

first by putting

brackets

single number.

we

24.

Brackets

rid of all the

within

23.

14.

Ans.

6-

tities
quan-

7.

17.

Ans.

17.

Ans.

how

equal

become

they

above

Get

quantities

that

Ans.

-3

Process.

the

2.

Showing

Example.

(14

8-2

2.

of the

sum

to?

3-7-8

the

have

examples

Exercise

for

9-3

above

larger.

followingcome

12-2

"

both

them,

Examples
What

MECHANICS

with

solve

to

the

the

inside

terms

first.

Thus

(5

6)

11

(9

3)

(14

4)

Hence
-

(5

all the

6)

(9

3)

(14

4)

Becomes
-3

Add

now

together,

subtract

result is the

the

6-11+8-6

signs together and

larger

requiredanswer.

from

the

all the

smaller

"

and

signs
the

ARITHMETICAL

Thus

+4
6

_6

24

20

Ans.

7-8+6-

7) is equal

_6

"

11

20

Example.

155

SIGNS

(5-6

(9 -3

3) +9+

+ 2

what?

to

Thus
7-8

(5-6

6-

3) +9+

(9-3

2-6

7)

Equals
7-8+6-2+9+9

Adding

all the

Adding

all the

+
"

signs together we

get 31

signs together we

get 10

Thus

When

Note.

within

the

the

10

sign

no

and

the bracket

31

the

is between

is to

be

quantity outside
the

quantity

multiplied by the

quantity

bracket, it

bracket

Ans.

21

that

means

outside.
Example.

the

within

multiply

it

by
3

(4

Hence

(4-2

Equals

minus

ones

is

6 is

3, having

brackets

to

no

after

that

means

to

what?

sign

between

equal

reducing

single

number

the
we

3.

Thus

Adding

3)

bracket, which

the

numbers

the brackets

outside

Here
it and

3(4

3)

3)

-2

15-2

all the

multipliedby
+

15

plus quantities together,

separately, we

get,

21

"

19

and
Ans.

all the

156

HAND

Example.
to

BOOK

(3

MECHANICS

FOR

4)

4) +2

(3

2) is equal

what?

'4 (3

Thus

2-6

Becomes

6-

2)

3x4+7x2

Which

is

added

Which

(3

12

14

is:

together

12
14

Examples
The

12

7). Arts.
4

(3

3.

(3

4.

(4

2).

(9

for

Exercise

4)

6 +

Ans.

6 +

4)

4)

3)
2

(3

(3

3)

on

the

second.

multiplied by 6;

to

be

mean

by

also

12

the

sign

is

in

line with

6 and

Because

2).

Ans.

(7

5)

Use

26.
2

(7

placed

same

the

thing, namely,
result

of the

by

the

is to

the
12

that

12

12

is to
12

is

multiplied by

3.

bottom
X

tiplied
mul-

that

means

result

two

be

that

means

replaced by

multiplied. Thus,

be

of

placed between
6

the

and

the

Ans.

11.
-

is

to

Sign

12

multiplied by
is

(6

2).

first number

Thus,

be

which

the

that

indicate

to

Sometimes

Proper

the

multiplication sign, X,
by

Ans.

6.

(4

Multiplication

numbers

5)

9.

Examples

The

(7

12.

2.

5.

Arts.

what?

followingequals

1.

26

is to

point
of the

3, and
be

or

dot

tities
quan-

12.6.3,

multiplied

3.

improper

use

of

the

multiplicationsign

ARITHMETICAL

it

instance, in
would
4

be

would

Now

add

be

the

to

7 and

this

would

take

the

by

and

Thug

7 +

Becomes

Equals

15

then

we

first
to

the

step
result

Arts.

shown.

is

the

first

step

involved, is

to

to

get

is, always get rid

That

brackets

used,

are

get rid of all brackets

would

of the

Example.

equal to

2x4

above, that

the

manner

we

case,

dispose

first,and

multiplicationsigns.

4-3X2

6X4-2X3

8X2

4-3X2

6X4-2X3

8X2

is

what?

Thus
Becomes

4-6

put the
and

What
24

Process.

have

44

What

Example.

Get

24-6

together

terms

we

Examples.

of the

The

wrong.

multiplicationsign first,unless

which

Now

be

multiplication sign

rid of it in the

then

7 +

For

9, which, multiplied by

are

signs.

7.

when

of the

follows

as

the

multiply

learn, then, from

We

in

say

to

other

of the

any

such

quantity

apt

36.

than

trouble

more

causes

157

SIGNS

does

the

is the

(32

12

"

in addition

as

rid of all the

multiplicationsigns.

traction,
sub-

following equal?

followingequal

15)

and

Arts.

32

16

(9

brackets

to?

5)
and

then

get rid

158

The
24

example,

Now
17

FOR

(32

The

4.

of

dispose

BOOK

24

3 X

17%+

"

24

HAND

MECHANICS

15)

3 X

brackets

the

(9
here

are

5), becomes

of.

disposed

multiplication sign

and

have

we

12.

Proceed

now

in addition

as

and

subtraction.

24
12
36

17

Examples
the

Find

1.

6 +

2.

54

3.

24

4.

-3

5.

4-3X2

(9

(64

(32

3)

15)

3 X

(45

(18

(9

2X6X2-3

Use

Ans.

of

Division

the

2X(7-2)-4-8-h(3

5 +

46.

Ans.

8X2.

the

19.

4X6.

6X4-2X3

on

Ans.

5).

41.

"

Arts. 97.

5).

Arts.

41).

32.

Sign

5) equals

number?

Process.

get rid

of

proceed

as

Example.
Brackets

get rid of all the brackets; secondly,

First
the

multiplication

in addition
5 +

and

signs,

2)

-r-

(3

division

signs

done

10-4-1.
5 +

+
-4

10
1

+15
-

_5
10

Example.

32

then

5).

2X5-4-8^8.

and

division

and

subtraction.

(7

left out, 5

Multiplication
5 +

+
+

Examples

what

following:

29)

Example.

Exercise

for

of the

value

Arts.

19

2.

Ans.

away

with.

'

ARITHMETICAL

159

SIGNS

4)32

Thus

2)8
Ans.

32-4

Example.

2.

4)32

Thus

_2
Ans.

10

What

Example.

is 24

6 +

equal

"

to?

6)24

Thus

4
4

8-2

Example.

(3

does

What
+

5)

Thus

Example.

the

Ans.

2)

5 +

8X6-2X4-4-5
+

48

10

58

amounts

division

is

51

to

Ans.

what?

Ans.

10

10

+
-

8^-2

to?

followingamount

(2

2X4"2

Sometimes

represented thus:
4

6-4

where
between

is

quantity

one

them.

When

top quantity is

quantity.
be divided

That

by

to

be

is,in

the 6

"

placed above another

thus represented the

divided
the
4.

by

above

the

value

with
value

line

of the

of the bottom

example the

2 is to

160

Thus

Example.

And

Then

6-2

4 X

3X6

6 is

And

Thus

29

Such

examples
the

that

Note

level of the

will be

20

(6

4)

(16

is

fraction

whole

12

Thus:

in this

(6

4)

(16

become

to

Thus
Becomes

tion
fracthe

example

3.
8 +

10

how

(12
10

4 +

the

number

whole

multipliedonly.
-

4)

(6

-r-

4)

(6

10

3^
30

explained,

there

as

16

4 +

16

8) is

many

by

fraction

the fact

with

is

vulgar fractions

refer to

now

fraction

(12

10

10

better

3 Ans.

multiplying
of the

familiar

very

8)

30

would

Example.

equal

the

above

It

pupil

numerator

it.

of

numerator

in the

the

on

position it indicates

the

4)

--

10

when

is placed

multiplying a

Then

trouble.

cause

multiplied by

when

that

10

that

be

is to

multipliedby

Then

and

Ans.

8)

however,

(6

The

20

fraction

multiplied only.

the top line only is

29

sometimes

the

number,

many?

4)

above

fraction

how

lft

line, and

division

to

before

remembered,

by

~-

the

as

whole

the

that

equal

Ans.

(6

2
=

5+4X6

12

Thus

Example.

2=

5 +

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

HAND

-=-

10

Ans.

8)

162

BOOK

HAND

Thus

equal to

43 is

equal

to

44 is

equal to

indicate
as

the

given

indicated

of times

that

means

is called

and

"

"

required

the factor

43; they

"

4 is to

be

42 +

and

That

the

43

64

33

27

42

by

63

of

Numbers

which,

symbol

And

number

specific number
by
43

64.

the

64

the

to

product

eighth

power

65538

Ans.

what?

27

Ans.

37

Represents

that

a/

^/

and

when

is called

\/ 36, since 62

itself,as

216

equal to

Sign

the

the

multiply

16

Then

on

specificnumber

taken

2 times

by

33 is

"

number

be

to

63 is equal to what?

43

Exercises

is to

continued

is, 4

232

Example.

quantity,

taken

times

of

(48) is 4X4X4X4X4X4X4X4
Example.

Therefore, always

Index,"

called

are

Exponent."

or

number

power.

256

quantity

Index,"

that

the

64

of 4.

that

index.

the

number

by

cube

letter,placed above

is called the

Thus, 42

is the

number

16

42 and

to

and

square

figure,or

the

factor

given

are

respectively,the
small

MECHANICS

42 is

Especial names
The

FOR

"

square

y/ and

\/~

and

is

squared,

equal

root," and

sometimes

Roots

the

\V.

to

some

is represented
Thus

is

36,
which,

when

is called

symbol

^/

cubed,

"cube
Thus
.

is

root,"
4

is

equal
and

^/

to

any

is

resented
rep-

64,

since

ARITHMETICAL

sign ("/), which

The

the

originally

was

word

really
The

springs.
the

radical

is

required

quantity,
and

sign

sign
to

it is
or

number

with

Sometimes

the

its

radical
whose

the

sum

of

Also

^/2

of

the

the

number

composed

root

is

required

\/3(4
of

the
6

Following

14

3)

is another
the

is

root

the

place
bers
num-

extend.
the

the

square

line

the

is to

line

cube

root

is

be

of

square

the

the

required.

of

the

sum

required.

which

way,

terms

the

over

that

under

line is

before

cases,

they

as

the

of

more

such

line

that

that

144,

root

or

means

means

the

two

far

or

it, as

placed

all

underneath

under

that

In

numbers

expresses

numbers

expressing

those

\/2

of

draw
as

numbers

and

it

%/.

thus

expressed.
front

is

sign

when

number

cube

the

express

elbow,

of

and

sign/'

Thus,

before

sign

same

in

also

expressed,

to

sign

sum

this

anything

radical

root

which

radix,

all roots.

square

numbers,

which

"

the

3 in the

root

example,
of

root

required

have

For

the

word

from

to

of

root

the

called

now

common

quantity,

of

source

simply place

number

to

is

is

express

we

when

is

letter

the

means

the

represents

first

163

SIGNS

often

is not

used,

for

required.

Thus,

162

that

means

the

square

of

root

is

16

required.

And
of

(2
the

14) 2

numbers

that

means

within

the

brackets

the

of

root

square

is

the

sum

Some-

required.
3.

times
read
the

the
as

and

power

the

example

root

square

combined,

are

of

figure represents
4

cubed.

figure represents

numerator

denominator

root

cubed

64

and

the

the

In
the

square

all

power,

root.
root

This

4\

as

In

such

cases

and
the

of 64

is

the
above

8.

164

HAND

Law

difficult and

of

the

the

know

to

determined

is

algebra

how

rule

The

product.

product

with

acquainted

confusing

very

sign of

the

Multiplication

in

not

are

MECHANICS

FOR

Signs

of

who

those

For

BOOK

called

is

determine

to

which

by

it is

the

sign

"Law

the

of

Signs/'
Rule

minus

and

Plus

1.

multiplied together always

minus.

give

Rule

minus

and

Minus

2.

multiplied together always

give plus.
give

unlike

and

multiplied together like signs

For example:
signs give
when

words,

other

In

"

-3

the

product

-6

multiplied by plus 2 and the sign of

minus
is a
6, product.
sign, thus
signs multiplied together give

"

unlike

Because

3 is

minus

Here

"

"

(Rule 1.)
Example.

4-3X(3-2

8 +

4)is equal

to

how

much?

and

When

the
-f 4
have

brackets

the

have

we

Becomes

the

inside

numbers

together the

First gather

brackets

from

"

3.

4-15=

(3

before

up

The

is

then

sum

that

it, hence

added

subtracted,
numbers
+
is:

+5
-3

4)

before

when

the

have

we

it, remember
be

to

"

+5

3, which,

which

8+4-3X
8

sign

no

is +

gathered

multipliedby

Therefore, when

5 left.
are

understood

brackets

+7,
+

is always

3 in the
=

has

number

sign

Ans.

5, which

to

and

inside
is to

the
we

the
be

ARITHMETICAL

14

Becomes

14-6X+2

Becomes

8+14-12

Becomes

What

Example.
Thus

Here
the

product

together give

"

(Rule 2).

13

is the

6?

"

11

11

sign of

+6?

42

29) equals

Am.

36.

the

signs multiplied

of

product
6

like

Because

6 and

minus

multiplied by

Arts.

Am.

plus.

6)

10

of

product

is

Example.

12

14

-6X-6=+36

What

Example.

(10

22

is the

6 is

minus

14

of

value

is the

What

Example.

165

SIGNS

(5

What?
13
This
+

is

of

example

an

Rule

-8

2, being

11

"

"

88.
Hence
Example.

13

11

again

minus

give

10.
+

is

an

above
is

of

(32

X
9

of

example

Thus

10

29)

10

Rule

71

2, being minus
90.

=+

(Like

signs

.)
Hence

The

Am.

65

value

11

88

is. the

This

36

What
32

-36-

sign

is not

example,
always

11

90

placed before

because

understood

when
to

no

be

83

the

sign

there.

Am.

83, of the

answer,

is before

quantity

166

HAND

Law
division

In

Signs

of

Division

in

the

have

we

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

of

"Law

same

Signs"

in

as

multiplication.
signs give

Unlike

like

And

signs give

is, if the

That

(Rule 1.)

"

(Rule 2.)

of

signs

dividend

the

and

unlike, the sign of the quotient is minus

signs

dividend

of the

of the
For

example:

The

12-+4=+3

Example.

15

the

because
divisor

-s-

"

sign

divisor

of

(- 4)

the
are

(Rule 2.)

Ans.

(Rule 2.)

Ans.

(Rule 1.)

quotient sign
and

the

is

sign

minus,
of

the

unlike.

are

-16-h+4=-4

Example.

(9

24

216

222

+
is

the

dividend

Example.

This

the

the

of

sign

of

sign

example

above

the

if the

signs, the sign

the

because

signs give

Example.

In

), and

Ans.

+3

plus

the

and
like

signs, and

-=

is

here

(-12)

dividend
like

12

"

answer

like

are

"

are

plus (+ ).

is

quotient

divisor

and

divisor

222

42-7

2.

56

3.

250

4.

(52

5.

(52

+
4-

4
-f-

10

+
16

131

10.

4.

Ans.

8.14)

(8

8.14)

(26
4).

4.

1.

Ans.

for

Ans.

6-2.

131).

Examples

2x8-

of Rule

111

3 X

(Rule 1.)

111

Miscellaneous
1.

-4

example

an

now

-?"

6) -(4

Ans.

0.

13).

Ans.
Ans.

Exercise

Ans.

526.32.
350.92.

3.

(42.4

6.

12)2

64

23

of

is the value

What

7.

Arts. 21.76.

4.

8 X

167

SIGNS

ARITHMETICAL

(12

3)3

|).

(21

4)2. Ans.

3014.
.

(4.05)2. Ans.

8.

8398.08.

(i)3
9.

(6.012

0.050)

10.

(2.562

6.0002)

11.

3 +

12.

28

13.

18

4
4

-^

(0.0642

7 X

3 X

12

2 +

(8

-T-

28

of 29.42

3.395.

51

41.
143.

13). Ans.

\/25?

Ans.

10). Ans.

5.5172.

Ans.

6).

30

(16

Ans.

2.9808).

+
-

(- 8

is the value

What

14.

(.070

Ans.

15.

107420.

.008

Formula

the

by

way,

The

signs.

indicate
The

are

who

solving
had

not

the

of

careful

which

the

be

life,and

for

read

solve

or

operations which

and

may

they

solving of
and

no

across

formula

ally
generof

many

in

his

earthly meaning

easily solved.

expressing general

advantages
following rules

thought,

comes

rules

to

appear

school

such, if the

mechanic
have

formula

early

and

study

which

clearly read

for

to

arithmetical

thoroughly acquainted

the

of

the

reading

given

problems

and

concise

performed.

and

have

govern
are

used

signs,and

difficult;
however,

which

will

be

reading

those

order

be

easily must

brief and

letters

certain

pupil, therefore,in

to

in

expressed

of

means

the arithmetical

with

walks

rule

clearlyand

formula

very

is

formula

in

the

daily

to

Formulae

him,
are

and

mathematics

physics.
For

instance, the rule of estimating the nominal

for

ordinary condensing

marine

engines

power
horseis

the

168

HAND

of

square

be

may

Example

MECHANICS

multiplied by

inches

in

cylinder

cylinders and

of

rule

This

of

diameter

number

the

FOR

BOOK

product divided

the

the

expressed by

following

by

30.

formula:

1.

p2 x

Am

30

D
N

by

seen

of the

by

D2
2.

Example

in

Suppose,

piston

is

Thus

gives

6000
be

nominal

power.
horseformula:

the

horse-power

example,

above

the

176

15.981

nominal

the

would

242 X

velocity,and

expressed by

nominal

the

the

square

"

inches, stroke

24

what

minute,

its

multiply by

this rule may

Now

is to

ject
ob-

nal
nomi-

finding the

steamers

and

piston

divided

product

the

paddle

signs

the

fullyexplains

rule for

Again, the
of

horse-power

This

and

letters

three

or

rule.

long

of all formulae.

diameter

inches.

of two

means

express

can

cylinder in

of cylinders.

Number

So it is
we

of

Diameter

diameter

the

feet, revolution

the

44

per

be?

horse-power

nominal

of

horse-power.

"

6000

that

examples

above

The
a

formula

signs will express

supposed to try to
familiar

the

with

solvingof

long rule,

solve

of

and

few

the

demonstrate

letters and
is not

student

until he at least has

same

following examples,

Showing

By referringto the
that

composed

to

which

become

explain the

formulae.

Examples

seen

is

which

given only

are

in

formula

Formulae

how

above

examples,

letters

are

1 and

represent

solved

2, it will be

value

or

some

170.

HAND

BOOK

As

And

as

And

as

And

as

FOR

12, then

"

24, then

\ D

30, then

\ C

12, then

f F

Then

MECHANICS

6-6

6
6

6-9

=12-15
=

IfK

Example.
find
E

the

12, F

Here
9 C

3 A

when

12

9C-7D-E

12, B

36;

18; 7 D

4 B

7 times

are

=36

two

Thus

20

77-40

37

or

more

What

Example.
-

EF; when

letters

of M

7, and

when
G

20;

12, and

same

understood

as

value

of N

4, B

5,C

3,D

20

32-20

when

4, E

2, F

they

AB

10?

3X4-2X10

12-20

AB

20?

that

Ans.

12

together,without

are

is the

If M

Example.
value

4,

Arts.

is the

N=4X5

28; E

18-28-12

A~B

CD

2, D

times

them, it is always
sign between
to be multipliedtogether.

any

5, C

3F,

3.

Hence

Note

when

3 times

3 times

4B

1.

9 times

3 F

of

value

3A

Arts.

"

CD

2, B

3, C

EF
=

4, D

G, what
=

5, E

is
=

the.
6,

ARITHMETICAL

M=2x3-4x5
6-20

48-40

Example.
C

when

Arts.

If A

8, D

42-20

6x7-20

171

SIGNS

"

20, C

j,find

the

of

value

10.

(20

10)

4
=

8-5-10

8-15

If N

Example.

when

8, S

3J,

"

find

the value

of N

1|.

pY

(-

Arts.

(3i

1J)

If M

Example.
the
E

of

value
=

6, F

8-i

7J
4

when

4, G

(If

Ans.

ABC
A

96

96

Note.

3, C

EFG,

what

4, D

is

5,

2?

5X6X4X2

240

Ans.

204
In

sign

300

the above

the figuresand
The

5-

60

3 ED

2, B

M=4X2X3X4-3X4X
=

1")

the
is

example

there is

no

sign between

letters.

generally

omitted

between

letters

or

be-

172

tween

as

BOOK

figure and

HAND

and

the

If N

Example.

letter.

AB

FOR

MECHANICS

Thus

same

AB
4

as

what

the

means

same

B.

is the

value

of

N,

when

6, B

7, C

16, D

10?

42

B
If M

Example.

A^

2, B

3, C

82

and

82

38

of 2

value

is the

What

Am'

"

-64

_jg_

.056

2.028

20,

is the

What
B

6, C

when

60

"

2X-^

4ns.

this

when

-t

15

15

15

D3

_i_

-"

30

30

20-6+16

"D

of 2

value

16?

Example.

Ans.

2000
A

when

"

"

38?

2000
Example.

of M

8?

"=

"8

T6~8

value

24

2X3X4
=

Example.
=

16, and

M=2

is the

"

4, D

3X4
"

what

rr

"

D
when

Ans.

16-10

15

d3

"

WThat

"

is the

of

value

14, d
143
6"

12, and

123

2744

(B

What
T

67,

is the
K

6X-l5-

h5

" }\~K)

value

of the

32, and

-l5~

Am.

406.4

6096

1016

1728

=6

IT"

Example.

15?

above

when

3375, M

.003

N.

120, C

120, R

67?

32,

ARITHMETICAL

(120
^

(67

32)

32)

V"7

19r/

Thus

173

SIGNS

120

.003

3375.

67
"

(88X35)
0Q3

3375_

DO

31185.000

3080
=

~-

.003

3375

in

the

above

brackets.

the

Ans.

od

53

Note

588.396

there

quantities

Whenever
is

be

must

is

this

between

sign

no

is

there

example

the

multiplied

the

quantities)

two

ever
when-

is,

(that

case

between

sign

no

two

together.
S2

Example.

What

is

of

value

the

when

C
=

32,X2?

S*_

32

1024

32

ihus

2'
~

"

8C

32

512

32
=

jr~

An8'

and

PART

MENSURATION

III

178

BOOK

HAXD

FOR

Line

The

Straight

The

Straightmeans
for

(length).
Xo

what

matter

they

bend, like

line

which

position

by

line

line is space

is called

the

connected

are

is,

points

extreme

two

That
And

Line

tightly stretched.

is

breadth.

without

Right

or

tight,without

erect,

instance, which

MECHANICS

of

lies

the

line is
of

length
sion
dimen-

one

evenly

straight

string,

between

right

or

points

line.

long

so

without

bend, that

EF

all

as

line

is

straight.
the

Thus,

lines A

B,

CD,

or

means

alike, lines

lying

Now

having

in the

if

alike, similar

same

we

the

plane

draw

to, having the

parallellines

Hence

course.

same
as

straight

lines.

Lines

Parrallel

Parallel

are

the

another

are

direction
lines

same

lines
or

which

course

tion
direcare

and

A, B.

line, C, having

the

same

EXPLANATION

and

direction

thus

them,

to

course

OF

the

lines

the

as

three

lines

179

TERMS

A,
A,

B, it will
B,

C,

are

be

parallel

all

parallel

lines.
,

The

Vertical

vertical

and

vertea,

which

vertical

line

be

formed

point

some

would
A

be

Thus

such

aslant,

line

slanting.
line.

practically
from

By

angle

A
would

as

from

upright

be

Thus

horizon.

the

word

suspended

would

to

line

is

the

summit.

or

line

and

the

line

D.

Line

Oblique

and

across

means

slanting

which

the

have

such

and
the

to

point

as

perpendicular

oblique

or

to

Diagonal

and

Diagonal

is

line

or

perpendicular

Diagonal

meant

string

and

of

one

are

relates

highest

thought

overhead;

The

means

be
a

vertical

the

may

is vertical

word

means

by

line

perpendicular

The

thing.

fame

Line

Perpendicular

and

the
to

diagonal

same

ing.
mean-

angle, oblique
line, then,

is

180

HAND

The

horizontal

By
the

horizon;

is

FOR

BOOK

Horizontal

line

such

line

curved

line

along

that

vertical

is

parallel

inclined

or

to

and

'

Horizontal.

is

its

line

is neither

The
A

Line

is meant

thus:

represented

MECHANICS

Curved
line

Line

whose

direction

changes

tinually
con-

thus

path

or

The
A

line

convex

is

which

curves

curved

part, C, of the

because

it

curves

figure A, C,

rounded,

curved,

the

from

away

Line

Convex

line

figure A, C, B,
the

from

away

of

arched

or

Thus

view.

is said

to

and

ends, A

be

line,
the

convex,

B, of the

B.
c

sphere,

presents

or

circle,looked
surface

convex

Concave

the
in.

concave
means

line

is

the

figure C, E, K,

is said

to

point without,

Line
of

reverse

Thus

incurved.

any

line.

or

Concave

The
The

from

at

be

the
concave

the

line.

convex

curved

because

part, E, of
it

curves

OF

EXPLANATION

sphere,

within, presents

is the

from

at

surface

concave

Examples

What

looked

circle, when

or

181

TERMS

line.

or

Exercise

for

of this

name

line?
Horizontal

Arts.
What

is the

of that

name

line which

lies

points?

two

What

are

lines called?

is the

of these

between
line.

Straight
lines.

Parallel

Vertical

Ans.

name

line.

IZZZZZIZ^IIZ
Ans.

What

evenly

Ans.

these

point

any

or

dicular.
perpen-

lines?
Ans.

What

is the

of these

name

Diagonal

lines?

or

oblique.
Ans.

What

is the

name

Curved
of this
What

is the

line?
is

line.

line?

Ans.

between

difference
The

is outcurved

convex

and

convex

and

concave

the

concave

and

volume,

incurved.

MENSURATION

Mensuration
etc.

content,
of

length

is the

shaped vessels,
become

time

be

able

and

to

measuring length
of

contents

familiar

form

given
a

this

mental

treats

lines,surfaces, and

of

determining
cylinder

that

with, the
in

of

art

it is necessary

surfaces

mensuration
curved

the

or

thoroughly

shaped

of

instance, the

For

circle

art

the

names

chapter,

conception
the

solids.

measurement

other

or

pupil

should

of the
and
of

the

ent
differat

same,

of

any

cause
besuch

182

HAND

BOOK

FOR

Circle

The

The

circle is

MECHANICS

plane figure formed

called the

1),and

by
that

from

each

other.

radius

A
the
as

diameter

C
of

and

center

circle is

ending

"

the

of

C A

or

both

equal

to

are

from

ways

is

the

any

center

such

as

C B.

or

drawn

straightline

to

circle

drawn

point

center,"

circumference,

the

to

(Fig.

right lines

certain

circumference,

right line
FlG-

all

within, called
the

line

"circumference,"

is such

drawn

curved

through

the circumference,

at

B.

To
Rule.

Find

Multiply
What

Example.

diameter

the

Circumference
the

by

3.1416

diameter.

circumference

is the

Circle

of

of

circle whose

is 4 inches.

Process:
3.1416
4

12.5664
What

Example.
diameter
L

ROCESS

is

Arts.

inches.

is the circumference

of

circle whose

3J inches?

'.

rt

-i

-t

3.1416

r*

3+

3.5

3.5

157080
94248
10.99560

inches

inches.

Arts. (Almost 11

183

MENSURATION

Examples

What

1.

Arts.

Ans.

What

3.
is

is 5.5?

is the circumference

Ans.

is 5.6?

Ans.

Find

specificsurface

of

circle whose

diameter

of

circle whose

diameter

of

circle whose

diameter

of

circle whose

diameter

the

Area

of

that

which

is confined

For

space.

base,

the
a

circumference

is meant

area

which

diameter

17.59296.

To

By

circle whose

20.73456.
is the

What

6.

17.27880.

Ans.

is 6.6?

of

14.922600.

is the circumference

What

5.

diameter

14.922600.

What

4.

circle whose

12.5664.

is the circumference

Ans.

4f ?

is the circumference

What

is 4.75?

of

is the circumference

is 4 inches?
2.

Exercise

for

building

stands.

of

inches, the

/[

diameter

is

number

of

plane

surface

Example.
is 3 inches.
Rule.

Thus:

area

\|i|

the

xH

con-

\\W
iiijH
i!i,

inches

square
a

Find

the

or

would

that

diameter

circle whose
the

jB^

whose

circle

inches,

by

is 3

inches

square

within

tained

the

tells

answer

of

number

IK

M\

diameter

circle whose

some

find

is to

within

^MIIIIIMII^k"~~f"

on

Thus, in the following exam-

pie, which

Circle

stance,
in-

site,

or

area

of

be

enclosed

on

is 3 inches.

circle whose

diameter

(Fig. 2.)

Multiply

.7854

by

the

square

of the

diameter.

184

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

.7854

9 square

of diameter

The

Example.

7.0686

diameter

of

inches.

square

circle is

Arts.

3.5, what

is its

area?

9.621150

Examples
1.

Ans.

inches?
2.

Ans.

inches?
4.

Ans.

inches?

Ans.

is 5.5

of

area

circle

diameter

whose

is 4

of

area

diameter

circle whose

is 3.75

11.04468750.

is the

What

diameter

circle whose

12.5664.

is the

What

Exercise

for

of

area

Ans.

23.758350.

is the

What

inches?
3.

is the

What

inches.

square

of

area

whose

circle

circle whose

diameter

is 2

3.1416.

5.

is the

What

Ans.

inches?
6.

Ans.

inches?

of

area

of which

transversum)
axis."

is 6

is 4.6

16.619064.

ellipsemay

diameter

diameter

circle whose

The
An

diameter

37.0910058750.

is the

What

of

area

and

(Fig.3.)

be

called

is called
the

Ellipse
a

flattened
the

shortest

"

circle,the longest
axis"

transverse

is called

the

(latus

"conguatt

186

HAND

Example.

diameters

BOOK

is

What
are

3|

and

the

What

5f inches

is the
and

4J

What

is the

7 feet and

9 feet?

What

is the

2.

3.

3.5 feet

and

of

an

inches?
area

Ans.

7.5 feet?

an

an

Ans.

(Fig.4.)

diameters

are

diameters

are

19.19321250.

ellipsewhose

49.4802
of

ellipse whose

an

ellipsewhose

Ans.

of

of

Exercise

for

area

area

area

4j inches?

Examples
1.

MECHANICS

FOR

square

ellipsewhose
20.616750.

feet.

diameters

are

187

MENSURATION

3.5

is the

What

4.

and

feet

and

5 inches

area

12.370050.

of

ellipsewhose

an

Ans.

10 inches?

The
A

triangleis
end

together
"

sides."

Thus

ellipsewhose

an

Ans.

feet?

is the

What

5.

4.5

of

area

39.2700

end.
a,

b,

are

diameters

are

square

inches.

Triangle

by three right lines joined

figure formed

to

diameters

c,

lines

three

The

of

sides

the

are

are

the

called

its

triangle

1.

(Fig. 5.)

Fig.

Any three-cornered
a

three-sided
A

triangle whose

Scalene.
A
"

three-sided

figurebody bounding
is called a triangle.
three
sides are
unequal is called a
or

(Triangle 1.)

triangle having

Isosceles
And

"

space

Triangle."
triangleall

of

two

its sides

equal

is called

an

(Triangle2.)
sides

of whose

equal

are

is called

an

Equilateral Triangle.'- (Triangle 3.)

To
Rule.

Find

Multiply

the

the

Area
base

of

by

half

Triangle
the

perpendicular

height.
Example.

What

is 4 feet and

whose

is the

height

area

of

is 4 feet?

triangle whose

base

188

Half

the

HAND

height

Example.
12

inches

Find
and

FOR

BOOK

the

whose

feet; thus
of

area

height

inches

the

and

whose

the

height

12

base

is

(Fig. 6.)

48 square

triangle whose

is 4 inches.

Fig.

Half

feet.

8 square

triangle whose

of

area

height

inches; then

Find

Example.
12

2x4

is 8 inches.

height

Fig.

Half

MECHANICS

inches
base

is

(Fig. 7.)

inches; then

2 X

12

24

square

inches.
Example.
15

feet and
Half

the

Find

whose

height

the

area

height
=

of

triangle whose

is 9 feet.

4.5; then

4.5

(Fig. 8.)
X

15

feet.

base

is

189

MENSURATION

15

^5
75
60
67.5

Fig.

Examples
Find

the

1.

Base

15

2.

Base

14.75

for

feet, height 4.5.

Arts. 33.75

feet, height 61

feet.

inches, height 4 inches.

3.

Base

4.

Base

27.5

feet,height 5

below.

square
Arts.

square

bounded

is

by

sides. (Fig. 9.)

whose
all of

an

four
A

feet.

Ans.

Ans.

16

68.75

feet.

46.09375

area

equal
figureall

sides

are

whose

angles

equal
are

right angles.

Fig.

inches.

square

Square

The

and

Exercise

feet.

square

of

triangleshaving the dimensions

of

area

feet.

square

feet.

190

HAND

To

Rule.
the

by

BOOK

Find

FOR

MECHANICS

Area

the

Multiply the

base

of

Square

by the height,or

the

length

breadth.

Example.

What

3 inches?

is the

of

area

whose

square

base

is

(Fig. 9.)
3
3

inches.

9 square

Example.

What

is the

of

area

Ans.

whose

square

base

is 3.5 feet?
3.5
3.5
175
105
12.25

Examples
Find
1.

the

Of

followingsquares:

whose

square

feet.

Exercise

for

of the

area

square

is 9 feet.

base

Ans.

81

square

feet.
Of

square

3.

Of

square

4.

What

Ans.

6.25

2.

whose

base

is 36 inches.

Ans.

9 square

feet.
whose

is the

base
of

area

oblong

its base

and

(Fig.10.)

is

whose

square

9 square

feet.

side is 2.5 feet?

feet.

square

The
An

Ans.

is 3 feet.

Oblong
sides

figure whose

whose

length

is

are

perpendicularto

greater than

its breadth.

191

MENSURATION

Fig.

To

Find

Area

the

of

What

Example.
is 7 feet and

whose

is the

height is
7

28

What

Example.

feet and

the

breadth.

oblong whose

an

length

(Fig. 10.)

4 feet?

base

height
feet.

square

is the

height 4

of

area

Oblong

an

Multiply the length by

Rule.

is 12

10

of

area

an

Ans.

oblong

whose

base

feet?

12

_4
48

Examples
Find

the

square

for

feet.

Exercise

of the

1.

Base

2.

Base

followingoblongs:
12 feet, height 6 feet.
Ans.
72
5.5 feet, height 3.5 feet. Ans.

Base

9f inches,height 5 inches.

area

Ans.

square

feet.

19.25

square

Ans.

48.75

square

Ans.

37.5

square

feet.
3.

inches.
4.

feet.

Base

15

feet, height

2.5

feet.

192

HAND

FOR

BOOK

The
A

rhomboid

is

another, but

whose

To

Find

Rule.

Area

base

by

the

area

of

than

way

its base.

Rhomboid

the

perpendicular height

Fig.

one

perpendicularto

of

the

opposite sides

greater

are

not

are

the

Find

feet and

figure whose

four-sided

ends

Multiply

Example.

Rhomboid

dimensions

parallel,whose

are

MECHANICS

perpendicularheight.

rhomboid
3 feet.

whose

base

is

(Fig. 11.)

11

_3
27

Find

Example.
6 feet and

whose

the

height

feet.

square
of

is

3^ feet.

rhomboid

area

Arts.
whose

base

is

6.

3J5
30
18
21.0
What

and

whose

is the

area

of

feet.

square

rhomboid

perpendicularheight is

whose
4

feet?

base

is 3 feet

(Fig. 12.)

194

HAND

The
A
its

trapezoid is

sides

opposite

(Figs.14

and

To

by

the

four-sided

parallel

and

figure,having
the

other

two
not

two

of
so.

15.)

Fig.

Fig.

14

Find

distance

half the

of

Trapezoid

of the

sum

15

two

parallelsides

them.

between

What

Example.

Area

the

Multiply

Rule.

Trapezoid

plain

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

is the

of the

area

following trapezoid?

(Fig. 16.)

I"

Fig.

Here,

multiply
between

the

lines

half

them,

8"

their
which

and

6"

16

being
the

by

sum

the

parallelsides, we

perpendicular

distance

Thus:

is 3 inches.
8

_6
2)14
7

21

square

inches.

195

MENSURATION

parallelsides

is 2 feet?

whose

trapezoid

feet, and

9.75

the

distance

(Fig. 17.)

Fig.

Thus;

of

area

5.5 feet and

are

them

between

is the

What

Example.

17

9.75
5.5

2)15.25
7.625

Examples
1.

What

is the

of

area

parallelsides being

and

the

2.

What

80

is the

two

parallelsides being

and

the

width

being \\

The
A

trapezium

straightlines,no
20.)

is any
two

feet, the

Ans.
of

area

9200

shorter

square

trapezoid, the

25

square

feet

trapezoid,the longer of

130

feet?

15.250

Exercise

for

two

height

feet, and

feet?

Ans.

the
30

the

feet,

100

feet.

longer
shorter

square

of
23

the

feet,

feet-

Trapezium

plane figure contained

of which

are

similar.

by

four

(Figs.18, 19,

196

HAXD

FOR

BOOK

Figs.

To
Rule.

base

sum

the

the

area

is the
Example.

of

each
of each

area

19.

of

trapezium

20

Trapezium

into

triangles.
triangle

triangle,add

of the
Find

the

whole

area

this
both

the
base

lar
perpendiculine.

together, and

Then
the

figure.
of the

(Fig. 21.)

Fig.

Measure

from

triangles, by

two

this line of division

opposite angles, making

line of both

height
find

its

Area

the

Divide

connecting
the

Fixd

18.

MECHAMCS

21

following trapezium.

197

MENSURATION

2)4

Thus

=24

12

of

ft.,area

sq.

triangle C

2)3
1.5

12

sq. ft.

42.0
Here

dotted

first of

we

line

and

this

find

the

(A);

line

all divide
then

we

(A)

together, and

the

triangle B

Ans.

figure

in

by the

two

and

triangles,B

two

for

base

the

C,

both.

We

then

triangleseparately, add

them

both

proves

of each

area

the

have

of

ft.,area

18.0 sq.

42.0

sum

the

equals

area

of the

whole

figure.
Example.

What

is the

of

area

the

following trapezium?

(Fig. 22.)
Thus

2)8
4X20=

80

2)4
2

20

jtO
120

To
Rule.
the

Find

Multiply

product by

Surface

the

the

the

diameter

height.

sq. ft.

of

by

Ans.

Cylinder

3.1416

and

multiply

198

Example.
of

HAND

BOOK

Find

the
of

cylinder

FOR

number

the

And

4"

10"

4"

Then

of

inches

square

following dimensions.

Fig.

Thus

MECHANICS

in

face
sur-

(Fig. 23.)

23

diameter

height
3.1416

circumference

12.5664

10

125.6640

diameter

is 9 inches

Thus,
square

is the

What

Example.

3.1416

28.2744
inches.

and

15

surface

height
28.2744

15

="

424.1160,

of

sq. in.
a

Arts.

cylinder

whose

inches?

circumference

area

of

surface

in

MENSURATION

Sphere

The
A

is

sphere

parts of which
distance

from

within,

called

The

its

in the

The

sphere

drawn

both

of

(Fig.
24.)
v
"
'

Find

the

Multiply

Example.

Fig.

Surface

3.1416

What

diameter

greatest distance

sphere.
F

To
Rule.

surface.

is the
the

is

through

circumference

around

surface, all

center."

sphere

curved

point

terminating

center,

ways

"

the

by

equal

an

certain

of

line

straight

are
a

diameter

bounded

body

199

the

by

is the

of

Sphere

of the

square

surface

24

of

diameter.

sphere

whose

is 6 feet?
Thus

_6
36

sq. of diameter

3.1416

Answer.

3.1416
36

188496
94248
113.0976
Example.
will

cover

area

What
a

of surface
number

sphere whose

18

in square

of square

diameter

inches

is 18

Arts.
of

gold

inches?

3.1416

18

.324

144

125664

18_

62832

324

feet.

square

of diameter

94248
1017.8784

sq. in.

Arts.

leaf

200

The

HAND

of

contents

of 3.1416

BOOK

sphere

multiplied by

Example.

How

spherical balloon
J of

FOR

3.1416

VOLUME

MECHANICS

equal

are

cube

whose

feet

diameter

MEASURE

AND

cubic

Find

Contents

the

rectangular

solid

fill

4ns.

OF

SOLIDS

Solids
of

is

will

gas

feet.

CONTENTS

Rectangular

To

of

is 6 feet ?

113.097

X63=

of

product

of diameter.

cubic

many

the

to

Rectangular

figure

Solid

bounded

six

by

angles.
rect-

(Fig. 25.)
The

dimensions

of

its

rectangular figure are

breadth,

and

contents

or

thickness, and
volume

figureis the
within

its

The

of

volume

or

the

gular
rectan-

contained

space

bounding

rectangular

length,

surfaces.

content

is determined

of

by

any

the

followingrule:
Rule.

Multiply

breadth, and
Fig.

length,

height together.

25

Example.
of

the

rectangular solid

whose

What

length is

is

the

tent
con-

feet, breadth

feet,height 2 feet?
3
2
6

_2
12

Example.

figure,each

How
of whose

many

sides

cubic

cubic
measures

feet.
feet

in

3 feet?

Ans.

rectangular

202

Example.

HAND

BOOK

How

many

are,

diameter

cubic

feet

of

hold, whose

vessel

cylindrical shaped

MECHANICS

FOR

will

water

inside

dimensions

height 1\ feet?

feet, and

.7854

16

_4

47124

16

7854
12.5664

number

7.5

of sq. ft. in

of base

area

height

628320
879648
94.24800

cubic

The
A

pyramid

is

body

feet.

Arts.

Pyramid

whose

base
sides
at

is

all

are

triangles,meeting
called

point (A),

one

of the

vertex

whose

but

polygon

the

(Fig.

pyramid.

27.)

Polygon
or

many

manycurves

means

angles.

polygon, then,

figure bounded
five, six,

or

is

plane

by three, four,
any

of

number

sides.

Accordingly, the
pyramid
square,

figure or

and

one

or

triangular,

are

for

named

shape

of

their

the

base.

27

curved

pentagonal, etc., and

pyramids
Fig.

be

may

of

base

triangular base

having

square

pyramid

is called
base

is called

having

three-

trianglor pyramid,
a

square

pyramid,

MEASURE

VOLUME

and
a

AND

having

one

CONTENTS

five-sided

OF

is called

base

pentagonal

or

203

SOLIDS

pentagonal pyramid.

To

Find

Rule.
its

Cubic

the

Contents

the

Multiply

of

of the

area

Pyramid

base

by

third

one

of

perpendicular height (altitude).

Example.
of
and

How

the

cubic

many

following

inches

dimensions:

height (altitude),12

there

are

base

in

inches

mid
pyra-

square,

inches?

3
3
9

inches

square

of base

area

3)12
4

third

one

of altitude

_4
36
Example.

How
whose

pyramid

base

is

and

inches.

cubic

many

inches

measures

cubic

Arts.

inches

triangle, each

whose

height

there

are

of

is 15

whose

inches?

in

sides
Thus:

3
15
4.5

5
22.5

Process.

one

area

one

number

We

according to
triangle, which

the

being

of

of

perpendicular height

triangle base

third

of

rule
we

the

height

of cubic

first find the

height
obtained

half

given

area

for

multiply by
of the
answer.

pyramid,

of

pyramid

inches.

Ans.

of the

triangular base,

finding
one

the

the

third

area

of

product

the
22.5

of

pendicular
per-

thus

204

HAND

BOOK

FOR

The
A

is

cone

body

MECHANICS

Cone

whose

base

is

surface

convex

point, "A,"

the

Find

tapers uniformly to
called

the

Cubic

the

of

Rule.
base

whose

of

vertex

(Fig. 28.)

cone.

To

and

circle

Cone

Multiply

by

third

one

Contents

the

the

of

area

the

perpendicular

height.
Example.
Fig.

in

and

diameter

Find

the

cubic

inches

base

is 3

inches

28

whose

whose

cone

is 15

height

inches.

.7854
9
7.0686

_5

one

Example.

How

cone-shaped

vessel

3^ inches

third

cubic

35.3430

and

whose

of

contained
cubic

many

hold, the

height

one

cubic

of base.

perpendicular height

inches

area

38.484600

inches

in square

area

in

inches

diameter
is 12

of

cone.

cone.

of
of

water

whose

will
base

is

inches?

of base.
third
inches

of

perpendicular height.

of water.

Arts.

MEASURE

VOLUME

AND

CONTENTS

The
A

is that

frustum

between

is the

other.

It

cutting

off the

The
a

of

"frustum"

solid

frustum

which

remains

Find

add
then
the

the

Find
on

to

this

multiply by

of

of the

sum

the

.7854

base.

part is lacking.

top by

is the

part

plane parallel

30.)

Contents

the

each
after

the

Fig.

Cubic

squares

product
and

Frustum

then

of

of the

of the

30

two

multiply by

two

Cone
eters,
diam-

diameters,
one

third

height.

Example.
cone

of which

29

the

Rule.

and

remains

pyramid, then,

cutting off

to

is

piece; particularly,

means,

or

cone,

(Figs.29

Fig.

To

after

base.

the

to

of

which

plane parallelto

actually

figure which
inclined

parallel or
a

top part by

solid

any

remaining piece of something

A

either

part

205

SOLIDS

Frustum

part of

planes,

two

OF

whose

inches, and

Find

large

the

cubic

diameter

height

contents

is 12

inches.

of

frustum

inches, small

of

diameter

206

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

12
12
144

square

of

diameter

large

36

sq.

36

of

small

[diameter.

180
72

of squares

sum

product

of both

diameters

diameters

of both

252
.7854

12

1008

72

1260

product

of

both

diameters.

2016

3)4

1764

1.33

197.9208

one-third

of thickness.

1.33
5937624
5937624
1979208
263.234664

cubic

Example.
in

Figure

How

inches.

Ans.

many

cubic

31?

Fig.

31

inches

in the

body

shown

AND

MEASURE

VOLUME

OF

CONTENTS

207

SOLIDS

20

JO
400

square

large diameter.

of

100

200

of both

product

diameters.

3)6
2

To

Find

one-third

Cubic

the

of thickness.

Contents

of

Frustum

of

Pyramid
Rule.
to

the

third

The
square

of the

Example.
square

at the

root

of

areas

their

of the

two

bases

added

product, multiplied by

one

altitude.
What

pyramid
base

of the

sum

whose

the

are

contents

height is

is 20 feet and

at

the

30

top

of the

frustum

feet, and
ten

feet?

whose

of

side

(Fig.32.)

208

HAND

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

Fig.

32

Process:

20

20

V40000
=

30
-T-

400;

10

200;

200

10;

700

10

X
+
X

400

10

100;
+

100

7000

400

cubic

100

700;
feet.

40000;

WEIGHT

downward
the

of

all

upon

"

The
earth

its
force

its
to

"

the

of

is

gravity"

near

center.

When

this

which

and

to

all

nature

is

is the

due

There
cubic

greater
greater

specific
the

lead

of

than

amount

space,

the
of

volume

or

of

gives
fore,
there-

gravity.

the

peculiar"

or

like

the
all

of

other

weight,

for

bodies

is

in

the

words,

the

within
the

and

wood,

contained

matter

different

contained

in

or,

of

matter.

volume

body

themselves.

volumes
of

tions,
condi-

same

to

matter

like

on

the

any

that

reason

proportional

of
their

reference

conditions,

same

than

more

called

of

it

to

density.

weights

are

them

Weight,

resisted

the

draw

resisted

under

more

greater

under

weigh

is

amounts

the

gravity

of

that

in

of

density

comparative

60"

fact

instance,

the

standard

specific

is, for

the

will

working

which
to

weight.

have,

variable

Therefore,
lead

"

the

to

action

their

gravity,"

by

GRAVITY

contain

inch

created

attraction

force

effect

substances

weight

materials

is

it, tending

is called

SPECIFIC

This

that

all bodies

pressure,

of

force

upon

is due

In

force

the

body,

particles.

exerts

toward

called

force

of

which

hasj

body

heaviness

the

meant

force

action

rise

is

weight,

By

cubic

equal

inch

is pure

of

volumes

"specific"
water

cubic

wood,

of

and

different

gravities;
at

inch

and

temperature

of
the

stances
subthe
of

Fahrenheit.
In

other

words,

the

"

specific gravity"
211

of

body

is its

212

relative

HAND

weight, that is,the

than

"lighter"

or

substance, and

bodies

There

of different

different

relative

the

at

heavier"

composition

water

methods

different

are

is

balance

the

is to

weights
standard

of

temperature

and

scale pans,

placed

the

exactly

to

of the

weight

The

the

in pure

the

less in water
in

Now,
is taken

water

water

than

with

give

thin

wire

thus

submerged

completely
in the

of the

it will

be

merged
sub-

the

body

other

scale

working

water

weigh

to

seen

force

weight

instance, if

grains,and
of the

the

body

will

difference

of

of its

volume

and

exactly equal

the

equal

of that

volume

solid

the

rounding
sur-

the

weight

weigh

less in

to

weight

its
be

in air must

liquid
appears

is, it is supported by

air, and

of

the bottom

and

volume,

own

in
that

air, 577

will

This

pan

buoyancy

displaced;hence

from

For

scale

displaces a

that

weight,

water
an

it

its

to

water

of the

it.

weight

the

in water

exactly equal
its

known

the

specificgravity of solids,advantage
solid is wholly
a
important fact that when

of the

lose

of

one

on

in air.

than

taking

submerged

whose

body

suspended by

submerged,

thus

body

and

of the

and, because

pan

The

by placing weights

is counterbalanced

regular

air.

When

water.

method

placed

counterbalance

the

"Hydrostatic

sufficient

pan

in the

the

pans.

is

taken

taken
of

bottom

scale

other

body

is then

body

from

the

on

taking the specific

this

By

two

be

for

which, called

of

used, having

specificgravity

used

described.

is here

Balance/'

to

determine

to

gravitiesof bodies, one

on

size of

same

"

it is

Fahrenheit.

60"

is

of times

of the

is pure

which

is taken,

MECHANICS

number

body

in order

equal sized

of

FOR

BOOK

the

in

weight

of water.
a

of

piece
when

scale

glass is

found

suspended by
pan

and

immersed

weigh,

to

fine wire
in

in

from

vessel

of

SPECIFIC

the

between

of

weight

399.4, the

weigh

to

in air

weight

(399.4) is the

(577) and

the

volume

of

the

difference
in water

weight

displaced

water

glass. Therefore:

the

by

is found

it

water

pure

213

GRAVITY

577.0
399.4
177.6

difference, which

is the

of

weight

the

displaced.

water

the rule for

Hence

Weigh

solid

the

water) and
difference

Hence,

if

glass

difference

weight

the

weights

piece

798.8

then

the

between

solids:

findingthe specificgravitiesof

in air and

divide

in air and
the

is the

difference

of

glass is

grains

in pure

of the

in water,

will be

determined

between

1154.0

in air

body

in air and

found

to

the

by

the

water.

weigh

1154

grains

specificgravity

by dividing
and

(distilled

water

1154.0

by

of

the

Thus:

798.8.

Ans.

This
heavier
of

shows
than

glass would

inch

then, that

us,

That

water.

weigh

over

is

glass

3.248, etc., times

is,a (cubic inch), for instance,

three

times

as

much

as

cubic

of water.

Example.
air and

31.0

If

grains

piece

of marble

in water,

what

weighs
is its

48.0

grains

in

specificgravity?

214

HAND

FOR

BOOK

MECHANICS

48.0
31.0
17.0

difference

between

weight

in air and

water

Arts.

17.0)48.0(2.823, etc.
340

1400
1360

400
340
600
510

90

specificgravities of liquids are

The

called

instrument

Table

the

Specific

of

"

ascertained

Gravities

of

Liquids

and

GRAVITY

SPECIFIC

0.001228

Air

Sea

1.0000

Water

1.029

Water
,

."

Alcohol

Olive

.79
0.9347

Oil

Linseed

0.9176

Oil

Solids

Gold

19.3

Lead

11.4

Copper

8.767

Brass

8.384

Cast

Iron

Wrought

Iron

(Average)

(Average)

1 10
.

690
.

Steel

7.780

Tin

7.293

Zinc

an

Hydrometer."

NAME

Pure

by

7.215
"

Solids

SPECIFIC

cubic

foot of pure

to find the

table, multiply

62.5

weighs

water

weight

of

215

GRAVITY

pounds.

62.5

anything contained

(the weight of

in the

cubic

fore,
There-

foot

above

of pure

water) by the specificgravity of the given body.

Example.

What

is

the

weight

of

cubic

feet

of

alcohol?
.79
62.5

395
158
474
49.375

weight

of 1 cubic

foot

weight

of 3 cubic

feet

148.125

Example.

What

is the

weight

of

cubic

foot

of cast

iron?
7.110
62.5

35550
14220
42660
444.3750

Example.

What

will 2 cubic

lb.

feet

Ans.

of steel

weigh?

216

HAND

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

7.780
62.5
38900
15560
46680
lb.

486.2500

of 1 cubic

weight

foot.

lbs.

972.5000
If

Example.

how

cubic

many

cubic

one

feet

foot of steel
there

are

Ans.

486)2000

in

weighs

ton

foot

of

wrought

in

ton?

ton

Ans.

lb.

is called

the

weight

of

cubic

iron.

How

Example.

there

pounds

(2000 pounds)?

in

480.6250

practice 480

pounds,

(4.115, etc.,cubic feet of steel

1944

In

486

many

cubic

feet

of

wrought

iron

are

218

HAND

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

62.5)1728.0(27.656
1250
4780
4370
4100
3750
3500
3125
3750
3750
0000
27.656

cubic

much

How

Example.

of fresh water

inches

will 2 cubic

Ans.

pound.

feet of lead

weigh?

62.5
11.4
2500
625
625

712.50

of 1 cubic

weight

weight of

foot

'2
1425.00
the

From

anything

gravity
showing

gravity
volume
These

how

to

is not

when

but

the

how

of

things

dimensions
be

whose

determined,

of

specific

will be

are

feet

weight

and

examples

weight

may

the

its volume
on

whose

volume

its

given

specific

given only,
but

whose

given.

examples

are

sizes

also to show

parts.

find

learn

we

Further

known,

figuringthe
and

found

known.

are

is

examples

be

may

which

by

above

2 cubic

of

how

given

so

different
to

as

to

instruct

the

pupil

parts of machinery,

in

etc.,

figurethe weights of the different

divided

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

MEASURE

of

diameter

The

CIRCULAR

circle is

219

equal

circumference

the

to

3.1416.

by

is the

What

Example.
circumference

of

diameter

circle

whose

12f inches?

measures

12}
Then

12.75

12.75
-f-

is

3.1416

3.1416)12.7500(4.058
125664
183600
157080
265200
251328

diameter, then, of

The

3J

Example.

4.535,

What

Example.

tube

of two

33.

inches
Ans.

Ans.

inches

of

shaft

shaft whose
Ans.

around?

The

is

outside

of tube

and

flangemeasures

inches; what

is 3 feet

is the

each

plate

full
fore
beFig.

being bent?

whose

4.535.

shown

diameter

length of

of

ing
plates hav-

flangesA, B, as

14^

is its diameter?

diameter

isthe diameter
12.5664

measures

each

what

14J inches?

measures

Example.

Fig.

"

is the

What

circumference

in

shafting measures

4^ inches.

say

Example.

made

of

piece

its circumference,

around

is

circumference

circle whose

inches.

4.058

33

ference
circum4 inches.

220

Reduce

HAND

BOOK

first the

FOR

diameter

Thus

MECHANICS

(3 feet)
12

inches

36

Then

inches.

to

36
3.1416
216

36
144

36
108

113.0976

equals circumference

in

each

inches

divide

of

which

by

quotient

is 4

inches, to which

2, because

is the

long, equals

there

the

flanges,

inches, then

16

plates,

two

are

of each

length

add

and

the

Thus:

plate.

113.0976
16

2)129.0976
inches

64.5488

About
Example.
made
1J

of

The
three

inches, what

outside

diameter

feet, each

is 4

plates

full width

is the

If
4

of each

length

feet.

5.379
of

tube

plate

of each

has

plate
Ans.

which
a

lap

12

48

diameter

in inches

48.
3.1416
288
48
192

48
144

150.7968

of

plate? (Fig.34.)

1.75

is

circumference

in inches

CIRCULAR

MEASURE

Fig.

Now,
whole

circumference

of each

added
will

this tube

as

section
the

from
of

length
the

equal

whole

221

34

is made

of three

divided

by

B, and

to

the

equal sections, the

will
to

equal

this

length

laps, If inches,

width

of each

the

and

Example.
the
of

full

What

length

brass

the

plate.

is

funnel

5i

the

in

band

52.0156

inches.

Arts.

is
inches

around

goes

whose

feet?

band, \ inch

thick, which
a

1.75

diameter

The

laps

end

of

inches.

(Fig.35.)

Fig.

35

be

must

150.7968
Thus:

length

sum

222

HAND

FOR

BOOK

5J
5.25

12

3.1416

MECHANICS

5.25

circumference

197.920

of
Then

197.920
If

Example.
to

have

of the

some

plate

diameter

circular

in

the

center

of the

of the circle

on

The

circle

on

which

the

diameter,

inside

the

inches

less in diameter.

60

outer

from

the

has

edge

will be

bored?

are

feet,

diameter,

holes, what

holes

which

Fig.

in

it, 2\ inches

bored

to

16.743

or

feet

plate, 5

holes

inches

strap.

inches,

200.920

in

the

(Fig. 36.)

36

holes
of

plate,

five

therefore

and

of

plates

inches.

Arts.

Diameter

2\ inches

is

bored

are

5 feet

inches
Then

60

"

55

full

length

of

base

piece

of metal

37.

The

Figure
equals \
l'IG. 61

and

around

the

across

arched

is the

What

Example.

Divide

an

like
arch

circle.

circumference

of

add

which

to

is 3 inches

radius

circle,whose

And

outside

is 2

outside

width

what

Fig.

3.1416

3.1416

2.5

2.5

"

Example.
a

number

the

60

outside

holes.
on

flange

is the

which

and

holes

when

ring?

feet,width

the

eter
diam-

(Fig. 38.)

circumference

of

ring. Ans.

of

in it there

inches

to

from

center

of

of

cle
cir-

diameter

drilled?

are

38

circumference

of holes
of

What

2 =.75

inches

of

feet, inside circumference

7.85400
-T-

of

feet, outside

12.5664

The

flange is

are

1.5

circumference

circumference

inside

J feet, and

Ans.

is 4 feet?

diameter

is the

what

inches.

15.4248

is the

What

whose

ring

base).

Thus

Example.

(diameter 6 inches) by 2,

(distance across

6 inches

3.1416

223

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

(Fig.

39.)
The

first

thing we

diameter

of the

distance

from

do

is to

flange,from
the

outside

find the
which

of

we

flange to

pIG.

subtract
center

39

twice

the

of holes.

224

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

60

Thus

Ans.

4X2=
3.1416

3.1416)60.0000(19.095

diameter

of

flange

31.416

285840
282744

309600
282744
16856
19.095
Then
are

is the

11.095

diameter

of

Ans.

11.095.

circle

holes

which

on

drilled.

Square
Note:

dash

one

23'

Thus
And

two

Thus

after

dashes
23"

Measurements

after
23

feet, and

23

Find

inches, and

of metal
This

of the
may

and

width, which

be

the

6'

6"

2, which
the

6 inches

in square

followingdimensions.
done
by adding the

multiply by

40

surface

dividing by

6 feet

represents inches.

dimension

Fig.

Example.

represents feet

dimension

feet, of

sheet

(Fig. 40.)
ends
will

give

length,3', 6".

and
the

B
mean

gether
to-

226

HAND

BOOK

FOR

^-2
Example.
the

What

88.3575

and

area

15"

square

88.3575

of

square

above

The

the

(Fig. 42.)

of

Answer:

circle
the

inches.

square

would

equal

plate being \

Ans.

176.7150

circle

equals

inches.

What

shape

circular

42

88.3575

whole

inches, therefore

Example.

the

metal

.7854

area

of

sheet

dimensions.

Fig.

The

of

inches.

square

15" X

Am.

10i

is the

following shape

MECHANICS

is the

dimensions.

and

end

area

of

cf

sheet

of

(Fig.43.)

plate equals \

circle.

metal

of

Thus

25

.7854

which

the

now

add

9.8125
Find

Example.

remainder

the

(9.8125) the

to

Thus

of

of

area

of the

area

70

plate of the following

of

the

circular

in square

sheet,

part.
Ans.

sq. ft.

79.8125

surface

the

sq. ft.

9.8125

Find

227

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

feet of

piece

(Fig. 44.)

dimensions.

-36

Fig.

31.8087
288

Thus
2.361

Area

part.

triangular part.

31.8087
square

Example.
the

of curved

oblong part.

20.25

or

*=

44

outside

is 5 inches

feet.
What

surface
and

288

20.25

340.058

square

inches.,

Ans.
is the

of

height

15

number

of

cylinder whose
inches.

square

outside

(Fig.45.)

inches
diameter

in

228

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

-5"

Fig.

4o

3.1416
5

15.7080
15

circumference

height

785400
157080

235.6200
Example.
the
are

outside
2 and

surface

4 inches

of
and

an

Ans.

of

square

tube
elliptical

whose

is the

What

sq. in.

whose

Fig.

number

length is

46

12 inches?

inches

in

diameters

(Fig.46.)

CIRCULAR

229

MEASURE

3.1416
3
9.4248

half
=

of diameters

sum

circumference

12

113.0976

Circular
Find

Example.
is

diameter
inner

and

inches.

Areas
of metal

area

in

ring whose

outer

inches

13

diameter

the

find

the

area

diameter.

outer

Next

find

the

inner

Then

their difference

the

Ans.

(Fig. 47.)

First
of

the

sq. in.

the

of

area

diameter.

required

is
"

of

area

Fig.

metal.
Thus

13 X
and

9 X

13 X
9 X

.7854
.7854

132.7326,

Difference,69.1152,
What

Example.

area

j"

of

area

63.6174,area

-.7

large diameter,

of small

of metal.

area

of

metal

is there

round

bar

of

diameter.

of

in diameter?

in

section

iron

inches

(Fig. 48.)
3
3
9

.7854

_t_.
Fig.

tube

inside
is

70.686

What

Example.

area

of metal

area

48

is there
whose

diameter

\ inch?

is 5

(Fig. 49.)

inches

in

section

and

the

of

thickness

tube
of

230

this case,

In
tube

is

HAND

BOOK

the

as

J inch

FOR

inner

thick, the

diameter

outside

is 5

inches

diameter

and
be

must

the
5"

5.5.

Jg

THICK

Fig.

find

Now

MECHANICS

difference

the

49

between

the two

areas.

25

.7854

19.6350

of inside

area

diameter.

5.5
5.5

275
275

30.25

.7854

23.758350

of outside

area

diameter.

19.6350
4.123350

The

Example.
3 feet and

are

what

area

of

inner

feet,and

metal

Ans.

area.

diameters

of

the thickness

is there

in

ellipticaltube

an

of metal

section

of

is
the

J inch,
tube?

(Fig. 50.)
As
36

the

inches

the outside

inner
and

diameters
48

are

inches, and

diameters

must

be

3 feet
the

and

metal

is

feet, that
J inch

is,

thick,

CIRCULAR

Conguatt

axis
axis

Transverse

231

MEASURE

(outside) \

36

36^

36.5

inches

(outside)}

48

48^

48.5

inches

feet

36

inches

4 feet

48

inches

diameters

Inside

And
Find

the
is the

answer

of metal

area

the

between

difference

in

Fig.

two

section

and

areas

of the

the

tube.

50

36.5

48.5

.7854

1390.354

36

48

.7854

1356.971

Arts.

Fig.

Example.
21

inches

ring
the

If the

has

metal?

and
4

the

outer

inner

diameter

diameter

quarter-inch holes
(Fig. 51.)

51

in

of
is 19

it,what

metal

ring

inches, and
is the

area

is

the
ot

232

First

find

HAND

the

Next

which

find

enclosed

area

is 346.3614

which

enclosed

area

is 283.5294

the

by

diameter,

outer

inches.

square

the

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

inches.

square

the

by

inner

their

find

Then

diameter
ence.
differ-

Thus:
346.3614
283.5294

62.8320

^-inch holes and

19635000

the

subtract

which

From

is the

the difference

area

of the

sum

of the

areas

required area,

four
.25.

of 4 holes

Find

To

Diameter

the

Area
Rule.
the

Divide

by .7854,

area

is 190.0668

What

is the

square

Circle

when

the

Given

is

quotient obtained, which

Example.
area

of

will

then

equal

diameter

inches?

find

of

the

the

square

diameter.
circle

whose

of

234

HAND

BOOK

is determined

eter

the

Measurements

Tanks.

Cubic

the

Rectilinear

The

Note.
and

inches

water).

Examples

Capacity

Circular

and

S. Standard

U.

contains
cubic

contains

gallon

and

Vessels

foot

water

(fresh) weighs

of water
cubic

1728

231

measures

distilled

of

8| pounds

inches,

62

cubic

(pure

\ pounds

nearly 1\ gallons

or

S. standard.

Fig.

Rule.

find

To

gallons,

find

the

length, breadth,
product by

feet

If

wide,

gallons of

the

52

capacity

cubical

of

height

the

inside

divide

inches, and

in

in

vessels

multiplying the

by

contents

and

four-sided

the

231.

Example.
4

given by

Tanks

and

U.

is

area

example.

of

find

to

of

the

Weights

how

Weight

and

in the

out

and

Showtng

when

usually

worked

process

MECHANICS

FOR

water

feet

deep,

and

will it hold?

12

feet

36

inches.

4 feet

48

inches.

feet

144

long,

(Fig. 52.)

3 feet

12

of

dimensions

inches.

tank
how

are

many

CIRCULAR

Then

36

48

235

MEASURE

144

cubic

248832

inches.

231)248832(1077, etc.,gallons.
231

1783
1617
1662
1617

Example.

How

gallons will

many

hold

followingdimensions

5 feet

tank

of

the

long, 4 feet deep, 9 feet

wide?

Then

60

5 feet

60

inches.

4 feet

48

inches.

9 feet

108

inches.

48

108

311040

cubic

inches.

231)311040(1346.49 gallons.
231

800
693
1074
924

1500
1386
1140

924
2160
2079

1346, etc., gallons. Ans.

Example.
3

inches

deep,

How

long, 4

hold?

many

feet 5

gallons of
inches

oil will

wide, and

tank

feet 2

9 feet

inches

236

HAND

Then

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

9 feet 3 inches

4 feet 5 inches
6 feet 2 inches
111

53

74

111

inches.

53

inches.

74

inches.

435342

cubic

231)435342(1884.597

inches.

gallons.

231

2043
1848
1954
1848
1062
924

1380
1155

2250
2079
1710
1617
93

1884, etc., gallons. Ans.

What

Example.

As

will

of the

dimensions

of the
1

gallon

weigh

1884

of

of

weight

tank

preceding example?
weighs 8J pounds,

water

in

is there

water

gallons

1884

8J.
1884
8.3
5652
15072

15637.2

15637,
The
of the
in feet

best

process,

contents

by

the

perhaps,

of tanks

weight

of

is to
a

etc., lbs.

for

determining

multiply

cubic

foot

Ans.

weight.

the

of the

the

cubic

weight

contents

contents.

full,of the following dimensions:

tank, when
feet

wide,

9 feet

180

1 cubic

as

62.5

foot

long, 4

of fresh

Thus

feet.

cubic

180

weighs

water

cubic

of 180

weight

5 feet

deep?

5 X
Then

in

will be the, weight of fresh water

What

Example:

237

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

pounds,

62.5

feet of fresh water.

180
62.5
900
360
1080
11250.0

weight.

1b.

11,250.0

deep,

will hold
cubic

One

tank

Example.

Then
Example.

how

foot

of

long?

water

sea

5 X

180

64.3

What

5X4X9

Specificgravity

long, 4

will

lb.

weight.

of

5 feet

deep, 4

of linseed

linseed

,
cubic

180

water?

tank

weigh:

oil

9 feet

feet.

11.574.0

and

lb.

cubic

180

wide,

sea

64.3

feet

of

pounds

many

following dimensions
9 feet

5 feet

Ans.

oil

feet

of

the

wide, and

feet.
9347

0
.

62.5
46735
18694
56082

Weight

of cubic
180

Example.
tank

5 feet 2

deep, hold?

How
inches

foot

58.418

X
many

by

of oil

pounds

4 feet

58.41875

10,515.240
of

linseed

inches, and

lb.

Ans.

oil will

2 feet 5 inches

238

Reduce

HAND

53

Then

14

55

95

294

We

then

cubic

have

inches

inches

cubic

95.294

inches.

to

29

MECHANICS

FOR

all dimensions
62

and

BOOK

55.14, etc., cubic

feet.

etc.

58.418

of cubic

weight

foot of linseed

oil

44112

5514
22056
44112

27570
lb.

16852

3221
.

Measurements
Example.

How

tank
inches?
This
25

Circular

of

cubic

many

diameter

whose

feet

Tanks
of space

inches

is 25

Ans.

lb.

3221

in

and

drical
cylin-

height

12

(Fig.53.)
is the

same

as

findingthe

volume

of

cylinder.

diam.

25

.7854

125

625

50
625

squared.

diam.

39270
15708
47124
8750

490

area

of base.

12

cubic

5000

5890

inches

high.
inches

in volume.

Then
Example.

oil,what

5890.5000
If the

will be

its

above

1728

3.408

cylinderis

weight?

cubic

feet.

filled with

Ans.
linseed

1 cubic

239

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

oil

foot of linseed

weighs 58.418

pounds.

58.418
3.408

467344
233672
175254
199.088544
199

Fig.

How

gallonswill

many

lb.

Ans.

53

above

the

cylinder hold?

(Fig.

53.)
To

Capacity

the

find

Cylindrical

of

Vessels

in

Gallons.
Rule.
inches
25

Multiply
and
X

25

divide
X

the

in

area

product by

.7584

12

inches

231.

5890.5000

231)5890.5000(25.5
462
1270
1155
1155
1155

by the height

area

in inches.

gallons.

Ans.

in

240

HAND

Example.
the

How

weight of,
of

tank

the

inches, and
43

Then

and

Now

we

tank

is its

which
there

34852.9104

62.5

we

34852.9104

tank

find

can

the

in

because

43

gallons

Thus

in

inches,

gallons.

gallons.)
of

gallons

contained

in the

feet

in

contents

1\ gallons in

are

contained

cubic

150.878

its cubic

there

lb.

gallon.

151

number

inches.

inches, by 231, because

231

--

by multiplying

by 1\,

feet.

34852.9104

cubic

(Almost
Or

of

dividing
in

cubic

1256.937

number

cubic inches

Thus

be

will

diameter

cubic

20.111

the

contents

231

are

20.111

either

by

will

water

hold:

dimensions

1728

find

can

what

of

gallons

many

24

34852.9104

feet, and

inches?

24

.7854

Weight equals

the

how

following

MECHANICS

cubic

many

height

43

FOR

BOOK

(20.111)

cubic

one

foot.

20.111
7.5
100555

140777
150.8325

Example.

How

the

having

feet, top diameter

This

have

is the

had,

contents

of

First

find

contents

product

in

first

and
a

feet, and

will be

of

was

in

cubic

required answer.

Arts.

will

water

height, 4

base
feet?

determining
in

(Fig. 54.)
tank
the

we

cubic

Mensuration.

inches, then
feet, and

tank

diameter

frustum-shaped

explained

contents
to

of

hold:

for

process

frustum

inches

dimensions

example

the

cubic

gallons

many

following

gallons.

reduce

cubic

multiply by 7.5;

242

Examples

Explaining

HAND

Different

of

how

Parts

MECHANICS

Calculate

to
and

of

Weight

the

of

the

this

head

will

offer very

now

difficultyin solving.
find

the

findingits

of

weight
and

area,

by multiplying

material

by

the

body,

any

the

in feet.

area

in inches

by

the

weight

What

Example.

following

of

is the

weight

dimensions?

the

weight

cubic

foot

of the

is

area

by multiplying

cubic

area

Or, if the

inches, the weight will be found

inch

of the

of

cast-iron

6" thick

4' wide

by

the
of

weight

first

proceed

we

obtained

having

is found

the

Weight

the

Machine

coming under

Examples
To

FOR

Materials

Different

little

BOOK

given
the

in

area

material.

plate

and

8'

of

long.

(Fig.55.)

Fig.

4 feet

The

of

48

48

6 inches.

8 feet

96

96

27648

specificgravity

cubic

foot of cast
7.110

inches.

6 inches

Then

55

iron

of cast

iron

will

62.5

inches.

cubic

inches

being

7.110

equal
444.3750

1b.

area

the

weight,

cubic

foot

And

since

inch

will equal 444.3750

since

Then,

cubic

27648

.257

the

cubic

weight

of

lb.

7105.536

lb.

.257

equals .257,

inch

is 27648

inches

7105^ pounds will be the weight of the

About

Answer:

1728

pounds,

444.3750

weighs

cubic

one

243

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

plate.
What

Example.
the

is the

followingdimensions?

weight

42

inches.

5 feet

60

inches.

4 feet

48

inches.

First

find

the

area

in cubic

Then

find the

area

of the

of iron

inches
Then

in the

multiply

weight
equal

former, and

of

the

cubic

weight.

cast-iron

plate

of

56

3 feet 6 inches

the

(Fig.56.)

Fig.

from

of

the

inches

of whole

whole, and

subtract

will be the

answer

piece.

area

the latter
in cubic

plate.

the
inch

area

thus

of cast

Thus:

obtained

iron) and

by
the

.257

product

(the
will

244

60"
24"

24"

HAND

BOOK

48"

.7854

42"

MECHANICS

120. 960

42"

FOR

19.000

Difference

inches

cu.

inches

cu.

of

in
.257

plate.

of hole.

area

number

101.960

of

area

cu.

inches.

plate.
of

weight

inches

cu.

of

ir"n'

CaSt

713720
509800
203920

What

Example.
column

feet

20

be

will

long,

the

outside

8 inches?

inside diameter

of

pounds equals weight

26.103

of

weight

26103.720

plate.

plate.
of

weight

diameter

cast-iron

14

Arts.

inches, and

(Fig. 57.)
lb.

63971

Ans.

Ti
I

Fig.

14"

14"

.7854

1/

*-

240"

57

36945

in in. of outside

etc., area

diameter.
8"

8"

.7854

240"

12063

inside
24882

Difference

in inches

etc.,area

of

diameter.

number

of

cu.

inches

of iron.
Then
About
Example.

24882

.257

lb.

6394.674

6397^ pounds weight of column.

What

is

the

weight

of

Ans.

wrought-iron

shaft

having

and

1 foot

and

foot

diameter

diameter, the

inches

4^ inches

and

of which

flanges,one

two

inches

is

other

all?

over

3f inches

thick

2\ inches

thick

shaft

the

diameter,

feet

14

245

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

16.5

5.5

.7854

2.5

2.5"

3.75

.7854

3. 75"

5.5

.7854

16.5

170"

17

851.1772

534.5628

163.75

lb.

etc.

of

flange 1.

of

flange 2.

area
area

Ans.

(163|") length of shaft.

163.75"

5^ inches

(Fig. 58.)

1475.327544

17

is

of shaft

area

part.

5.5
5.5

8511772

275

5345628

275

38904298

3025

5276

1698

whole

in inches.

area

.7854

^28
420093584

12100

weight

of cubic

wrought

iron.

inch

of

105523396

15125

lb.

1475.327544

24200

weight.

21175
23.758350
163.75
118791750
166308450

71275050
142550100
23758350

3890.42981250
In
then
whole

the

above

the

area

shaft

then

added

area

of

example
of

we

flange 2.

minus

the

together

shaft, which

two

and

of shaft

in inches

area

the

first find
We

then

flanges.
sum

the

of

area

find

the

The

three

thus

multiplied by

part.

the

found

flange 1
of the

area

areas

are

is the whole

weight

of

cubic

246

inch

of

HAND

wrought

BOOK

iron

FOR

will

MECHANICS

the

give

whole

of

weight

the

shaft.

i
X

r"

"

m.i.
f-m-

The

by

weight

of

cubic

multiplying 7.690,

Fig.

58

inch

of

the

product

is the

icon, which, divided

inch,

is obtained
of

specific gravity

iron, by 62.5, the weight of

The

iron

wrought

cubic

of

weight

foot
cubic

by 1728, gives

of water
foot

diameter,

circular

What

brass

thick, and

4 inches

(Fig. 59.)

will it

is 6 feet

plate
has

holes

five 4-inch

cubic

77

.7854

.7854

18626.5464

'

in

in it.

weigh?
lb.

of whole

area

50.2656

of

area

one

cubic
251.3280

area

Ans.

plate in

inches.

cubic
4

inches

5512.565
X

wrought

of

.285.

Example.

77

(fresh).

of

weight

the

wrought

hole
inches.

of five holes
cubic

in

inches.

in

18626.5464

Then

minus

area

251.3280

of holes.

area

Specificgravity of
brass

Hence

Then

the

weight

whose

inside

thick

and

.3

is 10

cylinder 3

of

weight

10

1 +;.10 +
Then

.7854

11

41

outside

11

.7854

11

of

outside

1728

-v-

lb.

3220.1400

.3 lb.

is

brass

long?

area

lb.

Arts.

inches, the brass

feet 5 inches

524

inches

cubic

202.8
10

62.5

is 524

5512.565

is the

diameter

the

inch

18375.2184

What

equals 8.384

cubic

per

18375.2184

59

equals 8.384.

foot

of

weight

Example.

brass

cubic

per

the

etc., whole

18375.2184

Fig.

Then

247

MEASURE

CIRCULAR

cylinder

being \

inch

(Fig. 60.)

etc. lb.

of inside

Arts.
diam.

diameter.
X

41

3896.3694

of outside

area

diameter.
Then

diameter
Thus

area

equals
3896.3694

diameter

minus

area

of metal.

area

3220.1400

676,

etc.

of

inside

248

Then

as

cubic

676

HAXD

cubic

one

inches

inch

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

of brass

weighs

.3 of

pound,

weighs
676
.3

lb.

202.8

Fig.

Example.
whose

length

thickness

What

is the

is 45

inches,

f inch?

Arts.

GO

weight
outer

of

diameter

brass
12

cylinder

inches, and

(Fig.61.)
357.84

lb.

Ans.

mzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzm

'////////////////7m
45
Fig.

61

250

HAND

Find

Example.
whose

8 feet

is

the

of

weight

feet

10

inches,- and

MECHANICS

FOR

the

diameter

outer

diameter

BOOK

of

the

What

is the

following dimensions,

First
find

of

.257

weighs

find

the

the

weight

whole

equals

pound?

if

cubic

etc.

inch

of

and

of

both

of

the

and

cap,

flanges

the

sum

4032

2448

864

.257

weight.

S64
3312
.257
231S4

16560
6624
184

851

lb. Ans.

(About

Note.

"

Width

of

Ans.

lb.

cast-iron

weight.

Then

inner

cap
cast

of
iron

(Fig.63.)

weight
of

of

weight

and

inches.

11363.2
Example.

fly-wheel

inches,

width

rim

flange from

to

6"

852

lbs.)

B.

then

weights

TABLE

ft"

fr /fe"

j^g

Fig.
TABLE

251

WEIGHTS

OF

63

OF

WEIGHTS

(The approximate weight

of

cubic

inch

of

different

metals)
1 cubic

inch

of zinc

1 cubic

inch

cast

1 cubic

inch wrought

1 cubic

inch

of steel

1 cubic

inch

brass

1 cubic

inch

copper

1 cubic

inch

lead

1 cubic

inch

tin

(The approximate

weighs

iron

weighs

.3 lb.
.32

lb.

.41 lb.

weighs
of

lb.

.288

weighs

weighs

.28 lb.

weighs

weighs

weight

.26 lb.

weighs
iron

lb.

.252

lb.

.262

cubic

foot

of

different

metals)
1 cubic

foot zinc

weighs

1 cubic

foot

cast

iron

1 cubic

foot

wrought

1 cubic

foot

steel

1 cubic

foot

brass

1 cubic

foot

copper

1 cubic

foot

lead

1 cubic

foot

tin

lb. 13

428

weighs
iron

weighs
weighs

weighs
487

weighs

709

455

lb. 7

oz.

lb. 12

547

lb. 4

lb. 8
lb. 11

oz.
oz.

oz.

lb. 6

483

lb. 12

543

weighs
weighs

450

oz.

oz.
oz.

oz.

252

thickness

FOR

BOOK

pounds

of

varying

by

in

Weight
in

HAND

The

Note.

weight

"

be

easily
the
thick
an

obtained
of

weight
by
inch.

the

per

different

metals,

inch.

foot

square

foot
of

an

of

Metals

the

square

thickness

of

of

from,

foot

square

1-16

Name

MECHANICS

the

above
of
gage

to

table
the
in

gage

any

by

metal
inches

can

multiplying
ONE
or

inch

parts

of

PART

THE

PRIMARY

OR

SIMPLE

MACHINES

MECHANICAL

THE

Although
all

are

combinations

the

to, and

related

of

the

The

lever

is

angular

action,

element

of

axis

of

the

Inclined

that

is

action

or

and

to

base
the

say,

motion

and

Lever"

element

of

all
is

lever

which

may

plane

is the

that

action,

primary

primary

two

the

Plane."

inclined

the

"

they

many,

only

the

of

fundamental

the

are

is to

of

all

circular
the

or

primary

be

about

an

fundamental
inclined

the

say,

action

straight-line

motion.
The

primary,

mechanical

lever.

2.

The

inclined

3.

The

cord.

4.

The

pulley.

5.

The

wheel

6.

The

wedge.

7.

The

screw.

first

individual

and

three;
and

the

and

as

detail,

that

is, the

the
the

are

law

of

relation

the

the

of

one

the

ones

that

are

wheel

combinations
each

inclined

itself, capable
other

pulley,

lever, the

elements,

within
And

screw

is, the

simple

element

that

called:

number,

axle.

are

function.

some

the

plane.

three,

cord,

in

called

sometimes

machines,

seven

are

powers,

The

the

simple

or

1.

The
and

from,

principle

rectilinear

all

is

plane
or

center,

or

base

all

"

motions

of

spring

the

principles, namely,
principle

POWERS

of
of

the

and
the

255

each

of

performing
of

up

axle, the
first

these

powers,

explained
the

an

wedge,

three

is
and

is

is,

made

powers

"pulley"

plane,

"

wheel"

in

256

and

"axle"

and

screw

HAND

to

BOOK

the

the

to

FOR

lever, and

inclined

THE

lever

straight

SIMPLE

point
or

is meant

called

the

of the

wedge

clearly seen.

MACHINES

is free

(which

acted

force

directions, one

will be

stiff bar

fulcrum

When

support).

relation

Lever

bent, which

or

the

plane,

The

By

MECHANICS

acts

turn

means

about

and

lever

three

either
fixed

stationary prop

forces

two

power

shape,

any

to

by

upon
as

of

the

in

opposite

other

as

load.

Therefore, in the law

of the

points

must

which

the

be

considered:
The

First.

fulcrum

point,

or

about

bar

turns.

The

Second.
Third.
is

The

where

point
point

where

the
the

power

is

applied.

load, resistance, or weight

applied.
Levers
In

the

(P) and

are

divided

into

first class the

the weight (W).

three

fulcrum

Power.

Fulcrum.

(F) is between

(Fig.64.)

Fig.

classes.

Weight,

64

in all

figures.

the

power

258

40

8X5

2J lb.

is, the

16 inches
a

weight

by

exerted

pressure

fulcrum,

from

the

of 5

pounds

on

if the
a

crowbar
crowbar
18

point

to

raise

is 5 feet
inches

from

fulcrum.

will have

the

and

the

to

weighs

which

stone

long

the

67

power

end

fulcrum
nearest

(Fig.68.)

Here

the

leverages are
200

18

Fig.

68

18

and

42

3600
=

42

2\ pounds

of

exactly counterbalance

from

8 inches

much

How

weight

would

Fig.

Example.

pressure.

16

16

That

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

HAND

42

85f lb.

be
200
is

the

exerted

pounds,
placed

at

weight?

SIMPLE

THE

That

is, a pressure

with

the

259

MACHINES

force, of 85f pounds

or

power,

lever, counterbalance

above

would
of

weight

200

pounds.

raise

to

block

which

weighs

order, if the

and

the fulcrum

from

the lever

50

force,will

or

power,

of stone

second

of the

lever

much

How

Example.

placed

5 feet?

measures

exerted

pounds, by

50
is

stone

be

inches

(Fig.69.)

-5'

-H

Fig.

69

'

51

459

lb
7-i^
'
1U60

This

will appear

answer

it will

50-pound

weight

lever, then
take
the

to

force

weight

in the

raise

from

is to

required

the

pounds placed

at

power,

fulcrum,
3 feet

from

will

that

point

pounds.

or

would

the
the

of

the

of

the

remove

is located
of 25

sufficient

to

deduced.

point A,
point

such,

it would

power,

be
be

Now

which

force,

think

point

point C,

For

some.

the

followingmay

weight

What

to

point

at

50

to

lever, and

this the

power

from

point
the

at

the

nearer

inches

120

the

they

from

weight

equal

of the

Example.
3

the

power

From

less the

the

if

being placed

as

raise

exerted

it.

The

or

middle

pounds

confusing to

clearly understood,

be

Ans.

20

60

or

fulcrum,

raise

it.

to

point located

exerted

at

will

balance

the

fulcrum?

weight

of

260

is

This

HAND

BOOK

lever

third

of the

Fig.

120

36

MECHANICS

FOR

class.

(Fig. 70.)

70

4320
lb. pressure.

1440

~3~

To
Rule.
fulcrum
the

Find

Multiply

the

divide

by

and

Weight

the

by

power

What

weight

fulcrum

will be

counterbalanced

acting 6

inches

from

the

located

by

the

weight

the
from

pressure,

power

distance

weight

of

of 36
50

inches

pounds

from

inches
of

force

50

the

pounds

300

50

Ans.

84-

36

36

Then

36

(Fig. 71.)

fulcrum?

of

distance

the

from

fulcrum.

Example.

at

its distance

or

weight
from

placed

the
6

of

J pounds placed

fulcrum
inches

will
from

balance
the

crum.
ful-

261

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

zv
61

\0

36"-

~V

50

Fig.

Example.

equal

to

Let
40

arm,

B, C, is

A, B, C, be

pounds
is 16

length A, B,
4

71

applied

at

inches, and

inches.

What

on

the

weight

(Fig. 72.)

Fro.

bent

72

lever
the

with

long

length
at

can

of

force

arm,

the
be

the
short

lifted?

262

BOOK

HAND

40

640

16

MECHANICS

FOR

160

equal

80

to

pounds applied

length A, B,
What

inches.

A, B, C, be

Let

Example.

at

inches, and

is 12

weight
80

bent

at

12

the

Fig.

inches
36

from

inches

from

the

force

fulcrum,

the

the

with

short

the

arm,

length B, C,

lifted?

force

is 96

(Fig. 73.)

10 lb.

Arts.

pounds

is

9b"

96

If

lever

960
=

Example.

on

be

can

Am.

lb.

73

of

112

what

fulcrum,

can

Fig.

74

weight
be

at

lifted?

applied
A, which

(Fig. 74.)

12
is

112

1344

12

37+

Find

Distance

the

Am.

lb.

36

36

To

263

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

of

Power

the

from

the

Fulcrum

and

fulcrum

divide

by the

How

far from

Example.

the fulcrum

pounds have to be placed

pounds, which is 9 inches,from

Fig.

to

the

50

be

or

power

fulcrum?

54

inches.

Arts.

50

with

equal

to

at

be

to

lift

pounds

7 inches?

if

weight

40
A.

of

A, C, equals

(Fig.76.)
Fig.

of

of
300

(Fig. 75.)

long will A, B, have

How

150

force

applied

pounds
to

lever

power

weight

A, B, C,

Let

bent

75

Example.

raise

will

2700

the

power.

50

300

from

its distance

Multiply the weight by

Rule.

76

264

HAND

BOOK

150

FOR

MECHANICS

1050

26| inches.
40

Find

To

Distance

the

Ans.

40

Weight

the

of

from

the

Fulcrum
Rule.

Multiply the

fulcrum

and

divide

by

How

far

Example.
of

500

72

inches

the

from

the

the

300

of

fulcrum?

two

supports,

and

the

be

and

the

Between

the

load

beam

43.2 inches.

Ans.

Supports

Two
to

acts

as

beam

which

lever of the

rests

second

upon

class,

weight carried by either support

found
by considering one
support as the
If the weight rests
other as the fulcrum.

half
or

it is obvious

of the beam

in the middle

will carry

placed

part of the whole

may

power

pounds

21600

is attached
the

weight

500

Weights

weight

300

77

the

(Fig. 77.)

500

If

will

fulcrum

power

Fig.

72

from

weight.

from

balance

pounds

its distance

by

power

the

burden.

weight

is

if,as

But

placed

that
shown

distance

each
in

equal

support

Fig. 78,
to

one

266

fact

This
The

FOR

MECHANICS

clearly demonstrated

was

problems

Consider
feet

at

as

by Fig. 69.

long, with

How

the

solvingof

the above.

A, B, Fig. 80,

fulcrum.

the

BOOK

followingfigure will clearlyexplain

all such

16

HAND

of

of 4 tons

weight
much

lever

B, will exactlycounterbalance

second

what

class,

5 -feet from

placed

or

power,

the

erted
ex-

pressure

it?

"y"

jr*-s
Fig.

20

5X4
=

is to say,

That

C,

weight
Now

or

of 4 tons

that

that
And

weight

of

placed

D
as

1^

arranged over

tons

under

rest

on

the lever at B, take

support

distance

from

bears

the greater weight, it is very

share

of the whole

pounds

is

beam

restingon

"

19
two

1J
feet

"=

of 1 J tons,

1\

tons.

lever

the

the fulcrum

to

weight supported

because
Example.

of

supporting a weight
according to the law of the

must

shorter

weight)
that

clearly seen
at A

away

D, it is obvious

pressure

will be

the

above.

support D will be resistinga

case

pulley

exactly counterbalance

in the

as

lettinglever

(in this

arm

16

place a support

weight
then

16

a
Arts.

iii
tons.
11
4

"

figure, would

in

shown

as

80

be

the

2f tons,

2f.

long

supports A

and

weighing

and

B, there

700
is

THE

267

MACHINES

SIMPLE

weight of 4 tons hanging 6 feet from A

weight of 8 tons hanging 6 feet from B.
will be supported
these weights and beam
(Fig.81.)

Fig.

First

find

the

share

each

at

share
and

of
B ?

of

weight

1.

weight of weight 1, supported

tons

"

19

19

A.
Then

as

supports 2.63

support 5.37
In

the

same

weight

weight 1,

must

1.

the

share

each

support bears

2.
24

1.27 tons

=.

"

of weight
weight
s
s

19

19

as

2.73
half the

of the

tons

weight

find

manner

Then

of the

tons

6X4

supports 1.27

tons

of

weight

weight

of the

Therefore, A's
and
Therefore
in

What

81

support bears

2.63

of

another

48

6X8

at

and

B's

5 tons, etc.

And

And

2.

beam

weight 2,

each

equals

must

bears

support

350

2.63

2.73

350

share

5.37

1.27

350

2.73

5260
B's

equals
+

2.63

5460

share

equals

350
5.37

B.

port
sup-

also

pounds.

share

A's share

pounds equals

of

tons

2 at

350; A's share

11,070 lb.,about
-f 1.27

350; B's

268

share
6

in

pounds

10

tons

HAXD

BOOK

equals 10,740
lb.

20

cwt.

Any

compound

is called

the

By

of

use

Figure

to

6"

tons.

meant

13.630

combination

levers

more

350

of levers.
each

other

small

force

acting upon

lever.

levers

use

a
a

very

weight.

great

levers

shows

82

2540

Lever

compound

compound

inconvenient

is

or

will sustain

applied
And

two

compound

Compound

lever

of

system

about

The

By

MECHANICS

FOR

used

are

and

when

singlelever having
of levers

system

where

long

called

it is

arm.

compound

lever.

"J3

\"i

//

"

Fig.

With

such

short

arm

lever,

a
a

of
very

great

works

one

small

find

levers

arranged

pounds

Thus

as

Multiply

arms

and

the

divide

in the above

would

the

other

lift or

ance
bal-

Power

the

Fig.

from

of

arm

the

A.

exerted

in

applied at

Fixd

power

suspended

Rule.

short

the

at

long

where

above,

the

as

the

on

power

weight

32

of levers

system

To
To

5@7

82.

at
to

in

balance

of

combination
a

of 440

weight

A.

weight by

by continued
Fig. 82, the

product

continued

product
short

arms

of
are

long
3

of

arms.

inches,

SIMPLE

THE

inches, and

inches, and

8 inches.

Therefore
of 440

inches, and

the

pounds

at

440

long

arms

3 X

balance

to

A
Arts.

in

792

of

weight

suspended

440

pounds

from

from

Find

Multiply

of the

power,

short

inches,and

in

continued

and

divide

the

by the continued

long

product

inches,and

13

with

long arms

short

weight

of 2

arms

of

levers

inches, 9

11

inches,3 inches,

balanced

will be

of

combination

by

of

power

pounds?

10

10

"

U4r
Weight

11

12870

13

==

Then

would
from

pressure

balance

or

lb.

of

10

B.
The

The

"

pounds exerted at A
1072| pounds suspended

of

power

weight

in7Q
1072.5

12

2X3X2

is

of

product

be such

Fig. 82,

inches,what

440

Weight

the

the

If there

represented

and

pounds
pended
pounds sus10

or

arms.

Example.
as

A.

by the

arms

A,

weight of

will balance

at B

from

suspended

will balance

To
Rule.

pounds exerted

of 10

power

10.

11X9X8

is,a

load

7920

2
=

That

inches,

11

are

is

the

required at

power

269

MACHINES

pulley is

passed

in

order

cord, chain, or
The

is

of

of cords

and

The

pulley

and

number
or

which

in another

really a

cord
a

over

transmit

to

band

pulley

wheel, or

wheel

Pulley

wheel

the

cord, chain, or
force

applied

band

the

to

direction.

combination
number

of

of

the

wheels, or

and

cord
of

number

of wheels.
is introduced

only

to

reduce

fric-

270

tion, and

In

the

this
wheel

said

are

blocks

Figure

FOR

of the

to

fixed

are

shows

S3

pulley
C, D.

fixed

or

movable.

fixed

pulley

the

within

it.

is

dependent wholly

the

block

within

turns

84

is shown

block

or

movable

according

as

pulley.
is fixed

stationary, and

or

it.

O
Fig.

Fig.

pulley

be

O
In

MECHANICS

cord.

Pulleys
their

BOOK

the usefulness

the

upon

HAND

S3

single movable

is movable

Fig.

and

84

pulley.
the

wheel

In
C

this
turns

There

by

is

no

acting

single rope

there

pulleys,but
their

transmitted

of fixed
of the

hoist

to

the

carry

for

force

applied

enables

by

man

Done

85

be

may

with

Figure

single fixed

more

us

to

the

use

cord

the

to

is

bination
com-

or

tion
change the direc-

of

weight to a loft than it would

a
weight upwards over
flightof

pulley

of levers

or

force.

Work
The

one

direction,a fixed pulley

pulleys

it is easier

Thus

advantages gained

great advantage gained by

the

as

another

in

over

is often

because,

use,

mechanical

or

power

271

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

equal

by

arms

represents

on
a

as

fixed

be

for

him

to

stairs.

continuous

fulcrum

one

fixed pulley

Pulley

the

considered

pulley

axis.

or

which

series

corresponds
u

\
--C

6
Fig.

to

lever of the first class,the center

the

may

be

elements

looked

upon

A, C, the lever
It is here

the

85

direction

as

lever

in which

being the fulcrum,

A, B, C,

senting
repre-

B, the center,
and

A, B, and

arms.

obvious
of

of the

line

the

that
force

the

singlefixed pulley changes

only, without
modifying the

272

HAND

intensity of

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

is,a weight of 100

That

the power.

pounds

a weight
suspended from A would exactly counterbalance
of 100 pounds suspended from
C, because A, B, and B, C,
are
equal, but a force applied to the cord at A, causing

it to

in

move

cord

at

to

downward
in

move

direction, would

Combination
Movable

pulleys

figureshows

movable

one

led around

applied,and

attached

to

of

combination

pulley.

to

beam

pulley, and

free

combination

86

single movable

single fixed pulley; the

in

attached

cord

shows

86

Fig.

The

used

generally

are

fixed pulley with

one

Pulleys

of

pulleys. Fig.

fixed

with

direction.

upward

an

the

cause

end

the

then

up

pulley is

movable

over

is

the power

is where

A, then

at

weight

W.

In such
is

an

arrangement

which

passes

the

whole

the

two

weight

in this

balance

is

since

no

combination
the

weight

pulley, that

movable

power
it is
W

of the
is

cord

bears

gained by

seen

will be

the

force

half

the

is to

and

cord

the

supported by

and

singles C

weight ; and

the

around

weight

parts C, D, of the cord

the two

supported equally by

that the

it is evident

one

say,

each
half

of
the

pulleyK
required to

the fixed
at

weight.

That

is,

274

HAND

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

Ans.

21 tons.

Example.
lifted

by

of blocks

pair

is fastened

the

to

weighing

of two

What

is

pounds

1100

sheaves

block.

upper

work?

the

perform

to

cylinder cover

each, the
is

power

rope

required

(Fig. 87.)

-^

lb.

275

Ans.

The
of

required

power

evenly

to

If it be

applied

weight.

ton

and

Fig. 86,

raise

to
to

Example.

B,

at

the

What

shown

as

amount

P, Fig. 87,

at

weights,

in

figures.

additional

power

friction.

overcome

pair

tell the

examples only

weights suspended

balance

required

be

must

above

to

answers

of

double

be

must

power

blocks

used

are

applied

lift

to

if 20 per

cent

be lost by friction?

With
then
per

friction

required without

Power

If the

friction:

the
cent

Hence,

lifted would

weight

be

only

lb.

500

pounds (a cwt.),

100

were

power

80

pounds,

as

20

is lost.
as

80

100

::

500:

required.

power

100

8.0)50000(625.

Ans.

48
20
16

40
40
A

Example.
a

weight

of 2

pair

tons.

of double

What

must

blocks
be

the

are

used

power

to

raise

applied at

of the

the free end

Weight

in

pounds

2000

friction,80:

100

be

cent

per

required without

Power

With

if 20

rope,

275

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

friction,
1000:

::

tion?
by fric-

lb.

4000

lost

1000.

required.

power

100
Ans.

8.0)100000(1250.

8_
20
16

40
40
0

The
The

Strength

strength of

depends

rope

The

and

squared

divided

be

with

the

quality

Example.
rope

by

of the

whose

girth is

Example.

inches

in

Example
a

rope

whose

32

-T-

24

or

weight

divisor

many

erally
gen-

that

varies

24

24

with

Ans.

Si

tons.

may

be

lifted

lb.

Ans.

by

rope

2.5.

-i-

24

260

weight

tons

inches?

may

be

safely lifted by

is 3 inches?
-

cumferenc
cir-

circumference

the

to

The

or

girth being

safe to lift how

14

What

girth

area

rope.

girth? 2J

K.

equal

weight

2.52

the

girth

tons.

as

-r-

What

the

is

24

It will be

142

2J

is that

lifted expressed

may

rule

its

upon

called

the circumference
used.

Rope

of

of

ton

750

lb.

276

To

Find

Rule.
is the

HAXD

breaking
L.

Example
in

till

that

exceed

not

whose

that

the

to

of

in

Example.
in

the

different

in

Fig.

wheel

A.

drum

and

wrapped

put
of

should
and

for

strength

tons

or

4500

load

working

such

break

rope

on

pounds,

4500
a

applied.

ultimate

for

Example

strength

breaking

A
is

mounted

around

.axle

rope

of

stress

642

carries

rope

on

smaller

to

the

an

axle

couple

axle.
consists

of

axle

B.

B.

wrapped around
resistance
suspends from
cord

of

axis of which

one

combination

the
or

Ans.

likened

upon

at

the

and

the

the

weight

tons.

united

and
88

7.23

be

may

applied

the

diameters

shown

power

be

equals 2.52

often

safe

will not

round

if the

seventh

.28

axle

wheel

The

cord

and

the

or

that

pounds

to

Wheel

larger is

wheel,

rope

girth?

wheel

As

safe

is the

The

pulleys of

and

ultimate

practice

4.52 X

The

only

3 inches

for

3 inches

one

What

"

4J inches

load.

pounds

800

load

the

be

it is

pounds,

Therefore,

not

pounds, although

that

4500

or

working

exceeding

rope

700

of

stress

lb.

4500

girth is

tons

girth is

it would

tons

lift 750

whose

rope

ninth.

of

pounds

breaking

shows

seventh

one

rope

2.52

of 2.52

flat rope
a

.28

girth to

practice

In

is the

Example

weight

Rope

girth?

that

shows

of

in tons.

What

"

of 3 inches

rope

Stress

girthsquared by .28, the product

the

stress

32 X
Note

MECHANICS

FOR

Breaking

the

Multiply

"

3 inches

BOOK

the
a

THE

The
and

wheel
may

Fig. 89,
the

be

the

lever, D

and

SIMPLE

axle

treated

center

is

really a
such.

as

277

MACHINES

lever
In

of the

which,

as

first class
shown

line

A, C, represents the elements

the

fulcrum

being

about

which

the

in

of
lever

turns.

Fig.

The
force

radius

D, F, of the wheel

applied,or

leverage

89

of the

power,

and

weight.

will be the

the radius

E, D,

leverageof

the

of the axle the

278

BOOK

this, then,

From
To

HAND

find

of the

the

weight

of 300

is

inches

12

divide

by

required

to

of the drum
of

diameter

axle

the

rules:
radius

wheel.

of the

be

if the diameter

the

following

weight by the

radius
will

power

pounds
and

the

the

the

multiply

What

Example.

deduce

may

power:

and

axle

we

MECHANICS

FOR

or

lift

wheel
inches.

(Fig. 90.)

Fig.

of axle

Radius

==

inches; radius

300

3 X

90

To
of the

of 300

find

the

wheel

at

of

150

Kn
150.

pounds

at

will balance

K.

weight: Multiply
and

inches.

weight

Ans.

is, a pressure

900
=

That

of wheel

divide

by

the

the

power

radius

by

of the

the
axle.

radius

What

weight

if the

diameter

Example.

of 75

pounds
of

Radius

axle

of wheel

radius

75

of the

diameter

the

and

weight

of 75

is

barrel

if

equal

or

to

feet

24

inches

lb.

is 4 feet and

the

will

inches

diameter..
be

applies

pounds.

200
=

sure
pres-

of

inches

14

man

diameter

resistance

What

by

48

inches

radius

diameter

of

come
overa

force

(Fig.92.)
diameter,
wheel;

7 inches

14

radius

of axle.

Fig.

92

power

inches

(Fig. 91.)

pounds

150

The

steering wheel

of

is 10

B.

at

Example.
a

5 inches?

wheel

2.5

will be balanced

the

inches;

150

at

of

by

375

2.5
Then

will be balanced

5 inches.

axle

2.5

279

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

Fig.

91

280

HAND

BOOK

FOR

20"

MECHANICS

2i

Then

Windlass

The
The

windlass

in which
The

is

crank

windlass

C, D, E,

combination

of the

the

answers

of

consists

Fig. 93, by

lb.

687

of the

purpose

axle

an

the

axle

wheel.

A, B, and

of which

means

and

wheel

axle

crank

A, B, is

turned.

Fig.

shown

As

to

The
the

part

part

The

the
of

the

is called

windlass

weight

crank

is fast to
revolve.

and

standing

arm

an

raised

wraps

is called

crank

the

is used

to be

is

pendicular
per-

axle.

operated by applying
the

crank

figure,the

in

93

for
the

crank

arm,

raisingheavy weights
power

the

and

handle.

being made

around

the

the

to

crank

fast to the
axle

as

same

and

is

handle

1,

cord, which
is made

to

282

HAND

BOOK

differential windlass

wheel

and

Windlass

Differential

The

The

MECHANICS

FOR

axle, as

shown

in

Fig. 94, differs

windlass, Fig. 93, in having

drums

and

to

the

in

wrapped

cylinder
The

of

different

under

passes
an

from

movable

opposite direction

the

formed

diameters.

several

Chinese

by

cord

times

two

is attached

wrapped
and

pulley C,
around

mon
com-

the

then

smaller

B.
is

power

the crank

applied at

windlass, but the weight

pulley

axle

an

larger cylinder and

it,then

around
is

called the

sometimes

is

arm

as

suspended

in the

from

common

the movable

C.

iiiiii. limn
Fig.

With
turned
the

this
so

revolution

by
The

the

as

time

same

of

arrangement
to

wind

up

unwound

of the

difference

greater the

in

the

the

on

the

handle

the

will move,

in

cylinder A

rope

the

and

handle

the

cylinderB,

circumference

difference

quicker the weight

windlass, when

rope

from

crank

94

and

it is at
at each

is shortened
of the

is

only

cylinders.

circumferences, the
the less the

difference

it will move,

the slower
the

weight

moves

Example.

In

drums

the
crank
the

crank

them

by having

slowly and

great

and

is 2

feet

handle

is

f of

the

equal

foot, the

and

inches

the

is

gained.
of

diameters

length

of

the

applied

power

What

pounds.

90

to

nearly equal

power

differential windlass

1 foot

are

arm

and

very

283

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

to

weight

lifted?

will be

of

Multiply the length

Rule.
the

power,

and

the

radii

of the

Thus

divide

feet

half

by

crank

difference

the

in feet

arm

by

in feet of the

drums.
inches

2\ feet

of

feet,length

2.25

in feet.

arm

Then

2.25

90

202.50

-f-

in feet of radii

J difference

Arts.

the

As

inches

and
the

Then
inches

radius

reduce

radii

in

of

.75

the

drum

the

radii

is 6

of

drums.

is
of

foot.

foot.

30
24
60
60
^
=

equal

4.5

inches.
=

\ the difference

72

.0625

"

f feet

1.5

inch.

an

12).75 (.0625 of

202

will

equals 4|

decimal

Then,

and

foot

drum

inch, which

an

to

larger

radii

are

smaller

between

.75 of

inches,
Thus

of the

between

J of 1.5

drums

of the

difference

difference

Then
Now

the

of the
radius

inches) the

(=9

the

diameters

3240

lb.

Ans.

of

284

HAND

BOOK

inclined

horizon.

Fig.

In

forms

with

inclined

surface

the

inclined

and

by referringto Fig.

raising weights,

it will

to

the

to

less the

the

length,or
mechanical

effect

proportion

will be

the

this

body

on

plane,
table,
to

the

rests

for

say

action

by

proportion
the

the

the

plane

by
on

given
line A
nearer

height

to

greater
of the

its
the

plane

will

tal
horizon-

of

gravity
is

on

ing
tend-

completely
Fig.

counteracted

quired
re-

less

the

example

it down

draw

raise

be

effect.

mechanical

clearlyexplain
When

would

96.

of inclination,

the greater

length

in

plane

following explanation

The
more

its

to

Fig.

that

seen

approached

in

the

of

angle

and

surface

shown

perpendicular as
less the
height

The

in

required if

be

be

formed

sloping path

of the

is

plane

for

less power

use

line B.

used

95

would

sidered
con-

inclining

horizontal

The

than

be

may

inclined plane because

an

to

the

plane

plane.
it is

weight by

the

to

horizontal

right angle

line A. then, is

the

95

surface

excepting

inclined

an

flat

which

whatever

angle

any

is

plane
plane

Any

Plane

Inclined

The
The

MECHANICS

FOR

which

it

rests

96

of

resistance

the

and

the

body remains

at

rest.

It is

not

so,

plane.

when

however,
In

this

case

the

body

force

of

placed on
gravity acts

is

an

clined
inupon

in

body

the

of the

action

The

counteracted
second

by

place
the

meeting

that the

nearer

Fig.

horizontal

weight

toward

less and

the

weight

the

first

place is

plane, whilst
in

resistance

along

in the
line

in that

tion
direc-

plane.

plane approaches

to

97

the

by
the

surface.

perpendicular

weight, till when

will be supporting no

Let
and

the

plane

it will

it reaches

be

support
exact

an

part of the weight

all.

Fig.
In
A

the

less of the

perpendicularit
at

no

draw

surface, the greater will be the portion of

supported

elevated

of the

the other

force of gravity acting parallelto the

it is evident

And

gravity in

resistance

body

to

the plane it will be forced

parallelto
by

tends

which

force of

the

the

weight through it,and

the

parallelto the plane,

along parallelto it.

the plane,

perpendicular to

one

ways:

to force

tends

which

two

285

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

and

97

the

will demonstrate

figure is

B, connected

shown

by

this still
two

weights

cord C which

clearly.

more

of

passes

unequal sizes,
over

pulley

286

HAND

D.

The

and

is balanced

that

the

weight

largerweight

nearer

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

is

smaller

by

the

the

inclined

weight

surface

inclined

B.

consequently

counterbalance

to

Also, the

From

this

inclined

Rules

will be

at

surface

which

on

itself which

plane

given weight

the

weight

Work

Calculating

for

quired
re-

the

will

that

terbalance
counan

on

the

by

raised

be

can

is

weight

Tests

fact

the

demonstrates

is less than

which

power

the

supported by

plane; and

of the

use

inclined

weight larger than

inclined

line E

perpendicularthe greater
A.
required to counterbalance
learn that the small weight B
we

will be

weight

larger

A.

the

nearer

resting approaches
at

less the

the

the

horizontal

greater will be the portion of the weight A

it, and

surface

It is evident

which

on

the

resting approaches

is

the

restingon

by

itself.

Done

Inclined

the

by

Plane
find

To
of the

the

plane

Multiply

power:

divide

and

by

weight by the height

the

the

length.

Perpendicular height of plane

p

"

v/

length

of 100

force

What

Example.

pounds stationary
height

supposing there
Thus

on

is 4 feet

is

no

Power

Example.
the

or

to

inclined

an

and

length

keep

plane

weight

whose

pendicular
per-

14

feet,

is 19

feet,

of incline

friction?
4"

28f lb.

14

14
p

plane

is necessary

i^-4

of

force.
The

length of

perpendicularheight

an

feet.

inclined
What

plane
power

will be

re-

quired

to

is

there

sustain

Fig.

250
ThusP

98

1500
78.9

weight : Multiply

find the

of the

plane

the

by the length

power

by the height.
W

Length

Height

an

inclined

Weight

PX
W

divide

and

Ans.

lb.

19

19

To

pounds, supposing

250

(Fig.98.)

friction?

no

of

weight

287

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

Power

The

Example.
the
of

length of

perpendicularheight 7 feet.
78 pounds sustain, supposing
78

The

the

power

plane

What

weight

there

is

of 78

lb.

167.1

length of

perpendicularheight
by

plane

no

is 15

will

feet,

power

friction?

15
=

Example.

of

an

3 feet.

Ans.

inclined
What

pounds?

plane

is 15

weight will

be

feet,
tained
sus-

288

HAND

BOOK

FOR

I170

I^li5
=

of wedge

form

in

representedin Fig. 99,

dotted

general

which

There
the

the inclined plane.

required

to

accurate

estimate

out

as

exert

they are

according

to

a
can

them.

in

to

to

-back

Wedges

pair of

along

the

wedge
are

used

which
used

called
be

may

where

it is

100

great force
be

of

Fig. 100,

in

made

of

ordinarilyused,

but

small

the

space.

work

of work

which

done

calculations

the following rules will give

idea of the amount

by

back

form

another

Fig.

wedges

likened

wedge

99

single wedge, represented

to

be

double

A, B.

is,however,

likened

is the

use

may

planes joined together

line

Ans.

Wedge

Fig.

inclined

lb.

390

The
The

MECHANICS

may

be

an

No

by

worked
imate
approx-

performed

290

HAND

Example.

If

thick, what
100

FOR

MECHANICS

is 15

inches

BOOK

weight

wedge
will

it raise

and

long

if the

2 inches

applied

power

is

pounds?
100

15

1500

If

Example.

750

2
a

lbs.

-2

double

wedge

thick

splits a

driven

with

in

the

pounds,
the

upon

how

inches

12

long

block

when
force

exerted

(Fig. 102.)

Screw

The
The

around

plane wrapped
by taking
around

Take,
103), and

cylinder,as
of

paper

clined
in-

essentiallyan
be

may

and

seen

winding

it

cylindricalbarrel.
for

example,

bend

the

it in circular

Fig.

doing

helical

A, B; by

so

shown

Fig. 104, which

in

triangular piece

is

screw

lb.

600

102

is

wedge

Fig-

200

2400

12

of

the

by

pounds?

200

it is

pressure

block

many

4 inches

form

seen

resting on

plane 1, 2

figure shows
that

(Fig.

its base

line

103

A, B, C (Fig. 103) curled around

Here, then, it is

plane A, B,

inclined

as

the

will be
the

formed

inclined

plane

cylinder D.

the incline winds

as

around

THE

the

cylinder D

called

helical.

of inclined

it

The

spiralshape

assumes

Fig.

(Fig. 105) enveloped by

B, which

wound

around

is
a

powers

is not
were

more

to

solid barrel A

than

an

called

inclined

the

plane

barrel.

clearly determined
known

spiral projection

Fig.

It

combination

104

nothing

solid

of

it consists

accurately

more

then, is really a

screw,

planes, because

thread

291

MACHINES

SIMPLE

105

how

the ancients.

far

the

Without

mechanical
doubt

they

292

HAND

had

the

pulley, and

of the

knowledge

the

of

MECHANICS

FOR

lever, the wheel

it would

feats

by

BOOK

because

seem

and

construction

early Egyptians, that they

of

the

surmised

principlesof

and

probable, in
of which

not

order

the

acquaintance

the

inclined

is not

to have

pyramids

an

the

with

plane

great

had

gineering
en-

the

huge

inclined

it

is

only

seems

very

blocks of stone
have

must

had

Just

plane.

in the

edge
knowl-

this

plane;

fact, but

first used

was

have

built,that they

the

axle, and

building performed

inclined

moved

are

the

of the

must

established

an

and

form

of

when

screw

of the

screw

known.

The

earliest

being used
This

authentic

mechanics

in

pumping

The

water.

device

screw," and

is

is

about

Archimedes.

236

"

known

now

as

ancient

most

vented
in-

B.C.,

for

spiral cylinder

or

of the

one

writingsof

mechanician,

screw

have

we

is in the

and

philosopher
a

mention

raising

Archimedes'

contrivances

for

raisingwater.
This

consists

screw

spiral form
made
the

revolve

to

solid

by turning

angle, the water,

proper

continue

around

of

flow

to

into

metallic

tube,

cylinder

or

a
as

When

handle

is

placed

is

parts of the

those

in

shaft, which

handle.
the

wound

at

turned, will

tube

that

are

the shaft, till gradually

brought successively below
will be discharged at the top.
(Fig. 106.)
did not, however, understand
Apparently Archimedes
the

inclined

mention

plane

of it in any

evidence

knowledge

to

inclined

of his
show

Galileo

in the

of that

time

that

knowledge

plane
sixteenth

allude

to

he

makes

writings,and

there

used,

now

of mechanics

The

as

that

it

for

possessed by
seems

to

century,
the

of these

wedge
powers

included

was

have

the

and

in

invented
several

the screw,

formed

tive
posi-

no

the

Romans.

been

because

direct

no

is

it

by

writers

showing

part of the

in which

physical science

of

revival

293

MACHINES

SIMPLE

THE

took

Galileo

if he did
prominent part at that time, even
Stevinnes, a mechanician
inspire it. However,
the first to fullyexplain in a treatise
was
of the inclined plane and screw.
of the power
first

The

of

use

the

for

appliance used

belong

power

the

to

era

land,
Hol-

of

theory

the

jack, an

screw

106

and

modifications

various

fully

not

weights.

raising heavy

Fig.

The

in the

was'

screw

most

applications

of

discovery

of mechanical

this

of the

present century.

Work
Screws

with
we

two

may

coils

be

may

threaded.

If
a

Done

we

either

coil which

easily define
parallelto

single-threaded

that

assume

forms
a
one

Screw

the

by

the

double
another

screw

consists

wound

thread
screw

wound

as

double-

or

of

der
cylin-

around

cylinder

around

it.

it,
with
The

294

HAND

works

screw

into

it, called the

fixed

when

is movable

Motion

is

case

The

less

within

fixed

it,and

receive

to

movable:

or

when

the

being made

nut

exerted

nut

and

the

nut.

turned

nut

to

turn

it in

in

screw

distance

fixed

one

equal

is to say,

That

distance

threads
The

is

of work

the

nut

pitch, or

one

Example.

by

the

of

centers

if the distance
be

into

rules

the

A
fixed
into

will,by

hand,

be

ing
turn-

made

the

vance
ad-

Find
the

equal

of
the

that

the

threads.
of two

centers

during

screw

to

plete
com-

one

distance.
successive

two
screw.

knowledge

approximate

screw:

the

weight

circumference

handle

the

fixed nut

an

fixed nut

successive

two

centers

give
the

distance

pitch of

the

into

between

I inch, the

between

Multiply

in inches

the left

which

To

by

one

its

performed by

divide

left-handed.

nut.

always called

Rule.

is

toward

to

following

greater

will advance

right hand,

screw

will advance

turn

The

the

and

lever

of resistance.

point

will advance

threads

successive

the

threads, the

revolution

between

distance

extremity

which, passing through

one

toward

direction

into
A

is

longer

the

(whichever

the

at

right-handed or

left-handed

The

the

at

lever

between

said to be

are

of

the nut

or

applied.

distance
force

the

screw

means

is

right-handed screw

or

thread

be

may

the

to

be) by

the

Screws

and

with

fixed,the

is

screw

the power

will be

nut

turns

imparted

may

of which
the

solid,fitted

screw

the

MECHANICS

it.

upon

the

nut.

the

FOR

BOOK

employed

Power
in
of

pounds by
the

to turn

the

pitch

circle described
either

the

screw

revolution.
If the

pitch be f inches,

and

the

lever

SIMPLE

THE

295

MACHINES

be

will
at A
long, what power
(Fig. 107.)
weight of 5 tons?

feet

required to

"a*

-""

move

W*

A^

IK
T

"

,~

[
I
Zbunu*

i^/^C*

Fig.

of

Twice

length

Then

72

circle

of

3.1416

described

5 tons

arm

10000
Thus

feet

72

"

of

lever.

10000

lb.

f
33.1

226.1972

inches.

circumference

inches

revolution

2000

226.1952

by

Power

lever

107

lb.

296

HAND

length of

Twice

be

screw

6 feet

\ inch, and

the

tons?

move

72

inches;72

of

circle described

circumference

inches

226.1952

lever

force would

long, what

3 feet

be

lever

MECHANICS

pitch of

If the

Example.

FOR

BOOK

3.1416

by

lever.

pounds

in

Weight

10000
P

2000

.25

there

is

please,and

you

to

be

to

necessary

be

given

given

of

employed
the

by

the

small

as

long

as

you

strength

space

sary
neces-

the

handle

the

lever

or

the nut, and

or

screw

in

circumference

the

by

divide

pitch.
If

Example.

\ inch
the

as

and

described, by

either turn

to

made

Weight

the

power

circle

the

made

threads

the

Find

Multiply

Rule.

be

may

for

lever.

the

to

To

inches

to

be

may

oreticall
the-

screw,

mechanical, viz.: the

will be

limits

please; the

of the

power

threads

lever

the

the

to

the

between

distance

lbs.

examples, that

above

the

limit

no

11,

226.1952

from

noticed

"

,
==

It will be

as

lb.

10000

2500

226.1952

the

.25), and

(=

end

moved

of

lever

by the
Twice

Thus:
100

be

pounds be applied to
length,what weight will be

in

screw?

length

lb. X

threads

of 100

force

feet

the

between

distance

the

48

of lever

4 feet

"

48

inches.

15079.6800

3.1416

6031glb
~

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The

rule

weight

that

can

be

mostly

given

can
a

be
bolt

used

lifted
or

practice for determining

in

by

stud

or

screw,

by using

the

wrench

tension
to the

the
that

nut,

VI

PART

STRENGTH

OF

RELATING

AND

MATERIALS

TO

STRESS

QUESTIONS

STRENGTH

MATERIALS

OF

AND
STRESS

TO

mechanic,

The

with
used

strains, due

the

And

it
of

the

those

of

extent

dealt

to

required
The

which

the

strain

know

These

for

in

five

1.

Tensial

2.

Compressive

3.

Transverse

4.

Torsional

5.

Shearing

force

or

that

he

the

rules

as

to

forces

to

be
of

margin

the

make

parts.

materials

of form

alteration

edge
knowl-

calculating

thereby
of

strength

great

rupture.
a

safe

forces, and

applied

have
for

with

the

final

various

allow

to

of

any

quainted
ac-

materials

familiar

before

the

to

the

forces

rupture

are

due

what

provisions

their

cause

govern

all such

carry

external

stand

necessary

laws

and

with,

resistance

to

therefore

is

be

forces,

will

used

be

different

also

various

the

to

the

should

He

materials

of

variety

of

strength

the

construction.

in

intelligently, should

work

to

RELATING

QUESTIONS

tending
called

are

to

stresses.

called:

number,

stress.
stress.
stress.

stress.

applied
the

lengthen

'

stress.

in

body

the
is

line

of

fiber

called

the

having
tensial

tendency

breaking

or

stress.

As

shown

alter

Fig. 108,

because

lengthen
weight

in

B,
its

and
form

of

the
is

the

the

beam

force
of

stress,

stress.
301

has

exerted

resistance

the

"

A
in

due

this

upon
to

the

case

tendency
it
load
the

to

the

by
B

to

tensial

302

As
called
to

shown

in

the

parts together, tending

to

the body, is called the compressive stress.

Fig.

109

the

compressive stress,

crush

crush

or

pushes

MECHANICS

FOR

BOOK

which

force

shorten

HAND

weight

upon

the

exerts

stress,

column

B, tending

manner

as

it.

force

it to twist

applied to

is called the

110, by applying

body

in such

torsional

power

to

the

As

stress.

lever

shown

in such

to

cause

in
manner

Fig.

STRENGTH

that
to

it would

cause

303

MATERIALS

OF

B, which

the beam

is anchored

at

C,

twist.

If

placed

is

beam
on

transverse

the

Fig.

109

Fig.

110

resting on

beam

stress.

two

between

(Fig.111.)

supports and
the

weight

supports, it is called

is
a

304

stress

is

BOOK

FOR

be fixed at

beam

If the
the

HAND

bending

end

one

is

trying
As

stress.

to

the

through

cut

in

shown

cutting through

are

that

body

loaded

in

it acts

other,

the

that

way

it is called

Fig. 113, where

the

at the

Ill

is such

stress

and

(Fig. 112.)

stress.

Fig.

Lastly, if

MECHANICS

it

shearing

cutters

A, B,

C.

bar

6
Fig.

The

load

change
The

of

strain

form;

that

which

form, which
may

is strain.

result of stress

immediate

Every

112

be

is,one

acts

on

is called the

produces

structure

due

strain

which

disappears when

vanishing

or

to the load.

elastic

either

change

the load

is

of
re-

306

HAND

regard given

data

than

change

BOOK

FOR

rather

and

approximate

as

precedents

as

MECHANICS

be

to

subject
and

adopted

to

blindly

followed.
It will be the
for

determining the
the

to

object of

and

action

of

otherwise

materials

the

how

better

used

be

will

to

the

loads, and
The

stresses
are

and
Stress

is

stresses

to

which

when

these

parts of such
due

the

to

to

measured

in

and

pounds

per

are

they

of the

ferent
dif-

rupture.
structions
con-

For

That

the

number

will

area

by

square

tensial

of

inch

square

of

undergo
if

bar

inches

(Fig. 113.)
ultimate

of

mined
usually deter-

wrought-iron

is 4

is,

strength

instance,

113

section

inch

square

final rupture.

inches

if the

that

that

area.

is

by

before

that

terials
ma-

parts of

ultimate

sectional

obvious

the

pressive,
the Tensial, Com-

are

pounds

of

tors
fac-

materials

sizes

materials

area

as

stresses.

the

whole

are

action

constructions

mainly subjected
Shearing

vision
pro-

strengths, so

of sectional

the

safe

thereby prevent straining and

usually

Fig.

various

enter

wood,

various

be used
the

construct

the

construction, special note

their

may

due

nature.

iron, steel and

of

of

which

rules

tables

by

comparative

forces

the

stresses

show

to

strength

in machine

made

safely stand

those

of every

intelligentjudgment
employed

loads,

make

to

iron, wrought

mostly
had

different

sustainingall

cast

approximate

the approximate

in construction
As

chapter to explain

of the

strain

used, and

for

this

inches, and

strength

of

is

in

tion.
sec-

Thus
it is

wrought

STRENGTH

for

iron,

section,
4

bar

of

52,000
The

and

strength

be

sectional

break

to

of
is

area

by

power

pounds.

208,000
tables

elastic

caused

inch

square

per

whose

iron

wrought

following

pounds

52,000

would

inches

square

of

is

instance,

307

MATERIALS

OF

of

approximate

are

of

strength

different

the

ultimate

materials

monly
com-

used.
Ultimate

ultimate

By
load

produced.

of

ultimate

of

pounds

per

before

that

inch

square
takes

rupture

the

the

when
be

materials

put

vanishing

load

is

such

piece

and

form

when

the

than

it

it

so

load
has

material

strength),
faster

the

and
the

stress,

permanent

that
sets

less

or

great

or

will

called

the

is, the

piece

can

in

stress

sustain

just

Strength

more

are

under

which

is

that

is

place.

Elastic

All

fracture

load

material

piece;

which

before

smallest
of

possible

greatest

carry

piece

of

strength

will

words,

rupture

the

meant

material

other

In

the

cause

is

strength

piece

any

Strength

has
that

stress

and
of

change
before

as

it

will

removed,

been

reached
this
until

return

the

limit

(which

rupture

form

undergo,

which

the
is

may

When

influence

not

limit

will

stated.

permanent

is

beyond

elastic

upon

its

to

of

the
the

original

elasticity

is
strain

produced.

the

of

elastic

increases

308

HAXD

BOOK

FOR

MECHANICS

TABLES

TABLE

Ultimate

NO.

Elastic

and

Strength

Pounds

Square

per

ULTIMATE

Materials

of

Inch

OR
ELASTIC

BREAKING
NAME

in

STRENGTH

STRENGTH

OF

MATERIALS

Tension.

"^???
pression

Cast

Iron.

10.800

90.000

^^"?^"

Tension

Shearing
"

"

20.000)

Shearing
"

pression

10.500

21.000

7.900

24.000

24.000

20.000

35.000

35.000

26.000

70.500

70.500

53.000

80.000

80.000

74.000

S4.000

90.000

to

67.000

Iron

Wrought

52.000

52.000

to

67.000

Steel

Soft

En-

hardened

60.000
.

150.000

"0

000
.

to

100.000

Soft

Steel

ened
hard120.000

Steel

Cast

84.000
.

84.000

84.000

to

Steel

120.000

Un-

tempered.

Cast

120.000

to

150.000

150.000

100.000

150.000

to

150.000

pered.
Tem70.000

145.000

Copper

33.000

58.000

58.000

3 .900

Brass

17.500

10.500

10.500

6.950

6.950

5.200

23.000

23.000

23.000

6.200

6.200

-4.150

300

Gun

Metal

to

to

900
.

to

52.000

52.000

52.0001

58.000

58.000

58.000

Phosphor
Bronze.

19.700

19.700

14.500

NO.

TABLE

Stress

Working

Safe

Showing

Table

ordinary

working

SAFE

LIMITS

PER

IN

stress

THEORETICAL

POUNDS

LIMIT

INCH

SQUARE

Pounds

in

Inch

Square

per

309

MATERIALS

OF

STRENGTH

OF

NAME

MATERIALS
Com-

Shearing
pression

Tension

Cast

Iron

10.400

2.700

5.250

28.500

3.000

10.400

7.800

17.280

15.000

9.000

17.700

17.700

13.000

24.000

24.000

13.000

36.000

36

Un

tempered

Steel

Un

tempered.
Copper

20.000

52.000

52.000

36.000

3.600

3.120

000

2.300

9.900

17.400

5.500

3.600

3.600

2.700

5.250

3.150

3.000

3.120

3.120

2.400

10.800

10.800

6.000

9.870

9.870

7.380

17.400

17.400

9.700

Brass
Metal

Gun

Compression
pressio

Steel

Cast

Tension

Com-

Tension

10.400

3.600

Iron

Wrought
Soft

OF

STRESS

....

Phosphor
Bronze.

As

shown

by foregoing tables, 1

margin

of difference

the

working

safe

the various
This

therefore,to
all

the

take

which
care

causes

of

Hence

informed

for the

safely carry

forces
the

because

are

load

before
it is

which

produce

safety

of

of

amount

2, there is

ultimate

parts sufficientlystrong

aggregate

forces

will

insure

the

allowed

is made

all the

make

limit

metals

allowance

between

and

taken

straining

into

of all unforeseen

and

strength

weight

or

that

straining.

impossible

termine
de-

to

straining action;

structure,
to

great

have

we

not

support,
due

action

consideration, but

contingencies due

to

to

only

to

also

the
to

neglected

straining action.
it is necessary
so

that

he be

that

the mechanic

able to determine

be sufficiently
the

approximate

310

HAND

stress

on

strength of
insure

thereby

different

determining
less

or

more

the

guided by

However,

and

known

to

which

this way

And

to

the

used

be

is exerted

is obtained

due

all

carry

generally adopted
and

to

sudden

as

shocks.

varying
and

factors

by
by

into

multiplying
factor

by the

of

be

to

safety.
tion
considera-

straining effect

due

practice,when

of

take

to

actions

the

those

upon

forces

safety, a rough

is made

for the

unseen

forces.
stress

on

straining
And

in

the structure

causes.

strength of

those

accordingly.
Following is a table
dead

although by

structure,

the approximate

sizes and

to

on

produce

exist

in

customary

safe allowance

comparatively

action

is

impossible

structure.

the

he perhaps gains
familiarity

various

forces which

are

to determine

safety. And

straining actions
is

able

intensity of straining

all the

which

be

different parts to prevent strain

forces,it

just stated, it

As

and

of the

knowledge

the

to

the

MECHANICS

also

absolute

practicalexperience
best

FOR

structure, and

necessary

and

BOOK

in
or

various

of

FACTORS

of

factors

load, and

frequent strains
OF

various

stresses

practice for
live

the

various

may

SAFETY

be

safety, which

to

mined
deter-

are

materials, under

for machines

of short

materials

subjected

duration, known

STRENGTH

will be

It

noticed

dead

loads

when

the structure

From
loads

than

which

live

is

It

MATERIALS

the

factor

of

that the stress

the

due

load

of the

nature

and

load

greater load

time; therefore
various

varies

will be

according

of

brought

to

is

And

safety.

the

to

the

ried
car-

ingly
provisions accord-

made

the expected load

factors

for

be

must

parts

than

be

to

them.

carry

all the

greatest

to the different

being impossible to correctlydetermine

is less for

safety

shock.

to

carefullyconsidered

to

311

varying loads, and

or

subjected

learn

we

be

made

the

for

varies; therefore
must

of

that

OF

materials

same

different loads, a greater

bear

much

them

on

at

multiplied by
the

load,

under

less factor

or

resist

to

this factor

of

nature

the intensity

the

of

any

of

one

of

safety

and

sequently
con-

influence

of

be

safety must

used.
Tensial
If
of

22

bar of iron

1 inch

tons, what

square?

That

is torn

asunder

required to

Example.

by

break

If

bar

stress

square

bar

required

square
a

is torn

square

will be

is,if

Stress

bar

of cast

of

asunder
to

whose
22

whose

break
sides

by
a

iron 2 inches

stress

bar

3f"
1"

measure

tons, what
sides

will be
"

measure

3|

square

is torn

312

asunder

HAND

by

BOOK

break

required to

of

stress

FOR

pounds, what

100,000

bar

MECHANICS

of

3J inches

will be

square?

3.5
3.5
175
105
12.25

sq. inches

in section

of bar

be broken.

to

2
2
4 sq. inches

Then
bar

if

of

in section

of

iron

much

force

will be

12.25

square

inches

which

is broken.

force of 100,000 pounds is required

cast

Thus,

of bar

12.25

inches

square

required

how

area,

cast-iron

bar

of

more?

area

Ans.

100,000:

::

break

to

sectional

sectional

break

to

12.25
500000
200000
200000
100000

4)1225000.00
306250
If

Example.

asunder

is torn

breaking

bar

the

required
Hence,
the
inch

of

weight

the

bar.

Ans.

iron 2 inches
of 70

eter
in diam-

tons, what

is its

stress?

to

that

of

section; and

stress

in

pounds

break

any

the

question

stress

in

is measured

stress

inch

square

means

break

of wrought

by

It will be remembered
per

lb. to

per

that
square

pounds
breaking stress
in

inch

of

section

material.
of the

pounds

above

required

example
to

(in this instance) wrought iron.

is to

rupture

mine
detersquare

314

HAND

of section

Area

BOOK

35

tons

per

inch

square

per

the

on

12.5664

tons.

of its section.
column

inches.

square

35

Am.

5 inches

tons, what

of 25

weight

up

inch

cast-iron

MECHANICS

12.5664

square

If

42

450

Example.
holds

.7854

Stress

FOR

by

is the stress

5 inches

in

pounds

column?

_5
25

2000

of column.

in section

inches

square

ton

25
10000
4000
50000

Then

stress

50000

in

25

square,

If

four

hold

up

inside dimensions

the

First
divide
Add
the

is

cistern

long, 8

by

inch

in

weight
the

(4 of them), and

pounds
when

cistern

of

total

the

full,which
half full.

when

Divide

empty.

sectional

quotient

(Fig. 114.)

when

cistern

in

1562

6 feet

columns

these

on

half full of water?

weight

obtained

wide, and

feet

tons, whose

46

weighing

square

per

one

obtain

2 to

this the

sum

ums

feet

12

find weight of water

by
to

are

each

columns,

cast-iron

cistern

area

Ans.

solid

is the stress

deep, what
when

lb.

2000

of sectional

inch

square

per

column.

the

pounds supported by

pounds

Example.
inches

in

weight

of

area

the

col-

required

is the

answer.

Cubic
6

contents

576

cubic
foot

Weight

of water

full of water

when

12

feet.

of water

1 cubic

lb.

of cistern

weighs

in cistern

62.5
576

lb.
X

62.5

18,000

STRENGTH

Total
and

weight

18,000

columns

on

in

pounds

92,000 (46 tons)

100,000 lb.

sectional

Total

315

MATERIALS

OF

-4X4X4

columns

of

area

G4

inches.

square

inch

Stress per square

100,000

64

1562

lb.

Ans.

XJ^

Fig.

114

Stress

Shearing
In
then

cutting through
shearing

in

The

shearing
to

That

through

be

is,a
every

Example.

stress
stress

bar

we

always
of

cut

find

wrought

through

its section:

sectional

the
iron

is

area.

usually

sidered
con-

52,000 pounds (23 tons) per square inch.

stress of 52,000 pounds is required to
square
What

three-quarter inch

inch

of sectional

shearing
rivet?

stress

cut

area.

will

cut

through

316

.75

HAND

.75 X

FOR

BOOK

.7854

MECHANICS

sectional

.44178750

of rivet,

area

(Fig. 115.)
Then,

The

process

.44148650

52,000

lb.

Fig.

115

foregoing examples
for

determining

the

inch

caused

of

the

by

Ans.

demonstrate

to

serve

of the

magnitude

square

per

be

will

lb.

22.972

section

action

the

strain
which

of

the

ried
car-

may
various

stresses.

Examplks

Demonstrating
Constructing

for

Parts

Strength
Known

be

Let

is,we

us

sustained

of

its sectional

employ

will suppose

which

Loads

of

is

208,000 pounds, what

area?

(Fig. 116.)

factor

of

safety of

the

load

which

will be 4 times

is 816,000

bar

wrought-iron

square

weight

carry

must

Carry

to

cient
Suffi-

of

Magnitudes.

Example.
to

Process

the

As

be

is to

greater than

pounds.

That

4.

the

208,000,

piece

of

116

material
we

find

in

question

by referringto

is

table

subjected
No.

to

that

tensial

the

ulti-

tensial

mate

Therefore,
load

the

strength of wrought

inch

square

per

317

MATERIALS

OF

STRENGTH

iron

is

52,000 pounds

of

section, divide

of section.
find

to

816,000

required

the

pounds by

area

the ultimate

strength 52,000

pounds.
832,000

inches.

16 square

Arts.

52,000
What

Example.

block

cast-iron

square

which

is to

Fig.

Let
That

that

times

pounds.

As

factor

weight

piece of

ultimate
per

5 for cast

of safety, say

the

compressive stress, we
the

sustain

of

area

of

117

load which

is to be

160,000, which

greater than

the

90,000 pounds
To

will suppose

is,we

will be

to

employ

us

sectional

(Fig. 117.)

pounds.

160,000

the

be

must

in

material
find

square

is

by referringto

compressive strength
inch

of

sustained

is

question

subjected

table

cast

of

8.888

No.

iron

is

section, divide the

load, 800,000 pounds by 90,000.

90,000

800,000,

of section.

find,then, the required area

Thus

iron.

square

inches.

Ans.

318

HAND

Example.

BOOK

What

wrought-iron bolt
pounds?

FOR

be

must

That

employ

us

As

ultimate

To
a

of

80,000

the

piece of

which

material

inch

find,then, the

in

of

be

that

iron.

carried

is,320,000

question is subjected to
table

iron

wrought

to

No.

1, the

be

52,000

of section.
of

area

of

is to

80,000 pounds

stress

square

shearingstress

load

find,by referringto

shearing
per

118

the

greater than

shearingstress, we

pounds

shearingstress

of

area

factor of safety of 4 for wrought

will consider

4 times

pounds.

sectional

(Fig.118.)

is, we

be

to

the

to withstand

Fig.

Let

MECHANICS

section

capable

80,000 pounds, divide

of

the

sustaining

load

320,000

by 52,000.
Thus,

320,000
6.153

square

inches.

Ans.

52,000
Examples

Showing
Amount

the

Example.

suspended
stress

at

the
is

from

the

Rule.

force

If

it

The

supposed

the

intensity

of the
to

10 feet

weight

where

multiplied by

direction

Stress

of

beam

point

Process

the

the
force

be fixed.

of

of

fixed at

pounds,

force

the

length

of

the

from

point

end

one

what

is fixed?

beam

Beams

on

long
300

Determining

for

has

is the

(Fig. 119.)

equal to the
perpendicular to
is

in which

the

beam

OF

STRENGTH

Therefore, the
300

10

stress

beam

at A

in

pounds equals

lb.

3000

the

on

319

MATERIALS

.lo'.
"

"S:

Q-".

J'-V.
Fig.

Because

point
300

the

at which

equals

10

weight

of

feet, and

300

pounds

the

perpendicular

is fixed

beam

the

What

Example.

of

length

119

300

is the
is

to the
10

stress

"

at

suspended

beam?

oh^=-.

Fig.

120

from

center

3000

A, the

of the

force

lb.

B, Fig. 120, when

from

the

free end

of

320

this

In
which
9

HAND

case

is fixed

feet, therefore
stress

end

one

is,the
The

the

throughout

the

intensityof

the

is

is

stress

121), than

Find

section.
a

section

load

Multiply
5 feet from

the

fixed

uniform.

at

That

at the

point where

the

is

greater

beam
at

at A

than

(Fig.
C.

at

121

Pounds

tion
Sec-

any

of

Beam

load

its distance

by

free end

the

pounds

is

500

from

the

is, the intensity of

point (section) five

is 500

beam

from

where

at
a

(Fig. 122.)

lb.

That

of

suspended.

100

pounds,

lb.

graduallydiminishes

on

Foot

in

Thus

100

beam

is

instance, it is required to find the stress

For

of 100

greatest

stress

of

Rule.

force

2700

at

parts of the beam.

the stress

Stress

the

is not

fixed and

Fig.

To

point

load.

the

B, and

at

the

of

length
other

instance, there is more

For

300

different

to be

supposed

intensity toward

in

the

at
at

the beam

at

from

of line of the

center

stress

varies

stress

the

to

loaded

and

MECHANICS

FOR

perpendicular drawn

beam

The

BOOK

feet

the

from

pounds.

stress

the

on

the

load, the

beam
load

at

being

322

HAND

Example.
iron

be

If

taken

inches

from

the

FOR

long, supporting

its free end?

tons

4000
Let

us

iron.
times

1,056,000

supports

A
a

at

beam

stress

at

end

B?

5000

56

Example.
56

inches

of

stress

A.

at

safety of

4 for

264,000

stress

at

wrought

be

to

5000

20.31

inches

long

fixed

at

What

pounds.

fixed end

inches.

square

A, and

end

one

will

what

Arts.

be

the

will be the

(Fig. 125.)

stress

the

56

of

the

lbs.

suspended

tons

124

factor

52,000

h-

weight

on

and

beam

stress

5000

beam

1,056,000 lb.

Example.

wrought-iron

of

weight

264,000 lb.

is, consider

greater

Then,

66

employ

That

(Fig. 124.)

now

of

should

lb.

4000

wrought

on

inch, what

square

at the wall

area

allowed

stress

per

Fig.

MECHANICS

greatest

52,000 lbs.

at

be the sectional
66

BOOK

at

B.

280,000 lb.

beam

long.

stress

at

is 3 inches
What

stress

A.

thick, 5
will be

inches

put

on

deep,
it per

Fig.

of

inch

square

pounds

5000

its section

from

its

323

MATERIALS

OF

STRENGTH

125

B, by hanging

at

extremity?

weight

of

(Fig. 126.)

S6-

%
(A
M^

Fig.

Thus

3 X

5000

280,000

56
-f-

Example.
has

to

ought

15

area

square

280,000 lb.

15

its sectional

stress

per

the
area

of

5000

beam
be

be
at

of section.
at

B.
inch.

square
beam

66

pounds,

what

wrought-iron

weight
of

inches

12,000 lb.

If

carry

sectional

126

at

its

its fixed

inches

ought

end,

extremity?

Arts.

and

long
the
what

(Fig. 127.)

324

HAND

BOOK

MECHANICS

FOR

CC?

"3

$040
Fig.

5000

66

5000

20,000

"*-

lb.

20,000

1,320,000

1,320,000

stress
25.5

52,000

52,000

127

.36

square

lb.
at

stress

B.

at

A.
inches

square
inches

required
required

at

at

A.

B.

ANSWERS

ANSWERS

TO

ANSWERS

Five.

1.
2.

Twenty-five.

3.

Three

4.

One

5.

Fifty-four

6.

Nine

7.

Three

hundred

six

forty-two.
hundred

thousand

hundred

and

seventy-four.

hundred

three

and

sixty thousand

and

million

forty.
hundred

seven

hundred

seven

and

thousand

twenty-six

and

eighty.
nine

two.

million

Fifteen

8.

and

thousand

and

hundred

and

PAGE

nine

hundred

and

thousand

eight

six

hundred

sixty.
9.

hundred

Three
six

hundred

10.

Five

11.

Thirty-two

hundred

and
and

billion

six

billion

six

sand
thou-

seven

hundred

three.
million

seventy-three

hundred

and

ninety-nine

ninety-nine

thousand

nine

hundred

three

Four

2.

One

3.

Nine

thousand

and

nine.

4.

Four

hundred

and

thirty-four

nine

hundred

and

hundred

and

nine

hundred

and

hundred

and

thousand

nine

ninety-nine.

PAGE

1.

three

billion

and

TO

ANSWERS
thousand

and

hundred.

three

thousand

and

thousand

three

million

Nine

12.

hundred

six.

three

thousand

million

two

sixty-four.
twenty-seven.

thousand

six

seventy-two.
5.

Six

hundred
6.

million
and

7.

Five

hundred

and

ninety-seven

twenty-three.

Fifty-three
and

four

million

hundred

two

and

ninety

thousand

six

dred
hun-

seventy-eight.
hundred

million

four

hundred

and

ninety

thousand

and

sixty-nine.
8.

Five
and

billion

forty

eight hundred
thousand

and

and

sixty-seven

sixty-eight.
327

million

three

dred
hun-

328

ANSWERS

ANSWERS

1.
2.

3.

TO

PAGE

10

4.

3,725.
12,600
322,006.

ANSWERS

TO

6,050,020.

5.

38,420,350.

6.

222,835,130.

PAGE

15

1.

100,677.

1.

.26219.

2.

17,903,922.

2.

.8552072.

3.

2,394,627.

3.

.40750202.

4.

127,228,172.

5.

784,666,605.

ANSWERS

TO

PAGE

63

ANDERSON,

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Eighth Edition,

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E.
No.

No.

Bender,

OF

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ON

No.

8.

No.

9.
on

No.

No.

11.

THEORY

12.

THEORY

No.

13.

GASES

Third
"of Coal

S.B., and

Snow,

G.

Wm.

OF

FORMS

COMPOUND

OF

RETAINING-

STEAM-ENGINE.

by

Prof.

By

S. W.

Robinson.

V. Abbott, C.E.
Founded
By Arthur
D.C.L.
Third
ed.
Siemens,
from

Translated
with

revised

ARCHES.

By

results

and

French

the

of

American

of

A.

tice,
Prac-

Edward

W.

Allan.

By

Prof.

Wm.

Cain.

enlarged.
IN

and

Prof.

ARCHES.

VOUSSOIR

revised

by

edition,

American

Buel, C.E.

WITH

MET

STORAGE

OF

Third

of C. William

edition,
H.
OF

edition,
Dusts

Charles

Gould.

edition, revised

FUEL.

edition, revised

Third

By

C.E.

ENGINES.

Second

B.A.

Sherman

E.

THE

2nd

ON

by Richard
No.

New

Appendix.

DIFFERENT

ON

original treatise

Mallet.

by

AND

COMPOUND

10.

Chimney

Fourth

CONSTRUCTION

Jacob,

S. Tate,

James

TREATISE

the

and

Colburn.

BRIDGES.

By

AND

additions

Turnbull, Jr.

Zerah

IN

edition, with

Arthur

TREATISE

John

of

RETAINING-WALLS.

BUILDINGS.

OF

By

By

By

Revised

"Theory

on

USED

PINS

Second

SURCHARGED

walls.

BOILERS.

A.M.

revised, with
7.

an

Thurston.

OF

DESIGNING

THE

of

Cain.

W.

PROPORTIONS

Reservoirs.

No.

by

are

i8mo,

of topics, and

range

Edition.

By

H.

R.

DESIGNING
Prof.

5. VENTILATION
Thos.
Nolan,
6.

Prof.

subjects

STEAM

American

EXPLOSIONS.

revised

wide

form.

demands.

Armstrong,
Appendix
an
partly rewritten, with
Draught,"
by F. E. Idell, M.E.
No.

attractive

volume.

FURNACES

C.E.

and

neat,

per
and

when

R.

Series.

uniform,

scientificcharacter

eminently
are

in

put up

are

Nostrand

COAL

MINES.

enlarged, to which
H. Williams, Jr.

By

J. J. Atkinson.

is added

The

Action

D.

No.

VAN

14.

15.

PUBLICATIONS

SCIENTIFIC

IN

MINES.

Atkinson.

J. J.

By

Second

edition.
ARCHES.

SKEW

Prof.

By

W.

E.

Illustrated.

C.E.

Hyde,

edition.

Second
No.

AIR

OF

FRICTION

American
No.

CO.'S

NOSTRAND

METHOD

16.

GRAPHIC

in

Arithmetic

FOR

CERTAIN

SOLVING

Algebra.

or

G.

Prof.

By

QUESTIONS
Second

Vose.

L.

edition.
No.

17.

WATER

No.

No.

18.

SEWERAGE

Baker,

Associate
and

19.

STRENGTH

By

Prof.

20.

W.

edition.

PURIFICATION.

"Engineering

Corfield,

H.

American

Second

News."

H.

M.

By

edition,

author

"

of

LOADS.

TRANSVERSE

UNDER

BEAMS

OF

Allan,

-W.

Second

Arches."

of

Theory

revised.

21.

SAFETY

No.

22.

HIGH

CENTRES.

TUNNEL

AND

B.

John

By

McMaster,

edition.

Second

No.

VALVES.

Richard

By
DAMS.

MASONRY

By

H.

Buel,

E.

Sherman

Third

C.E.

Gould,

edition.
Am.

M.

C. E.

Soc.
23.

Editor

Prof.

enlarged.

BRIDGE

C.E.

No.

By
Second

SEWAGE

AND

revised

edition,
No.

WATER-SUPPLY.

AND

University College,London.

of the

various

German

Tables

of

with

Spangenburg,

Ludwig

of Prof.

Experiments.

and

Results

STRAINS.

REPEATED

UNDER

METALS

OF

FATIGUE

THE

With

Preface

From

the

by

S. H.

Shreve, A.M.
No.

24.

By
No.

25.

R.

By
No.

26.

M.

27.

BRIDGES.

CANTILEVER

Charles

By

Bender,

Revised

edition.

New

C.E.
CORROSION.

AND

INCRUSTATION

BOILER

CON-

OF

PROPERTIES

THE

ON

TREATISE

Bridges.

Rowan.

OF

CALCULATION

additions.

Wilcox.

PRACTICAL

tinuous
No.

AND

THEORY

WHEELS.

OF

TEETH

edition,revised, with

2nd

Robinson.

S. W.

THE

ON

TREATISE

PRACTICAL

Prof.

and

partly

rewritten

BY

WIRE

ROPES.

F.

By
by

F.

J.
E.

IdeU.
No.

No.

TRANSMISSION

W.

Stahl, U.S.N.

29.

STEAM
from

No.

30.

Fourth

INJECTORS,
the

French
OF

MAGNETISM

Magnetism.

POWER

OF

28.

By

Prof.

By

Albert

edition, revised.

of M.
IRON
Fairman

AND

THEORY

THEIR

Leon

USE.

lated
Trans-

Pochet.

VESSELS

Rogers.

AND

TERRESTRIAL

VAN

D.

No.

31.

NOSTRAND

CONDITION

SANITARY

THE

COMPANY'S

Dwelling-houses.

CITY

OF

George E.

By

AND

Waring. Jr.

COUNTRY

Second

edition,

revised.
No.

32.

CABLE-MAKING

FOR

SUSPENSION

BRIDGES.

W.

By

Hildenbrand, C.E.
No.

33.

No.

34.

No.

MECHANICS
OF VENTILATION.
Second
edition,revised.

35.

FOUNDATIONS.
from the French.
THE

ANEROID

Prof.

By

Second
BAROMETER:

MATTER

No.

37.

No.

39.

No.

Frank

By

38-.MAXIMUM
A

HANDBOOK
By A.

No. 42.

MATERIALS.
Engineering News."

"

Editor

OF

THEORY

Vaulted

By

AIR.

William

By
Second

Kent,

AND

Third

Cain.

Wm.

C.E.,

edition.

ARCHES,

Prof.

By

press.

STEEL-CONCRETE

Structures.

TELE-

COMPRESSED

BY

Prof.

By

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
edition, revised.

edition,in

New

METHODS,

BRIDGES.
edition.

revised

OF

STRENGTH

Assoc.

Fourth

POWER

OF

TRANSMISSION
Robert
Zahner, M.E.

FRAMED

THE

Loring.

USES,
Carpenter, C.E.

and

New

OF

E.

ITS

Yeaux
IN

STRESSES

40.

41.

De

Cain, A.M., C.E.

graph.
No.

SURVEYING:

Results.

William
No.

Second

edition.

GEOGRAPHICAL

and

AND

edition,

Plympton.

By J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.

MOTION.

AND

American

lated
Trans-

CONSTRUCTION
Tenth

ITS

W.

Compiled
by George
revised and enlarged.
36.

C.E.

Jules Gaudard,
edition.

Use.

No.

Rafter, C.E.

By George W.

OF

edition,

thoroughly revised.
No.

No.

WAVE
of Johns

44.

Second

Fifth
No.

47.

48.

From

MACHINES.

THE

LINKAGES:

THEORY

By William
No. 49.

Craig,

T.

H.

the

Eddy,

University

of M.

French

Le

Doux.

by Prof. J. E. Denton, D. S. Jacobus, and A. Riesenberger.

edition,revised.

Articulated
No.

Thomas

Trowbridge, Columbia

P.

By Prof.
edition,in press.

New

46. ICE-MAKING
Revised

Dr.

Revised.

edition.

THERMO-DYNAMICS.

of Cincinnati.
No.

By Prof. W.

WHEELS.

TURBINE

45.

By

Hopkins University.

College.
No.

MOTION.

VORTEX

AND

43.

MOTION

Links.

SOLID

OF

Cain,
OF

FORMS

DIFFERENT

By J. D. C.
AND

De

AND

USES

OF

Roos.
ELASTIC

BRACED

ARCHES

C.E.
SOLID

IN A

FLUID.

By

Thomas

Craig,Ph.D.

SCIENTIFIC

DWELLING-HOUSES:

No. 50.
tion
No.

PUBLICATIONS.

and

TELESCOPE
Construction
of

THE

51.

By

Arrangements.
:

THEIR
Prof.

SANITARY
H. Corfield.

W.

OPTICAL

PRINCIPLES
and

CONSTRUC-

IN

INVOLVED

ReflectingTelescopes, with

Refracting
of the Modern
Telescope, and a
chapter on the Evolution
With
diagrams and folding plates. By
Bibliography to date.
Second
Nolan.
Thomas
edition,revised and enlarged.
the
a

No.

new

Prof. A. S.
No.

53.

GEOMETRICAL

THEIR

IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES:
from
terpretation. Translated

52.

the

French

of

IN-

M.

Argand

by

Hardy.
MADE

HOW
INDUCTION
COILS:
American
edition.

AND

HOW

USED.

Eleventh
No.

No.

OF

KINEMATICS
With
Kennedy.

54.

an

MACHINERY.
introduction

GASES:

55. SEWER
de Varona.

Second

NATURE

THEIR

edition,revised

No.

LATERAL
ACTUAL
56. THE
By Benj. Baker, M. Inst.,C.E.

No.

57.

INCANDESCENT
of

which

the

is added

Prof.
Alex.
By
by Prof. R. H. Thurston.
AND
and

No.

59.

Geo.

60.

RAILROAD

61.

No.

WATER,
M.

N.

NOTES

OR,

AND
Baker.

AND

63. HOUSE-DRAINAGE
P. Gerhard.

To

Fairley, M.E.,

WITH

COMMENTS.

BRIDGE

MEMBERS.

METHODS
OF
Second
ed., revised

Tenth

SANITARY

TO
LOGARITHMS
FOUR
65. POCKET
etc.
Including Logarithms of Numbers,

No.

66.

By

DYNAMO-ELECTRIC

A.

N.

W.

By

Mansfield.
PLACES

MACHINERY.

Introduction

by F. L. Pope.

TABLES

through
Formula."

PLUMBING.

edition.

No.

Discharge

enlarged.

Third
By Dougald Clerk.
by F. E. Idell,M.E.

64. ELECTRO-MAGNETS.

No. 67. HYDRAULIC

DETECTING
and

Edited

No.

"Kutter's

W.

By

WROUGHT-IRON

OF

POTABLE

an

scription
De-

Stations,
Efficiencyof Incandescent

MINES.

THE
GAS-ENGINE.
OF
62. THEORY
With
additional
edition.
matter.

With

EARTHWORK.

Robinson, C.E.

Impurities. By
No.

COAL

ECONOMICS;
Robinson, C.E.

STRENGTH

By S. W.
No.

OF

J. Andre.

By S. W.
No.

OF

A.

By

ELECTRIC
LIGHTING.
A
Practical
Edison
System.
By L. H. Latimer.
the Design and
Operation of Incandescent

58. VENTILATION
and

ORIGIN.

enlarged.

PRESSURE

by C. J. Field; and the Maximum

Lamps, by John W. Howell.
No.

W.

B.

FOR

Sewers,

THE

Third

OF

By S. P. Thompson.
edition,revised.

CALCULATION

Pipes, and
By P. J. Flynn.

DECIMALS.

Conduits.

OF

Based

THE
on

D.

NOSTRAND

VAN

No. 6S. STEAM-HEATING.

with

No. 69. CHEMICAL

70.

EXPLOSIVE

No.

71.

DYNAMIC

72.

73.

TOPOGRAPHICAL

SYMBOLIC

braic
No.

No.

C.

J.

SURVEYING.
B. McMaster,

John

No.

F.

ALGEBRA

THE

Lieut.
No.

77.

No.

ALGE-

HISTORY,

CONSTRUC-

DYNAMO-ELECTRIC

IN

MACHINES.

Machinery."

By

GRAPHIC

REPRODUCTIVE

PROCESSES.

By

S. Pettit, U.S.A.

James

The

SURVEYING.

STADIA

of

Theory

Sixth

edition,

INDICATOR

AND

Winslow.

Arthur

STEAM-ENGINE

78. THE

OF

Cain.

By

J. N.

Abbott.

V.

PROGRESS

76. MODERN

Fourth

George J. Specht.
Third
Walling.

H.

to
"Dynamo-electric
Supplement
Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson.

Being

Foye.

Hopkinson,

By
and

THEIR

Arthur

By

John

By

MACHINES:

RECENT

vised,
re-

By Lieut. John P. Wisser.

ALGEBRA;
OR,
William
Prof.
By

Numbers.

74. TESTING
Use.
tion and
75.

Prof.

By

ELECTRICITY.
R. E. Day.

and

edition,

enlarged.

and

Prof. A. S. Hardy,
edition, revised.
No.

by

Third

Briggs.

Wolff.

R.

MATERIALS.

Shoolbred,
No.

A.

PROBLEMS.

edition, revised
No.

Robert

By

additions

COMPANY'S

Stadia

ments.
Measure-

ITS

USE.

By

Van.

W.

B. Le

No.

79.

THE

No.

80.

HEALTHY

OF

FIGURE

By Frank

EARTH.

THE

FOR

FOUNDATIONS

C.

Roberts, C.E.

HOUSES.

By

Glenn

Brown.
No.

81.

Delivery,

etc.

Siemens,
No.

82.

THE

No

OF
84. FLOW
duifcs,Sewers,

No.

86.

WATER
With
etc.

OF

HANDBOOK

States.

By

IN

OF
ACCURACY,
nedy,
Worthington, Ken-

E.

Browne.

THE

OF

USE

By

P. J.

J. C.

Foye.

Henry
PIPES,

Flynn,

By Prof.

MINERALOGY:
(f

Prof.

CHANNELS,

OPEN

Tables.

Classification
Prof.

BY

By

iETHER.

LUMINIFEROUS

scription,and

TIMBER

OF

INTEGRATORS.

83. MECHANICAL
Shaw, C.E.

85. THE

By

meters.

the
Ross

ANTI-

Bagster Boulton, C.E.

Samuel

No.

No.

Hesse

and

of

features

Distinctive

PRESERVATION

septics. By

TESTS

COMPARATIVE

METERS:

WATER

De

Fifth

Found

H.

CON-

C.E.
Volson

DETERMINATION,
Minerals

S.

in

edition, revised.

the

Wood.
DE-

United

VAN

D.

No.

"With

Water.
No.

and

Poorer
of

W.
No.

B.

A.

by

Graphical

with

G.

Fox.

for

Tables

and

No.

112.

M.
No.

113.

Am.

No.

114.

the

Bankson,

B.S.,

trical
Elec-

Swinburne.

Soc.

C. E.

PHYSICAL

Third

?vleters
with
and

and

PROBLEMS

OF

at

Their
Bellevue

SLIDE

THE

Third

115.

TRAVERSE

TABLE.

Showing
Between

for Distances

Scribner's

Curves.

Bv

Pocket

Table

E.

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F.

90

A.

By

Second
A.

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Halsey,

of

corrected.

Difference

1 and

Degree and

enlarged.

Hospital.
By

Gould,

Sherman

Solution.

the

Third

Consumers.

and

RULE.
edition,

Machinist.'''

Departure
Quarter Degrees Between

Gas

to

By

'"American

and

taining
Engineers, Con-

Specifications and
for
of Gas
Advantages

edition, revised

formerly Assistant

MANUAL

for

CALCULUS

THE

OH

on

the

from

structing
Con-

Folding Plates.

Transition

out

GAS-FITTLNG.
Notes

PRIMER

gougnon,
No.

for

CURRENTS.

Field-book

Laving

AND

for

Method

Edited,
ordingham.
TVith
Folding Plate

Gas-piping.
Cooking and Heating, and Useful Hints
Paul
edition.
Gerhard, C.E.
By Wm.
Rules

Ordinary
Theory
F.
Benjamin

C.E.

GAS-LIGHTING

in.

V\

Martin.

CURVES.

TRANSITION
Rules

No.

in

Illustrations.

Numerous

Walter

H.

C.

By

Lloyd

James

By

Prof.

By

General

French

By

By

BRIDGES.

the

ELECTRIC

OF

MEASUREMENT

Electrical

no.

of

edition.

Plates.

Diagrams.

Measuring
By
Energy.
Preface,
by T. Commerford

No.

with

Distribution

Stresses

on

Folding

Instruments.

for

of,

Air.

SWING

Constructor, I". S. Navy.

Naval

Study

and

DIAGRAMS.

SLIDE-VALVE

THE

the

Third

FOR

METHOD

Statics,

ME-

A. Miller.

Analysis of the

Rue.

AND

Plympton.

Compressed

of

109.

TV.

Transmission

by F. E. IdelL

Slide- valve

No.

G.

Easy Graphical
Introduction
Bridges. TVith an

Assistant

CIVIL

to

Prof.

Stations

Edited

La
108.

FOR

by Prof. Geo.

The

and

Swing

edition.

Experiments upon the Transmission

in
Paris.
(Popp's System.)

Kennedy.

GRAPHICAL

107.

POTABLls

Second

Air

Central

C. L nwin.

OF
Rafter.

Introduction

AIR.

TV.

T\
.

Applications. By

from

Power

Rational

No.

An

Compressed

by

Prof.

By

Compiled

COMPRESSED

106.

Geo.

TABLE-BOOK

DETERMINANTS.

105.

Examples
5o.

Diagrams.

Engineers.

chanical
No.

EXAMINATION

NOSTRAND'S

VAN

104.

COMPANY'S

MICROSCOPICAL

THE

103.

N05TRAXD

100

and

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of

for

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(Reprinted

SCIENTIFIC

No.

116.

WORM

AND

PUBLICATIONS.

SPIRAL

Machinist."

GEARING.

F.

By

Second

can
"Ameri-

from

Reprinted

Halsey..

A.

revised

and

enlarged

edition.

No.

PRACTICAL

117.

mulas.

HYDROSTATICS,

With

Examples.
No.

118.

By

No.

E.

OF

Geo.

By

LAY-OUT

119.

Plates

FOR-

and

Figures

Numerical

Gould.

SEPTIC

W.

OF

and

HYDROSTATIC

Illustrative

Sherman

TREATMENT

Figures.

AND

Numerous

with

SEWAGE,

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CORLISS

Diagrams.

VALVE

GEARS.

Sanford

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Ph.D

printed
Re-

from

ART

120.

OF

Coombs.

of

Notes

University
No.

No.

GENERATING

122.

123.

Methods.
William

GEAR

Figures,
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OF

SHAFT

By

1902.

ENGINE
Course

Wallace

Handy

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By

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A

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Howard

By

Folding

DESIGN.
of

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GOVERNORS.

FURNACE

and

revisions

A.

Plates.

printed
Re-

Machinist."

GAS

accompanying
in

with

TEETH.

and

Diagrams

"American

ELEMENTS

121.

Machinist,"

edition.

With

from

No.

American

Second

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No.

"The

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W.

Trinks

PRODUCTION

Book,
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PAGE

ENGINEERING.
MECHANICAL
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ENGINEERING
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MARINE
"
MINING
METALLURGY
Sec.
WORKING,
COLLIERY
ELECTRICITY
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ARCHITECTURE
"
SUP=
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PLY

PAGE

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DECORATIVE
NATURAL

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COMMERCE,
AGRICULTURE

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ARTS

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SCIENCE

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MANUFACTURES.
ARTS
"c
TABLES,
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41
43
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MATHEMATICS

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METIC
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35

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MECHANICAL

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54
56

MISCELLANEOUS.
...

ENGINEERING,

MECHANICAL

THE

LAW

36

HANDLING

ETC.

MATERIAL.

OF

the Handling
of Material, such
Treatise
Coal, Ore, Timber, etc.,
on
as
Semi-automatic
or
Machinery, together with the Various
by Automatic
used
in the Manipulation
of such
Accessories
Plant, and
Dealing fully
of Grain.
with
the Handling,
Storing, and
G. F.
Warehousing
By
528
A.M. Inst. C.E.
Royal
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A

I. Introductory.
Chapter
II. Elevators.
III. Worm
Contents:
Push-Plate
IV.
Scraper
Conveyors.
V. Trough
Conveyors.
or
VI.
Band
Conveyors.
VII.
Metal
Conveyors.
Band
Cable
veyors.
ConPicking
Belts
Tables
VIII.
Lowering
or
with
or
without
IX.
The
Trough
Continuous
Shoots.
Travelling
Ends
Trough
or
or
Conveyors.
X. Vibrating
Trough
XI.
Tightening
Conveyor.
Gear
Driving
Elevators
Power
ferent
Difand
Conveyors,
and
for
for
required
The
Types
Tilting
XII.
Conveyors.
Travelling
Bucket
of
or
XIII.
Pneumatic
Elevators
Conveyors.
XIV.
Conveyors.
veyors
Conand
SPECIAL
BoLINDER
DESIGNED
FOR
PURPOSES,
TIMBER
INCLUDING
THE
Casting
Coke
Machines.
XV.
and
Endless
Conveyors,
Conveyor,
Haulage.
XVI.
Rope
Ropeways
Chain
Aerial
and
and
Cableways,
Appliances
Cableways,
Coaling
Sea.
including
Ropeways,
and
at
for
Unloading
Discharging
XVII.
Methods
Appliances,
including
of
by
Grabs.
XVIII.
Skips
Discharging
Vessels
Barges
and
means
of
and
Elevators.
XIX.
Unloading
Specially
structed
Conby
means
of
by
means
of
Boats
Barges.
Self-emptying
XX.
and
Unloading
by
means
Trucks.
XXI.
Constructed
Self-emptying
Specially
Railway
loading
Unof
COAL
TlPS.
COLLIERY
XXII.
TlPPLERS.
BY
XXIII.
MEANS
OF
Unloading
Miscellaneous
Loading
Devices.
XXIV.
and
Automatic
Devices.
XXV.
Loading
The
Automatic
Weighing
Material.
of
Coaling
XXVI.
Railway
Engines.
XXVI
I. Coal-handling
of
Plant
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

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"

CROSBY

for

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An

CATALOGUE.

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Seeds.

and

Cranes.

"

HOISTING

SOX'S

etc.

XXVIII.
Floor
Stores
and

"

XXIX.

"

Coal

Index.

"

MACHINERY.
Elementary

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Including

on.

the

Elements

of Crane

struction
Con-

and

of the Various
Descriptions
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in Use.
Types
By
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Illustrations

S3. 50

Introduction.
Contents:
Group.
Sec. I. Chisel

General

Survey

Tools.
Chisels
Applied
and
Forms
fob
Hand
Chisels
Forms
Planes.
Applied
Woodworkers.
and
Metal
foe
Metal
Tools
Turning.
Planing,
Working."
Chisellike
for
etc.
Sec.
II. Examples
Tools.
Shearing
Scraping
Action
Shearing
and
of
Scrapers.
Relating
Chisels
Saws.
Tools.
Sec. III. Tools.
to
and
Metal.
Files.
Milling
Cutters.
Boring
Tools
Wood
Taps
for
and
mers
HamDies.
Percussive
Punches.
Moulding
Tools.
Sec. IV.
and
and
Tools.
Modelling
Moulding
Tools.
laneous
MiscelCaulking
and
and
ening.
SharpSec. V. Hardening.
Tools.
and
Tempering,
Grinding,
VI.
Tools
Measurement
Test.
Standards
Sec.
and
for
of
Surface
Levels,
Measurement.
Plates,
Bevels.
tors,
ProtracSquares.
Blocks.
Scribing
Compasses
ders.
DiviSurface
Gauges
"fcc.
and
or
Related
Forms.
Vernier
Calipers,
Micrometer
Calipees,
and
Rod
Gauges.
Cylindrical
Depth
Gauges
Snap,
Calipers.
and
and
Wire
Reference
Gauges.
Screw
Gauges.
cators,
IndiLimit
and
Thfead,
Summary
Tool
Angles.

of

"

"

"

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of

"

"

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"

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"

"

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etc.

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TURNING

ENGINEERS'

PRINCIPLE

Handbook

Summary
Machine
Functions

Contents:

of

Shop.

"

Sec.

"

I.

The

83.50

Introduction.

Relations

"

Its

Lathe.

PRACTICE.

Technical
Students, and Amateurs.
of "Pattern-Making,"
Author
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for Working
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By Joseph
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A

"

Work:

of

Tools.

and

Forms

"

Sec.

and
and

Turning
Centring
Steadies.
Between
Centres.
and
of
Centres.
Lining-out
Mandrel
Involving
Examples
Turning
for
of
End.
Face
Plate
One
Turning.
Work.
Supported
at
Sec. III. Work
Chucks.
versal,
UniJaw
Concentric,
Turning.
Independent
Angle
Plate
IV
Sec.
Internal
Work.
Applied
Chucks.
Toggle,
and
Cuttings
V.
Sec.
Screw
Drilling.
Operations.
Allied
Boring,
and
urement,
MeasWork.
Miscellaneous.
Special
Work.
Turret
Sec. VI.
and
Tool
Steel.
Holders.
Tool
Speed
Feeds,
Grinding.
and
Makers'
Instructions.
Steel
of

Remarks

Tools.

on

General.
Driving.
Use

Turnery

Turning

in

"

II.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

MECHANICAL
MECHANICAL

THE

ENGINEERS'

Machine

For

Data.

Engineering
51
and
Plates
Third
Edition,
bound

Two
Boiler

II.

Part

throughout,

Revised

BOOK.

Parts.
Part
Construction.

I.

eral,
GenWith
M.I.N.A.
By Nelson
Foley,
much
Folio, halfEnlarged.
In Press

Illustrations.
and

numerous

REFERENCE
In

Construction.

Boiler

and

""c.

ENGINEERING,

"c.
Areas,
and
Squares,
Surface
Cube
Roots.
Tubes.
of
Logarithms.
Mensuration.
Specific
Reciprocals.
Gravities
and
Heat.
Work
Power.
Combustion.
Expansion
Weights.
and
and
Steam.
Static
Forces.
Expansion
Gases.
Contraction.
tation
Graviof
Attraction.
Motion
Computation
Resulting
and
and
of
Radius
Centre
Forces.
Accumulated
Work.
Gyration.
and
of
Oscillation.
Electricity.
Moment
Inertia.
Centre
Strength
of
of
Elasticity.
Test
Materials.
Sheets
Metals.
Friction.
of
of
Power.
Flow
Flow
Transmission
Liquids.
Gases.
Air
of
of
of
"c.
Speed
Steamships.
Surface
Propellers.
Pumps,
Condensers,
of
Flanges.
Tools.
Copper
Sheets
Cutting
Tubes.
Screws,
and
Nuts,
"c.
Bolt
Recipes
Miscellaneous
Various
Matter.
and
With
Heads,
Belting
DIAGRAMS
Discharge
tion
SucValve-gear,
and
Ropes,
for
and
Pipes.
Copper
Propellers,
and
Pipes, Screw
Part
II : Treating
Power
Boilers.
Useful
Ratios
Notes
of
of
Boiler
Cylindrical
Shells.
Circular
Construction.
Furnaces.
on
Plates.
Girders.
Tests.
Flat
Stays.
Screws.
Hydraulic
RtvetMountings.
ples
ExamBoiler
"e.
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Setting,
Chimneys,
Fuels,
and
Boilers
Speeds
Steamships.
Nominal
Normal
and
of
and
of
With
Horse
Power.
DIAGRAMS
Boiler
Calculations
all
for
and
Drawings
Varieties
Boilers.
of
many
of
Part

Measures.

I:

Fourth

Cubes,

"

Circumferences

"

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and

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THE

HANDBOOK.

MANAGER'S

WORKS'

Modern

Data.
For
Tables,
and
wrights,
Rules,
Engineers, MillBoiler
Tool
and
Makers;
Makers,
Metal
and
Machinists,
Iron
W.
and
Brass
S. Hutton,
Workers;
etc.
Founders,
By
Civil
and
Mechanical
Author
of "The
Practical
Engineer,
book."
Engineer's HandSixth Edition, carefully Revised
and
Enlarged.
8vo, strongly

Comprising

bound

$6.00

"3^~ The Author

in a great
having compiled Rules and Data for his own
use
variety of modern
engineering
work, and
having found his notes
extremely useful,
them
revised
decided
to publish
to date
believing that a practical work,
suited
to the daily
be favorably
modern
would
of
requirements
engineers,
"

"

received.

Author
"The
treats
subject from the point of view
of
every
collected
in workshop
for application
workshop
notes
practice,
from
the theoretical
The
contains
volume
or
literary aspect.
of that
is gained only
kind
of information
which
by practical
is seldom
and
in books."
written
The Engineer.

who
has
rather
than
deal
a
great

one

experience
'

"

STEAM
A

BOILER
Practical

Handbook

CONSTRUCTION.
for

Boiler-makers,
and Steam
Users.
of Rules
and Data
relating to Recent
tice
Pracin the Design, Construction, and Working
of all Kinds
of Stationary,
and
Marine
Steam-boilers.
Walter
Locomotive,
S. Hutton,
By
Mechanical
Civil and
of
"The
Works'
Author
Engineer,
Manager's
Handbook,"
"The
Practical
"c.
With
Handbook,"
Engineer's
wards
upof 500
Illustrations.
Fourth
carefully Revised
Edition,
and
680
8vo, over
bound
Enlarged.
cloth, strongly
pages,
$6.00
Containing

^P~
written
"The

Engineers,

large Collection

This

Work
is issued
in
continuation
of the
viz: "The
the Author,
Works'
Manager's
Engineer's
Practical
which
Handbook,"
are

series

by

by engineers
written

in

for the practical nature

of their information,
same
style as those ivorks.

handbooks

of

Handbook"
so

highly
and

is

and

appreciated
consequently

the

Contents:
Heat,
Radiation,
Non-conducting
Conduction,
and
Coverings
Steam
Boilers.
Materials,
and
for
Calorific
Composition,
Power
Evaporative
Fuels.
Power,
and
Firing
of
Combustion,
Steam
Products
"c.
Boilers,
Steam
of Combustion,
Chimneys
for
Boilers,"
"

"

"

"

CROSBY

Steam
Water.

FORCE
Expansion

Blast.
"

Draught."

"

"

"

Cylindrical
Tests

Materials.

of

Effect

Strength

"

Heat
on
ent
DifferEvaporation.
Boilers.
of
of

Water

of
"

"

Eire-Bars.
Eire-Bredges.
and
Shells
Furnace-Tubes
and
of

Eire-Grates,

Effect

"

Weight

at

"

"

Temperature

Power

"

Weight

and

ciency
Effi-

Boilers.

"

Boilers.

of

Boilers.

mission
Trans-

"

and

"

Water

"

Water.
"

"

Steam.

"

Boilers.

CATALOGUE.

Circulation.
Power
Evaporative
Steam
Boilers.
Surfaces
of
Tubes.
Powers
Evaporative
Capacity
Capacity
Steam
a\d
of

Saturated
Water-Heating
etc.
Heat.
Smoke
of
of

of

FeEd
Heat.

Water
by
Convection.

of

Temperatures.

Properties
Priming,

"" SOX'S

LOCKWOOD

"

"c.

Boiler-Plates.

of

"

Rivet
Metals.
Rivets.
Rivet
Holes.
Steam
Bollers."
Joints
Caulking.
Ends
Shells.
Cylindrical
of
of
ire.
Stays
Steam
Generators.
Description
portions
ProBoilers,
and
for
Cornish.
Other
Types
Stationary
Lancashire,
and
of
of
Boilers.
Boiler
Setting.
Multitubular
Boilers.
Locomotive
Boilers.
Vertical
Boilers.
Portable
Boilers.
Marine
Boilers.
Water-tube
Boilers.
Production.
Superheaters.
Cost
Steam
of
Furnaces
Fuels.
Refuse
"tc.
Destructors,
for
SafetyValves.
Pipes.
StopSteam
Other
Mountings
Valves,
and
Feed
Pumps.
Pumps.
Feed-Water
Boilers.
Steam
Consumption.
for
Water
Heaters.
Incrustation
FeedCorrosion.
Injectors.
and
Testing
Evaporative
Boilers.
Evaporators.
Performances
of
"kc.
Steam
Boilers.
Steam-Boiler
Explosions,
of

on

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

PLATING

Contents
Limiting

"

Dimensions

Straightening
Welding.
Joints.

Work.

The

"

of

Estimation

best

BOILER
Their
Steam

Lengths

that

AND

FACTORY

A:c.

"

Riveted

of

Marking

"

Out

of

BOILERS.
12mo,

ever

Working.

Economical
cloth

and
been

son,
Wil-

R.

By

82.50

published

on

boilers."

steam

gineer.
En-

"

CHIMNEYS.

and

chapter

Author

ductors.
Lightning Con-

on

of

Treatise

'"A

on

SI. 50

ASSISTANT
Templating,

Courtney."
Seventh

Angles.

Types

"

"

and

"

and
Calculating
Edited
Boilermaker.
Practical
cloth
Edition.
12mo,

Drawing,

Bending

"

Riveting.

With
Stability.
Wilson.
A.I.C.E.,
12mo, cloth

Draught-Power
Robert
By
Boilers," etc.

Materlals.

Cutting

"

The
Material.
"e.
Machines.

of

Weights,

has

treatise

Testing

"

Plates.
"

STEAM

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XIII.
tion
RefrigeraRefrigeration
Cold
Storage.
XII.
and
Unions.
Refrigeration
Cold
XIV.
and
Cold
Storage
(Continued).
and
Storage
XV.
Refrigeration
Cold
tinued).
(Conand
Storage
(Continued).
dustrial
InMarine
XVII.
Refrigeration.
XVI.
Manufacturing,
Ice-Making.
Applications.
XVIII.
Constructional
and
Contents:

"

I. Introduction.

Chapter

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

XIX.
XX.

The
Cost
"

OGRAPHY

Management
of

Working.

and
"

Useful
XXII.
REFRIGERATION.
OF

XXI.
Tables

Testing

The
and

of

Machinery.

Refrigerating

Production

Memoranda.

Very

of
"

Low

Appendix.

"

atures.
Temper"

Bibli'

BOOK

POCKET

THE

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ENGINEERING,

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OF

AND

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esses,
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The
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Engineer.
land from
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to
"

OF

SUPPLY

WATER

THE

TOWNS

AND

THE

STRUCTION
CON-

WATER-WORKS.

OF

of Engineerfor the Use of Engineers

and Students
Treatise
ing.
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QUALITIES

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II.

I. INTRODUCTORY.

Provided.

On

IV.

WATER.

OF

Ascertaining

III.

TITY
QUAN-

posed
ProStorage
Provided.
works.
Waterbe
of
to
Required
Capacity
Reservoirs.
Dams.
VII.
Impounding
IX.
Water.
XI.
Purification
X.
The
Settling
ervoirs.
ResDams.
of
Masonry
XIII.
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Filtration.
Water
XII.
Sand
of
by
Water
Action
Xatural
Softening
Lime,
by
of
Iron,
of
Action
of
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Reservoirs
Clean
XIV.
Service
Water
or
Filtration.
XV.
Connection
The
Settling
Pipes.
Reservoirs,
Stand
of
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XVI.
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Machinery.
Reservoirs.
Beds
Service
Filter
and
Water
Pipes
Open
Conduits
Channels.
and
in
Flow
of
XVII.
XIX.
Special
Provisions
Systems.
tinction
ExDistribution
the
for
XVIII.
Water-works.
XXI.
Pipes
XX.
Prevention
Fire.
for
of
XXII.
Various
Appliances
Connection
Water.
used
in
Waste
of
of
Water

of

be

to

Source

Supply

of

"

Sufficient.

is

whether

V.

On
Estimating
VI.
Classification
VIII.
Earthwork

"

"

"

"

the

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Water-works.

with

I.

Appendix

By

II.

Appendix

Sand

as

Source

Effects

Taken

be

On

C.E."

cerning
Con-

Water-works,

Sand

Countries.
Dunes
and

AND

TOWNS.

Earthquake

in

RIJKE,

DE

JOHN

Considerations
on

of

to

and

Dune

Supply.

Water

of

OF

SUPPLY

WATER

THE

MILXE.
F.R.S."
Earthquakes

JOHN

Prof.

Precautions

Special

the

By

Probable

the

CITIES

and
A. M.Inst.C.E.,
M.Inst.M.E.,
Author
of
Humber.
William
By
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Iron
"c,
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Plates.
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of

Contents:

Sketch

Historical

I.

"

SUPPLY

THE

FOR

ADOPTED

BEEN

HAVE

OF

Matter

some

of

WATER

of

the

CrTIES

TO

means
AND

that

TOWNS.

III.
it.
with
Water-bearing
Measurement
V.
Estimation
Districts.
Various
and
Formations
of
Selection
On
Source
VI.
ply.
SupWater.
the
of
the
of
Flow
of
the
of
The
IX.
Reservoirs.
VIII.
Purification
Wells.
of
VII.
Conduits.
Pumping
XII.
XI.
Machinery.
Pumps.
X
Water.
Water.
XIV.
Meters.
Pipes,
Service
and
Distribution
of
XIII.
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XVI.
XV.
The
Law
Economy
Fittings.
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XVII.
Supply.
Description
Intermittent
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Constant
and
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Rates
Supply.
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Appendices,
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giving
illustrated.
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specifications
of
with
together
dundee,
aberdeen.
bldeford,
canterbury,
be
found:
will
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IL

Water

and

Rainfall

and

the

Foreign

Evaporation.

associated

usually

Springs

IV.

"

and

"

the

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Halifax,

RURAL

Lambeth,

WATER

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Seeesd

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others.

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A Handbook
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"Berechnung
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Shipbuilding Yard, Stettin. Translated
Engineer-in-Chiefof the Vulcan
German
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by E. M. Donkin,
the Second
S. Brian
and
Edited
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With
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Their

Design

[Just Published.

$9,00

PART

I." MAIN
Contents:"
Summary
ENGINES."
of
tion
DeterminaThe
Utilisation
Dimensions.
Cylinder
Steam
of
op
in
gine.
Enthe
Number
Piston.
Revolutions.
Stroke
of
of
Turning
Moment.
Parts.
Moving
Arrangement
Balancing
of
the
Main
of
Engines.
The
Engines.
Cylinder.
Main
Valves.
Details
of
Various
Kinds
Piston
Rods.
Pistons.
Connecting
Valve
Gear.
Rod
of
Crossand
Bed
Rods.
Plates.
Valve
Engine
Gear
Columns.
head.
ing
ReversPART
Gear.
II.
PUMPS.
Turning
Air, Circulating
and
Feed
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

PART

Pumps.

Auxiliary

"

III."

SHAFTING,

RESISTANCE
Block."

OF
TunnelPlummer
Blocks.
Shafts
Stern
and
Tube.
The
Construction
Propeller.
Screw
PART
IV.
of
PIPES
CONNECTIONS."
General
AND
Remarks,
Flanges,
Valves, "c"
Main
Water
Fittings.
Under
Steam,
Auxiliary
Steam,
Exhaust
and
Feed
Piping.
Water,
Circulating
Bilge, Ballast
Pipes.
and
PART
V.
STEAM
BOILERS.
Firing
Generation
and
the
Steam.
of
Cylindrical
Boilers.
Locomotive
Boilers.
Water-tube
Boilers.
Small
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Water-Tube
Boilers.
Smoke
Box.
Funnel
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and
Lagging.
Forced
Draught.
Boiler
Fittings
Mountings.
and
PART
MEASURING
VI."
INSTRUMENTS.
PART
VII."
VARIOUS
Screw
DETAILS.
Bolts,
Nuts,
"c.
Threads,
Platforms,
Gratings,
Foundations.
Ladders.
Seatings.
Lubrication.
Ventilation
of
Engine
Rooms.
Rules
Spare
Gear.
PART
for
VIII.
ADDITIONAL
TABLES.
and

PROPELLERS."

SHIPS,

Thrust

Shaft
Shaft

"

"

Thrust
Couplings.
Screw.
the
and

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CROSBY

20

THE

"

LOCKWOOD

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CATALOGUE.

SON'S

ARCHITECT'S

AND

SHIPBUILDER'S

POCKET-BOOK
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Handy
M.I.N.
A.
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Enlarged.
Ecap, leather.
.

Contents:"
Decimal
Signs
and
Fractions.
Symbols,
Trigonometry.
Geometry.
Practical
Mensuration.
Centres
and
Moments
Moments
Figures.
Inertia
Radii
of
and
Gyration
of
gebraical
AlExpressions
Simpson's
Rules.
Mechanical
Principles.
for
Centre
Gravity.
Laws
Motion.
of
of
Displacement,
Centre
of
Centre
Buoyancy.
Gravity
Ships' Hull.
of
Stability
Curves
of
and
Metacentres.
Waves.
Rolling
Sea
Shallowand
water
Ships.
of
Resistance
Vessels.
Propulsion
Speed
Trials.
and
tre
of
Sailing, CenEffort.
Distances
Coast
Lines.
Steering
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of
down
and
Launching
Vessels.
Calculations
Rudders
Velocities.
of
and
Weight
Material
Particulars
Gun
Gear.
Weight.
of
and
and
Riveting.
Standard
Riveted
Joints
Gauges.
Strength
and
and
Tests
Materials.
Binding
Shearing
Stresses.
Strength
and
of
of
Hydraulic
"c.
"c.
Conic
Data,
Shafting,
Pillars,
tions,
SecWheels,
Mechanical
Curves.
Work.
Catenarian
Board
Powers,
of
Board
Boilers
Trade
Engines.
Regulations
Trade
ulations
Regand
for
of
Rules
Lloyd's
Boilers.
Ships.
Lloyd's
Weight
for
for
of
Data
Lloyd's
Scantlings
Ships.
Engines
Chains.
of
sels.
Vesfor
and
Tests.
Preserving
Seasoning
Fittings
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Timber.
and
Data
Timber.
Measurement
Paints, Varnishes.
Alloys,
age.
Stowof
for
Rules
Regulations.
Admiralty
Transport
for
Horse-power,
Butt
Percentages
Straps.
"c.
Particulars
Screw
for
Propellers,
Distances
Rigging.
Yachts.
Masting
Foreign
Ports.
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French
Terms.
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and
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and
and
Measures.
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Areas
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and
Equivalents.
of
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of
Numbers.
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Roots
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Cubes
and
of
of
Squares
and
of
Logarithms.
Tables
Hyberpolic
Tables
Natural
of
of
Numbers.
of
Logarithmic
Tables
Sines, Tangents,
"c.
of
Sines, Tangents.
Summary

of

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

GUIDE

ENGINEER'S

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" 7 ,50

Appendix
an
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8vo, cloth
Royal

with

Summary

of

on

of

Contents:

Ventilation.

Compressors.

"

Practice,

American

of
"

"

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Rotary

Natcral

ficial
Arti-

and

Pumps;
Tcteres;
Blast-reservoirs;

Blowers;

bt
"

Air.

Vacuum

"

Fans.

"

Recent

d:c.

MINES.

METALLIFEROUS

FOR

MACHINERY

Movement

Performed

Work

Piston-blowers.

The

"

Blowing-Engines;

"

Blast;

Hot-air

Authorized
Translation
Prof. G. Heebmaxx.
Practice
by A. Trowbridge,
Ph.B.,
American
Columbia
Mechanical
University.
Engineering,
Xet
[Just Published.
"3.75

and

Dr.' J. Weisbach

By

MACHINERY.

AIR

OF

MECHANICS

Mining
Engineers. Metallurgists, and Managers
\ Practical
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their
View.

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THE

OF

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THE

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Mining

Journal.

RAND,

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"

METALLURGY,

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23

GOLD.

FOR

PROSPECTING

WORKING.

COLLIERY

for Prospectors
Information
and Hints
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J. Rankin,
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prospector's
to
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with gold."
ing
Minthe spotting at a glance of minerals
accelerate
"

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Journal.

OF

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of Gold-bearing
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Journal.

LOCKWOOD

CROSBY

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THE

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CATALOGUE.

HANDBOOK.

PROSPECTOR'S

in search
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SILVER.

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on
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on
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"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

26

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The
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and
its
Sewage.
Tanks.
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tion
LiquefacPrecipitation,
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Oxidation
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the
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per
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"

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"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

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"

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graphy,
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Re-Edited
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Plant
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