Introduction
Communication students frequently approach
librarians seeking a source that will provide a ready
summary of a particular theory or tradition.
Communication scholars also occasionally need a
good central reference for their teaching and
research. This encyclopedia provides a one-stop
source for theories and theoretical concepts and a
relatively comprehensive overview of the entire field
of communication theory. It is a significant resource
because it summarizes in one place the diversity of
theory in the communication field. Yet unlike larger
topical encyclopedias that try to cover all topics in
many volumes, this is a relatively small set focused
just on theory. It will provide an excellent starting
place for individuals seeking information on the
various topics covered. Furthermore, readers will be
able to see how topics relate to one another, get a
sense of larger traditions and histories, and find a
variety of bibliographical sources with which they
can begin to expand their reading lists.
About This Encyclopedia
This encyclopedia is a two-volume set that, in
more than 300 entries, offers current descriptions
of the theories that explain numerous aspects of
com­munication and present the background issues
and concepts that comprise these theories. These
entries have been written by nearly 200 contribu-
tors from 10 countries, including Australia, Canada,
China, Denmark, India, Italy, Japan, Spain, the
United Kingdom, and the United States. Entries
range in length—from 1,000 to 3,000 words,
depending upon the scope and detail required. To
ensure adequate coverage, an editorial board of 10
members—also of diverse cultures and countries of
origin—was formed to review the entries. All
are recognized experts in several areas within
communication theory and have contributed
li
significantly to its development. All reviewers are
also contributors.
The entries are written for the introductory
reader—students who have little or no background
in the topic. For the most part, contributors have
avoided unnecessary jargon and defined terms as
needed. Although many of the entries require
attentive reading, serious readers will find them
accessible and informative, and those who want
more advanced treatment can pursue further
readings or entries in the bibliography. Readers
who may have trouble understanding an entry
can move to related topics identified in the “See
also” sections and then return to the more diffi-
cult one.
We made the decision to feature elements, con-
cepts, dimensions, and traditions of theory, as well
as to feature individual theories, as entries.
Individual theorists are listed separately with refer-
ence to the entries in which their work is discussed.
Entries do not include citations, but each lists a few
key sources as Further Readings. Cross-references
are provided in the “See also” section at the end of
each entry. A single classified bibliography of
major theoretical works is also included. Readers
can access the information in a number of ways:
•• The alphabetical list of entries at the beginning
of each volume provides the easiest way for a
reader to identify topics of interest. Readers may
want to start here by scanning the list of topics
to identify those most relevant to their research.
•• The Reader’s Guide at the beginning of the set
provides a classified list of topics organized
around 17 themes. With this guide readers can
begin with a broad theme and see which entries
relate to it. This guide is also of value for
showing connections among theories and for
developing a sense of the field as a whole.
lii Introduction
•• The alphabetical list of theorists adjacent to the
Reader’s Guide will be an important index for
readers who wish to learn more about individual
scholars and their work. This list identifies the
entries that cover each theorist’s work.
•• The Selected Bibliography of Major Works by
Topic, located at the back of Volume 2, will be
a vital resource for readers seeking original
works. Readers can scan the alphabetical
listing of topics to find major works of interest.
This tool comes with instructions on how best
to use it.
•• The Chronology, located immediately after this
introduction, lists major events in the history of
communication theory. This tool facilitates an
understanding of the various developments in
the field of communication as a whole.
•• The index is an obvious method of accessing
information. It is a detailed list of topics with
page references.
A Brief History
Communication as a concept always has been with
us, but the origins of the discipline are more recent.
In the United States, the humanistic roots of the
discipline can be found in the study of rhetoric in
ancient Greece and Rome, while the social scien-
tific side typically dates its origins to the rise of
studies of mass media, public opinion, propa-
ganda, and persuasion early in the 20th century
and especially during World War II. Both strands
had a decidedly pragmatic bent: The five canons of
rhetoric—invention, organization, style, delivery,
and memory—were designed to help a speaker bet-
ter prepare for and argue a position in the court,
the assembly, or at a ceremonial event. Social sci-
entists had a similarly pragmatic concern in under-
standing the functions and possibilities for
communication in advertising, media, and technol-
ogy as well as in face-to-face contexts.
Communication theory, then, followed from the
pragmatic concerns about the study of communi-
cation. At first, communication scholars turned to
existing disciplines for theories—not surprising
since virtually every discipline concerned with the
human being must study communication to some
degree. The recognition of social sciences as legiti-
mate disciplines after World War II gave even more
credence to the contributions of psychology and
sociology for understanding human communica-
tive behavior. European scholars began to influ-
ence communication theory in the United States
after World War II as well; heavily influenced by
Marxist theories, European scholars from a variety
of disciplines have been responsible for the intro-
duction of critical–cultural theories and methods
into the study of communication.
Gradually, however, separate communication
departments began to form. At first often referred
to as departments of speech communication to
reflect both the rhetorical and social scientific
roots, most departments today are simply called
departments of communication or communication
studies. In contrast to scholars in related disci-
plines who tend to consider communication a sec-
ondary process for transmitting information about
the world, communication scholars see communi-
cation as the organizing principle of human social
life: Communication constructs the social world
rather than simply providing the means for describ-
ing that world.
Of course, theories of communication are not
distinctive to the Western tradition and the United
States. Virtually every culture has been concerned
with the nature and functions of communication,
and communication scholars are beginning to
integrate theories from a variety of countries and
cultures. Feminist scholars have sought to describe
ways feminine worldviews might foster different
modes of communication since the 1970s.
Afrocentric and Asiacentric communication are
perhaps the best articulated bodies of work to
date that describe the communication assump-
tions and practices of African Americans and
Asians, respectively. Increasingly, then, communi-
cation scholars are seeking to understand similari-
ties and differences across cultures and to articulate
more nuanced theories to reflect these more com-
prehensive understandings of how communication
works.
Although the communication field now has the
legitimacy and coherence that comes from disci-
plinary status, it remains a continually evolving
and changing discipline. This encyclopedia will
offer the student of communication a sense of the
history, development, and current status of the
discipline with an emphasis on the theories that

comprise it. We hope readers in communication
will engage these theories in a spirit of ongoing
inquiry that is crucial to the continued develop-
ment of the field. And we hope those in related
fields will gain a better understanding of what the
communication discipline is all about.
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to our editorial board and to all
of our contributors, listed by name at the beginning
of the encyclopedia. Their expertise, effort, and
commitment contributed to the excellence of this
project. We are especially indebted to our colleagues
in the Communication and Journalism Department
Introduction liii
at the University of New Mexico who provided
guidance and wrote contributions to this work.
This work is the product not only of authors and
managing editors, but also of a team of profession-
als at Sage Publications who made the successful
completion of the project possible by their many
hours of work from its inception to final publica-
tion. We want to express particular appreciation
to these individuals: Jim Brace-Thompson, Yvette
Pollastrini, Laura Notton, Bonnie Freeman, Renee
Willers, Kevin Gleason, Sandy Zilka Livingston,
Joan Shapiro, and Kate Schroeder. Because of the
efforts of all involved, we are confident that this
encyclopedia will be an important resource about
and reference for communication theories.