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DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT
(DC) (AC)

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Alternator operation
Step #1 Step #2
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+ -
no current! I I
Load Load
Step #3 Step #4
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no current! I I
Load Load
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(DC) Generator operation
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N S S N N S S N
- +
- +
I
Load Load
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N S S N N S S N
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- +
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Transformer
AC Induced AC
voltage voltage
source
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Speed multiplication geartrain
Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)
high torque + low torque

low speed + high speed
"Step-down" transformer
high voltage
½ low voltage
AC voltage
¾ many ¿
source turns few turns Load
high current
low current
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Speed reduction geartrain

Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)
low torque + high torque

high speed + low speed
"Step-up" transformer
high voltage
low voltage
AC voltage many turns
source few turns Load
high current
low current
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high voltage
Power Plant
Step-up
. . . to other customers
low voltage
Step-down
Home or
Business low voltage
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Graph of AC voltage over time

(the sine wave)
-
Ó
Time
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V Ã¬¥3Ã } F¡ } | } ¢FFFH F |Æn¬k¹ ¸ Ç | V v V33 | } «¤

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*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
one wave cycle
þ ÿ ÿ
0 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360
(0) (0)
Alternator shaft
position (degrees)
¨3| } F/ ¦| ºµ?¶|¥¤! |¥§F } 0¡#FsF/FF§ ¤! |¡K¥¬9¥¤ä°r´| |Ú|
§F´ K|¡r|Ú¡#F#¤¯H } } } vK¡ s|Ú²|¢H¤F|¡r¡¤ä Ú }
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1
Frequency in Hertz =
Period in seconds
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} µÞL } Ú F¡| ¤¯Fç´ } s|Ã½°Â º
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} ¡ |## } ¡ | Ü FF °¬k¹FÞ¤?|¡ } |´ 3²Eµ%E/3Æ
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07¶ } H§²¤¯¥F |§ ¸ Ç } } F
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| } + / } + F } Ù3_B F#/¬¥|·F } |/¤9 sF¡V·3r#¤9¹3|F | |
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ÔÈx*²§0|Õ81IÖI+.×Ø5 #
Note Musical designation Frequency (in hertz)

A A1 220.00
# b
A sharp (or B flat) A or B 233.08
B B1 246.94
C (middle) C 261.63
C sharp (or D flat) C# or Db 277.18
D D 293.66
# b
D sharp (or E flat) D or E 311.13
E E 329.63
F F 349.23
F sharp (or G flat) F# or Gb 369.99
G G 392.00
# b
G sharp (or A flat) G or A 415.30
A A 440.00
# b
A sharp (or B flat) A or B 466.16
B B 493.88
1
C C 523.25
¸ ² F¹F¥¬¥|! | } £ ! «_ VF£F|§sF²F¡V |§F|_F
F +3 Ú¤¯Fç´ } µ |Ã¤H(×ÚÉV7¶¡! #³µ·K¤¯Fç´ } + ¬¥ Ü |§r +¬¥|¢F
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Ú¬k¹ } } ¥« } C£ ¡£(×/F |#¥F /¤¯¥FK³rF ¸ F Ü ( ½|ºÞ¥
/7¶3 ¸ F Ü & V½|ºÞ7v¤¯°?F r|F9¤¯0|0FF
¸ r|C·¬90 ¬¥ V¤¯ ç } |/FV¶ } F_# } _ KÙ ¡ |¡²|
|% |¡| |·K| ²|;¡V | } KF } §»| º?kFH ·% ²#¡V| } } ¥µF|§ }
/|µr|§ } Ú;æ C·¢)Òà79É¬¥|§²F|° K7¶3°|§· ¸ F Ü / } Fk¹ r¹
´£| ½ ºÞ¬¥|?@ &V ½ º3F7¶3¬9 ¸ Ü } Fk¹H¬®((£ ½ ºkÞ¬¥|?r£| ½ º ¸ ¹3|¬¤!
|3r´µsr ¥F|° } |´ µ } |¹×
C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb
C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
one octave
¸ C } K ; } Fk¹;|?ç´FVàâÄÃÁD¬¥| E;¡7¬9 ¤|·µ } %/¥|¥3F?C
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
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} ¡¡² } ¬¥|¢F|© } F| }} | } |¢F ½°Fv vs_¤¯¬2F¡v¬k¹¤¯F¡#K |
} ¡¡²0 |§F|×
Square wave Triangle wave
one wave cycle one wave cycle
Sawtooth wave
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Time
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( *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
10 V
Ó
Time
10 V more heat energy

(peak) dissipated
(same load resistance)
10 V less heat energy

(peak) dissipated
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Bandsaw
Jigsaw
blade
motion wood being
cut
wood being
cut
blade
motion
(analogous to DC) (analogous to AC)
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C *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
5 A RMS
50 W
power
10 V 2Ω dissipated
RMS
5 A RMS
Equal power dissipated through
equal resistance loads
5A
50 W
power
10 V 2Ω dissipated
5A
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3-1/2 or 3.5
...
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Waveform Vector representation
Amplitude
Length
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Waveforms Phase relations Vector representations
(of "A" waveform with

reference to "B" waveform)

Ý Ý Ý
A B A and B waveforms are A B
in perfect step with each other
Ý
A
Phase shift = 90 degrees Þ
Ý A is ahead of B 90 degrees
A B
(A "leads" B) B
Phase shift = 90 degrees B

Ý B is ahead of A -90 degrees
B A
(B "leads" A) Ý
A
B 180 degrees
Ý Ý
A and B waveforms are A B
Ý mirror-images of each other
A
ß ß
A B A
à
angle
B
phase shift
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ç
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è è è
angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees
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ï
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or 2 at 180 degrees
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Just as there are two ways to

express the phase of the sources,
there are two ways to express
their resultant sum.
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- + are equivalent! + -
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Test lead colors provide a frame of reference
for interpreting the sign (+ or -) of the meter’s
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V A V A
OFF OFF
A COM A COM
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The meter tells us +24 volts
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
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24 V
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
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The meter tells us -17 volts
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
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24 V 17 V
Source 1 Source 2
- +
Total voltage = 7 V
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"phasemeter"
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Vector addition
length = 10
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angle = 53.13
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angle = 90 degrees
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length = 6
à
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angle = 0 degrees

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^`T_Gd TOUL]L_GIFq^Q ^cQOhKsq¢
"Inare"rectangular" form, a vector’s length and direction

denoted in terms of its horizontal and vertical span,
the first number representing the horixontal ("real") and
the second number (with the "j" prefix) representing the
vertical ("imaginary") dimensions.
4 + j0
4 + j4 "4 right and 0 up/down" -4 + j4
"4 right and 4 up" "4 left and 4 up"
-4 + j0
4 - j4 "4 left and 0 up/down" -4 -j4
"4 right and 4 down" "4 left and 4 down"
+ "imaginary"
+j
- "real" + "real"
-j
- "imaginary"
oÛ
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%3 &5
... ...
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 4
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length = 5
+j3
angle =
36.87o
+4
)5 ∠ 36.87 o
(polar form)
(5)(cos 36.87o) = 4 (real component)

o
(5)(sin 36.87 ) = 3 (imaginary component)
4 + j3 (rectangular form)
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ã
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ç
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*4 + j3 (rectangular form)
+c = ,a 2
+ b2 (pythagorean theorem)
polar magnitude =
*42
+ 32
polar magnitude = 5
)
polar angle = arctan , *34

polar angle = 36.87o
)5 ∠ 36.87 o
(polar form)
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82 + j5
9+ *4 - j3 9+175 - j34
820 ++ j82
9+-36 j10
:6 + j2 80 - j15
255 - j49 -16 + j92
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82 + j5
* 175 - j34
8
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- 4 - j3
-2 + j8
;
- 80 - j15
95 - j19
- 20 + j82
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=<
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°
®0© I¨ P§ § § î
(35 ∠ 65o)(10 ∠ -12o) = 350 ∠ 53o
(124 ∠ 250o)(11 ∠ 100o) = 1364 ∠ -10o

or
1364 ∠ 350o
(3 ∠ 30o)(5 ∠ -30o) = 15 ∠ 0o
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35 ∠ 65o >
= 3.5 ∠ 77o
10 ∠ -12o
124 ∠ 250o
= 11.273 ∠ 150o
11 ∠ 100o
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30 o
?
= 0.6 ∠ 60o
o
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35 ∠ 65o 35 ∠ 65o
1
=
1 ∠ 0o
= 0.1 ∠ 12o
?
10 ∠ -12o
10 ∠ -12 o
µ
1
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1 ∠ 0o >
= 312.5 ∠ -10o
0.0032 ∠ 10o 0.0032 ∠ 10o
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kNixL$^`pGQwiWiL_ZKG[T_hKiGRQo^`FaJMi\^zdQgiWG^TOFKGRJeUFeLOZHGQL_hHJP|eN`DgÄSIUT$SbhHUxL$Qo^`jKjHi|LONÄSbUWT_SIhKUL_Qo^QgdnGii
ã Ú % ¡ Ú ~ ç
ÃZHs Q ^zdgf UWT$S$ZKZKN`Å Q ^zdQflFKGbLd!NT_vo^`FHî|PQOUWQsYGbL_ZKNPJKQ fd ULOZLOZKGGIPSIGIjPL_UNFNDajXNldnGTS^ì\SbhKi\^lL_UNFHQw
ZKGoNFKiW| hH^ìWUaSI^`LOUWNFqUWQLOZH^`L^ìWikl^TOU\^`VKiWGQ Vé ¼ À:þ
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jKZH^Q]G^Q d!GIiWi^Q sc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGf¤^`FaJ^ìWi¡kNixL$^`pGRQ^`FaJSbhKT_TOGFL_QsthaQLrVaGoNDLOZKGBQO^sBGD{T_G hKGFHSb| {UWFNT$JPGT
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822 V ∠ -64 o
+
E1
-
+ load
12 V ∠ 35o E2
-
+
15 V ∠ 0o E3
-
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è
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Vã ç
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EE total = E1 + E2 + E3
EE total = (22 V ∠ -64o) + (12 V ∠ 35o) + (15 V ∠ 0o)
ârT$^`jKZKU\SIîiW|fL_ZKGgkGRSLONT_Q^JKJuhKjqUFLOZKU\Q sc^`FHFKGITR¢
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22 ∠ -64o
15 ∠ 0o
12 ∠ 35o
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ã ç
kNixL!kGRSLONT JPN`L^lLnhHjKjaGT]EiWGbDLN`DJPU\^`pT_^s ^`FHJYL_GIT_sYUFH^`LOUWFKp^`LL_ZKGGFHJPUWFKptjXNUWFLD{NTL_ZKGtî » kNixLnkGSbLONT
ã ç
^TOT_Nld L_Uj^lLL_ZKGgsYUWJKJKiGIT_UpZLNDL_ZKGoJPU\^`pT_^s ¢
Hresultant vector
22 ∠ -64o
15 ∠ 0o
12 ∠ 35o
è Ú
FqNT$JPGIT!L_N[JPGbL_GIT_sBUWFKGgd ZH^`L LOZKGgT_GQOhKiL_^FL kGSL_NT Q!sc^`pFKULOhHJPGo^FHJq^`FKpiGg^TOGd ULOZKNhPLTOGRQ]NT]L_UFHptL_N
pT$^`jHZKUWSUWsc^`pGQf`dnGSI^`FcSINFkGT]LGR^S$ZYNFKG ND¤LOZKGRQ]GjXNi\^`TOD{NT_sÄSbNsBjHiGIBFhKsVaGT_Q}UWFLONoT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TD{NTOs
^`FaJ^JHJwo GIsYGstVXGITRfdnG T_G Ú Õ[Ö`Ö l LOZHGQOGtHphKT_GQLONpGbL_ZKGITrVXGSI^hHQOGtL_ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|usc^TOvPQD{NTrLOZKGLOZHTOGG
kNixL$^`pGrQONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_GrNTOUWGIFL_GJ[UWF^`F^JHJPUxL_UkGsY^FKFKGT¢
§§ §
¨ ©n
«ªH¬¨ ®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
15 V ∠ 0o = 15 + j0 V
12 V ∠ 35o = 9.8298 + j6.8829 V

822 V ∠ -64 o
= 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
15 + j0 V
¶
9.8298 + j6.8829 V
¶
>34.4740 - j12.8906 V
+ 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
è å ä `¦
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ç ¦ ä
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ã ç
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822 V ∠ -64 o
+ LV
1
-
2
+ LV MR 10 kΩ
12 V ∠ 35o 2
1
-
1
15 V ∠ 0o
+ LV
3
-
0 0
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^ 1
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§Ì 7 ¡§©¢«ªP£¬¨ ®¤¡¥©¯e¦±®¤§©¢²
¨
+
22 V ∠ -64o E1
-
Polarity reversed on
source E2 ! - load
12 V ∠ 35o E2
+
+
15 V ∠ 0o E3
-
¦ ^
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i
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d ZH^`LUxLd^Q!VXGbD{NT_G¢
22 ∠ -64o
12 ∠ 35o (reversed) = 12 ∠ 215o

or
-12 ∠ 35o
15 ∠ 0o

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kNiLkGRSLONT ^FHJ
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ª ¬
§
22 ∠ -64o
resultant vector
12 ∠ 35o (reversed) = 12 ∠ 215o

or
-12 ∠ 35ο
15 ∠ 0o
¦
ZKGoSINFKFKGRSL_UNFuT_GIkGIT$QOî¤NFuLOZKGcî kNixLQOhKjKjKiW|uS^`FqVXGgTOGjKTOGRQ]GFLOGJUWFqLdnNcJPUÅXGTOGFLd!^z|PQ!UWFjaNiW^T

i
D{NT_sq¢V|[^F^JKJPULOUWNFNDî ³´ LONBUxL$QkGSbLONT!^FKpiWG sc^`vUFHptULî kNiL_Q ¦ ¦
î » ´ fPNT!^T_GIkGT_Q_^ìaN`DQ]UWpF[NF

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Q_^`sYGTOGRQ]hKiL¢
12 V ∠ 35o (reversed) = 12 V ∠ 215o = -9.8298 - j6.8829 V

or
-12 V ∠ 35o = -9.8298 - j6.8829 V
ZKGT_GQOhKixL_UFHpY^JKJPULOUWNFqN`DkNixL$^`pGRQ!UFqT_GSL$^`FKphKi\^`TnD{NT_sufKLOZKGF¡¢
15
9+ j0 V
9+
-9.8298 - j6.8829 V
¶
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û¸êAïPóUùóäôK~û }^çBéçBò[êAòPóUýúç ¹ [· » » · » <oçióUð êóUòPð çúêë¤ÿ hû ù!ç ìKéçiùùçiô û¸òëWïKý ù #xªñPùªêí¸&û UçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çúû ù
!ç KðBçBìêêïPó@ê2ûêDùýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí«ùø[ý DëWí{û 3ù kû¸òPùüêçoóUôëU8å o_$L« ë D!çùìçoð û |-ð !éçoóUð êó_òð çóUùùënðBûþó_êçæû¸êï óUò
ûþòPôñPð êëUéû ùñPùñPóUí¸íþø ùø[ý DëWí¸ûþBçoXô DnøêïKçðBóUìKû¸êó_í íþç êêçi3é hæûêïäóíþç êêçié % óUùóùBñ DPùð éû¸ìê í¸&û Uç2êïKûþù a"0
ûþòPð çûþòPôñð
êëWéùAôéëWì õUëUí¸êóUöUçúûþòìKéëWìëWéüêû¸ëWò êëêïKç éó_êçë_åð ñPééçBò[êAðDïPóUòKöUç bêïPçBø æûþíþíôéëUì ýúëUéç
õUëWíêDó_öWçå÷ëUéå óWùªêçBsé vðDïó_òKöWû¸òKöðBñKééçBò[êD ù [ó_òPôúíþçiùùõWëUí¸êó_öWçå÷ëUéèùüíþë@æçié v ðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöðBñKééçiòWêD ù @ïPó_êîêïPûþùýúçió_òù
û ù©êïPó_êéçoóUð
êDó_òPðBçûþòúëUïKýù©å÷ëWéó_ònøûþòPôñPð êëUé#û ù#ôûþéçoð
êí¸øìKéëWìëWéüêû¸ëWòPó_íWêë êïKçå÷éç K[ñKçBòð øëUåPêïPçó_í¸êçBéòPó_êûþòKö
ð ñPééçBò[ê
XL = 2πfL
B?J$BZ=
NB#?jsBrZ' BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
¡8¢£r N¤N¤
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
?¥N £8¢¦r¡N¤N§
¥ ¦ N ¦N£8¢ £r¤N
1Z¨ gB¨©.«ª6¬"4X;h.§Cihj.@ª6k.l;TªP§am +®
ÿ ðBñKééçiòWê#ûþòó ùüûþýúìKí¸çûþòPôñð
êûþõUçðBû¸éDð ñPûêû ù#çK[ñPóUínêë êïKçõUëWíêDó_öUçk¯÷ûþòõUëWíêDù°©ôûþõnûþôKçiôDnøêïPçû¸òPôKñPð
êû¸õWç
éçióUð êóUòPð ç]¯÷ûþò ëWïKýù°!NxªñPùªêóUù ÿëWé_±keðBñKééçiòWê ûþò ó1ùüûþýúìKí¸çIéçiùûþùüêûþõUçIð ûþéðBñKûê û ùçK[ñPó_í©êë êïPçIõWëUí¸êóUöUç
¯÷ûþòõUëWíêDù °èôûþõnûþôçoô]D[øêïKçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç²¯ û¸òëUïPýúù°H
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
(inductive reactance of 10 mH inductor at 60 Hz)

XL = 3.7699 Ω
É
I=
X
µI = 10 V
3.7699 Ω
I = 2.6526 A
¶ë@æèçBõWçBé _æèçòKçiçiôúêëUçiçBìûþòýúû¸òôúêïPó_êõWëUí¸êó_öWçó_òôð ñKééçiò[êó_éçòKëUêûþòìKïPóWùüçïKçBéç7ÿùæèóWùîùïKë@æò
çióUéíþûþçBé7êïKç1õUëWíêDó_öUç ïPóUùIó ìKïPóUùçùüïKû¸å¼êë_åk·l* ,q æû¸êïéçiùìçoð
êIêë êïKçð ñKééçBò[ê«¸åæèç1éçiìKéçoùüçiò[êAêïPçiùç
ìKïPóWùüçIó_òKöWí¸çoùëUåõUëWíêDó_öUçó_òPô ð ñKééçiò[êýó@êïPçBýó@êûþðió_íþí¸øäûþòäêïPçAå÷ëWéýëUåîð ëUýúìKíþç!¤ònñKý Dçiéù!æç |PòPô¤êïPó_ê
ó_ò1ûþòPôñPð êëUé ¹ ùëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êëð ñKééçBò[êïPóUùóIìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçnêë[ë$
Voltage
Opposition =
Current
10 V ∠ 90o
Opposition =
2.6526 A ∠ 0ο
Opposition = 3.7699 Ω ∠ 90o

or
º
0 + j3.7699 Ω
+) .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
For an inductor:
À À
90o 90o
E
º
µI 0o
Opposition
z¤ó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø oæçùó]øêïPó_êbêïKçìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçë_åKóUòû¸òPôKñPð
êëUé¹ ù{ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò2êëðBñKééçBò[ê{û ùb* ,q ]ýúçióUòKûþòKö
(XL)
êïó@ê#ó_òûþòPôñPð êëWé¹ ù©ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWòêë ð ñPééçBò[ê{û ù7óì!ëWùûêû¸õWçûþýó_öUûþòPóUéøkK[ñPó_ò[êû¸êªø@LïKû ù«ìPïPóUùçóUòKöUíþçîëUåKéçoóUð
êû¸õWç
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ðBñKééçiòWê Dçoð ëWýIçoùúð éûêûþðió_íþí¸ø ûþýIì!ëUéêóUò[êIûþò/ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êó_òPóUí¸øùûþù#çiùìçoð û ó_íþí¸ø å÷ëWéúðBëUýúìKíþç! ÿ
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êù«æïKçBéçîéçióWð
êDó_òPðBçîó_òPôAéçoùüû ùüêó_òð çûþò[êçBéDóUð êT¸ê©æûþí¸í[ìKéë@õUçpD!çBòPç!|ðBûþóUíWêëéçBìKéçiùçBò[êCÁ#Âð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[ê¹ ù
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëð ñKééçiò[ê2ûþò¤êçBéýúù2ëUåèð ëWýúìKí¸ ç äò[ñPý D!çBéDùéDó@êïKçBé2êïPó_ò ùðió_í ó_ké KWñó_ò[êû¸êûþçiù2ë_åéçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçóUòPô
éçióUð êóUòPð ç
Ã½ÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
ÃË 'Ì-Í »!Î ÏÁ »!Î Á » û ùêïKçAëWìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWòêïPó_ê2ó_òäûþòPôñð
êëWéë}!çiéùêë óUíêçBéòPó@êû¸òPö ð ñKééçBò[êôñKçAêë û¸êù
ìKïPóUùç!v ùïKûå¼êçiô¤ùüêëWéóUöUçóUòPôäéçBíþçióUùçëUåçBòKçiéöWø ûþò¤û¸êù2ýó_öUòPç êû ðk|Pçiíþô(loçoóUð êó_òð çAû ù2ùüønýD!ëUíþû&ÐBçiôDnø
êïKçðió_ìKû¸êóUí í¸çBêüêçié3-lI óUòPô1ûþùýúçoóUùñKéçoô ûþòëUïKýù@xªñPùüêíþûWç2éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçÑ¯Òo°H
Ã ¸ òPôñPð êûþõUç éçoóUð êó_òð ç ðBó_ò!D çðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êçoô ñPùûþòKöIêïKû ùå÷ëUéýAñPíþó#@ IÓ^Ô åÕ%
Ã ¸ òPôñPð êûþõUçéçióUð êóUòPð ç » ÏsÁ?Ö !2Ö æû¸êïûþòPðBéçoóUùû¸òKö1å÷éç[K ñKçiòPð øX¸ ò ë_êïKçBéæèëUéDôKù êïPçïKûþöUïKçiéêïKçå÷éç v
WK ñPçBòPðBøn êïPçýIëWéç û¸êëUìKì!ëWùçiùêïKçÿ×
ë@æcë_å7çBíþçið êéëUòPù
ÕÖDÕ Ø ÝÛßBÝÞ Û#ÝÞ7ß Þ{à©áAÛTÙ!ßRS¤ãÙèà©áÛâÙß Û#Ùãäß
à©Þ
¸ ò¤êïKçúìKéçBõnû¸ëWñPùùçið êûþëUò( æèçIç!ìKíþëUéçiôäæïPó_ê2æèëUñPíþôäïó_ìKì!çBò û¸ò ùüûþýúìKíþçéçiùûþùüêëWévëUòPí¸ø1ó_òPô û¸òPôKñPð
êëUésv}ëWòKí¸ø
ÿ lð ûþéðBñKûêD ù 0Gë@ææèçæû¸íþíKýú~û êïKçêªæëð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êù#êëUöWç êïKçBé#ûþòùüçiéûþçiù©å÷ëWéýkó_òPôIûþò[õWçiùüêûþöWó_êçèêïKçç!}^çið
êDù

L©-ó UçêïPûþùðBû¸éDð ñPûêóWùó_ò1!ç Kó_ýúìKíþç2êëúæëWsé æûê(ï
R
Ú
5Ω
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
LïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUéæû¸íþíë}!çié + Û ë_åbéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçêëIÿYð ñKééçBò[êîéçBöWóUéôKí¸çoùù#ëUåbå÷éçK[ñKçBòð ø[æïKûþí¸çêïPçûþòPôñPð êëUé

æûþí¸í7ë-}^çBé ® ÝÜÞ** Û ëUåîéçióUð êóUòPð çêë1ÿhð ñKééçiò[ê2ó@êkÞ , ¶3Ð èçoðBó_ñùüçêïKçúéçoùüû ùüêëUé¹ ùéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çû ù óéçióUí
ònñKý D!çB¿é ¯ +«Ûàß ,rq èëUé + ·x ,«Û °Hó_òôlêïKçäûþòPôñPð êëUé¹ ùéçióWð
êDó_òPðBç1û ùó_òûþýúóUöUûþòPó_éøònñKýD!çBé¿¯ ® ÝÜÞ**
Ûáß * ,q ©ëUé , ·¾x ® âÜ-Þ** Û °!©êïKç ðBëUý DKû¸òPçiô !ç }^çið êë_åêïKçêªæèë¤ð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êùæûþíþ8í D!ç ó_òëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êë
ð ñPééçBò[êç K[ñPó_í«êë êïKçðBëUýúìKíþ!ç ¤ùüñPýë_åêïKçAêªæèë ònñKý Dçiéù LïKû ùðBëUý DKû¸òPçiô¤ëWìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò¤æû¸íþaí D!çIó õUçið êëWé
1Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäåª6¬"4X;h.§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am ++
ð ëWý DKûþòPó_êûþëUò¤ëUåîéçoùüû ùüêó_òð çóUòPôäéçióWð
êóUòPð ç k¸ ò ëUéDôçiéêë1ç!ìKéçiùùêïKû ù2ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò ùñPðBðBû¸òPð êíþø æèçAòKçiçiô ó
úý ëUéçAð ëWýúìKéçiïKçBòùüûþõUç êçBéý å÷ëWéëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ð ñKééçBò[êêïó_òäçBû¸êïPçBé2éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçëUééçióWð
êDó_òPðBçó_íþëUòKç3LïKûþù
êçiéýÜû ùðBóUí¸íþçiôæ ¼½ ÌÁ- » !èû¸êùúùüøný DëWíèû ùXç@#ó_òô û¸êúû ùúó_í ùüë ç!ìKéçiùùçiôûþòlêïKçñKòKû¸êë_åëWïKýù yxªñùªêíþûWç
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç ó_òPô1éçióWð
êóUòPð çT¸ ò1êïKçó-D!ë@õUç2ç!Kó_ýúìKíþçKêïKç êë_êóUíbð ûþéðBñKû¸êûþýúìçoôKó_òð çû ù
Ztotal = (5 Ω resistance) + (3.7699 Ω inductive reactance)
Ztotal = 5 Ω (R) + 3.7699 Ω (XL)

èZ = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (3.7699 Ω ∠ 900)
total
or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 + j3.7699 Ω)
èZ ³
= 5 + j3.7699 Ω 6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o
¸ ýúìçoôKó_òð çû ùéçBí ó@êçoô êëäõUëWíêDó_öWçúóUòPôð ñPééçBò[êCxªñPùüêóUùøUëUñ ýúûþöUï[êAç!ì!çið ê©û¸ò óýó_òPòKçBéAùûþýIûþí ó_éêë
total or
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û¸òéAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ_
Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:
ê ë E ì E
E = IZ I= ì Z= ë
Z I
í
All quantities expressed in
¸ òYå óUð ê êïKûþù û ù ó å óUé ýúëUéç¤ð ëWýIìPéçiïKçBòPùûþõUçå÷ëUéý ë_åAïKý¹ ùX%{ó]æ êïó_òæïPó_ê æóUùúêDó_ñKöWïWê û¸òæ±_
complex, not scalar, form
Bç íþçið êéëUòKû ðBù ¯Õ`hI"¸6o°HxªñPùªêóUùû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çûþùóå óUéýúëUéçAð ëWýúìKéçiïKçBòùüûþõUçç nìPéçoùùû¸ëWòë_åëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêëêïPç
Pë@æpë_å«çií¸çoð
êéëWòPùêïPóUò éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û ù 7î"$Âéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç ó_òPô1ó_ònøéçióWð
êóUòPð çùüçiìPó_éDó@êçBíþøIëWéû¸òäð ëWýDKûþòPó_êûþëUò
¯ ùçBéûþçiùHï]ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí°HnðBóUò]D!çó_òô ùïKëUñPíþô<DçéçBìPéçoùüçiòWêçiô1óUùóúùû¸òKöWí¸ç ûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçû¸òäóUò1ÿcð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
L«ëðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçð ñKééçBò[êû¸ò êïPç ó-D!ë@õUçúð ûþéðBñKû¸ê©æç|PéDùªêòPçBçiô êëäöUûþõUçó1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçúéçBå÷çBéçBòPðBçå÷ëWéêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWç ùëUñPéðBç KæïKû ðDïûþùöUçBòPçBéDó_íþí¸ø óWùùñKýúçiô êëDçÐBçBéë#"¯ÕLïKçìPïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çoùë_å7éçiùûþùüêûþõUçóUòPô1û¸òPôKñPð
êû¸õWç
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçó_é²ç Á-ð \ ÁÂ?Ö ,rq ó_òP¿ô ·l* ,rq Kéçiùìçoð
êûþõUçií¸ø KéçBöWóUéôKí¸çoùùèë_å©êïPçöUûþõUçBò1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçiùèå÷ëWéõUëWíêDó_öWçëWé
ð ñPééçBò[ê °!
É
I=
Z
µI = 10 V ∠ 0o
³
6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o
ûêïYêïKçAìK∠ñKé-37.016
ÿ Iù =æ1.597 çBíþø/ûþòPôñPð êûþõUç ðBû¸éDð ñPûêêïKç ðBñKééçiòWêæó]õUçäí ó_ö[ù²D!çBïKûþòPôêïPç õUëWíêDó_öWç1æó]õUç«¯ ë_åêïPç
o
ùëUñKéDð ç?°HKó_í¸êïPëUñKöWïêïPûþùêû¸ýúç êïKçíþóUöúûþùòKëUêóUùöWéçoó@ê©ëUòPí¸ø ® ÜN ,Bn Þ q óWùëUìKì!ëWùçiô êëóå÷ñKíþíb* ,q óUùæóUùèêïPç
+Þ .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
ðBóWùüç ûþò1êïKçìKñPéçií¸øûþòPôñð
êûþõUçðBû¸éDð ñPûê
phase shift =
37.016o
e=
+ i=
Time
-
ñKëWéêïKçúéçoùüû ùüêëUé ó_òôäêïPçIûþòPôñð
êëWé ^êïKçúìKïPóWùüçIéçiíþó_êûþëUòPùïKûþìP"ù DçBêªæçiçBò õWëUí¸êóUöUçóUòPô ðBñKééçiòWê ïPó]õWçBò(¹ ê
Dð ïPóUòKöUçoôy«ÿð éëWùù7õUëUí¸êóUöUçóUðBéë[ùù«êïKçéçoùüû ùüêëUé#û ù7ûþòìKïPóUùç_¯ ,rq ùüïKû¸å¼ê°#æûêïúêïKçðBñKééçBò[ê7êïPéëWñKöUïúû¸ê^nó_òPôêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWçAóUðBéë[ùùêïKçIû¸òPôKñPð
êëUé2ûþù·l* , q ëUñKêë_åìKïPóUùçAæû¸êï êïKçIð ñKééçBò[êöWëUûþòKöêïPéëWñKöUï¤û¸êk çIðió_ò¤õWçBéûå÷ø
êïPûþùýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø
É = IZ
ER = IRZR
É = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(5 Ω ∠ 0o)
R
ER = 7.9847 V ∠ -37.016o
Notice that the phase angle of ER is equal to

LïKç õUëWíêDó_öWçóUðBéë[ùùîêïPçéçoùüû ùªêëUéèïPóUùèêïKç!ç KóWð
êùóUýIç ìKïóUùç2óUòKöUíþçóUùêïKçðBñKééçiòWêèêïPéëWñKöUï ûêêçií¸íþû¸òPö
the phase angle of the current.
ñPùêïPó@ê3`óUòPôX¸ó_éç2û¸òìKïPóWùüç²¯÷å÷ëUéêïKçéçoùüû ùüêëUéëWòKí¸øB°!
É = IZ
EL = ILZL
É = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(3.7699 Ω ∠ 90o)
L
³
EL = 6.0203 V ∠ 52.984o
Notice that the phase angle of EL is exactly

90o more than the phase angle of the current.
LïKçõUëWíêDó_öWç óUðBéë[ùùAêïPç1ûþòPôñð
êëWéïPóUùúó ìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç ëUå + ÓB *ò-) q îæïKûþí¸ç1êïKçäð ñKééçiò[êêïKéëWñKöUï/êïPç
þû òPôñPð êëUéïóUùóìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçëUå7v ® ÜZ ,#n Þ q ©óôû~}^çBéçBòð çë_åç!KóWð
êíþø¿* ,rq DçBêªæçiçBò êïKçúêªæèë#²LïKû ù2êçií¸í ùñPù
êïó@ê`Yó_òPô<¸ó_éç ùüêûþíþíb* ,rq ëWñêë_å©ìKïPóUùç²¯¼å÷ëWéêïKçûþòPôñð
êëWéëUòKíþøB°H
1Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäåª6¬"4X;h.§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am +Ü
ç1ðió_òlóUíþùë ýó@êïKçBýó_êû ðBó_íþíþø ìPéë@õWçêïó@êIêïKçoùüçð ëWýIìPí¸ç õ@óUí¸ñKçoùúóUôKô êëUöWç êïPçBéêë ýúóUç êïKç êëUêó_í
õUëWíêDó_öWçxªñPùüêóUùCó ûþéðDïKïPë-}C¹ ùhô#ëWíêDó_öWçk%«ó]æcæèëUñKí ô ìKéçoôû ð
ê
Etotal = ER + EL
Etotal = (7.9847 V ∠ -37.016o) + (6.0203 V ∠ 52.984o)
Etotal = 10 V ∠ 0o
%bçBê¹ ùðDïKçiðêïKçõ@ó_íþû ôûêªø ë_å7ëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPùèæûêïöõB÷p¸s=`3
øR
1
Ú 2
5Ω
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
0 0
# Nù Z?$?y?
ú æ æ#2? g
(æ¥ ¦
ù ½¥û??
¢ # ù ü
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¢ Z
rB ú ?ÿ¥$ ú ¥$ ( ú
8¢ rN Z' £8¢¤r§N¦ Zr p¢ N¥NZN ¢¦N¤r£ ZN
rB ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥$ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' ¡ 8¢£ r¥ Z ¦p¢ ¥ ¤N§ Z ¢ B¡ ZN¥
Interpreted SPICE results
ER = 7.985 V ∠ -37.02o
EL = 6.020 V ∠ 52.98o
I = 1.597 A ∠ 143.0o
G ëUêçêïPó_êTxªñùªêóUùæû¸êï±kð ûþéðBñKûêDù BõZ÷8¸s=` ëWñêìKñKêùð ñPééçBò[ê8|öUñKéçiùèóUùêïPëUñKöWïêïPçBøæèçBéçòKçiöWó@êû¸õWç
¯ n ò ,rq ëWñêëUå7ìPïPóUùç°èæû¸êïêïKçAùñKìKìKíþø õWëUí¸êóUöUç8¸ òPùªêçióWôë_å#óúìKïPóUùçó_òPöUíþçë_å0v ® ÜN ,Bn Þ q PæèçöUçBêóð ñKééçBò[ê
ìKïPóWùüç ó_òPöUíþçëUå n ) ® q ¯v ® Ü q · n ò , q °HpL ïKû ùûþùèýúçBéçBíþø óUò û ôû¸ë[ùüønòPðBéóWùüøúëUå0õZ÷8¸s=`ló_òô ôënçoùòKë_êéçiìKéçiùçBò[ê
ó_ònø[êïPû¸òKöùüûþöUòKû| ðió_ò[êûþòêïPç2ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êèùûþýAñKí ó@êû¸ëWòûêDùüçiíå6pG ë_êçïKë@æ×D ëUêï êïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUéèó_òPôûþòPôñð
êëWéõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ìKïPóWùüçéçióWôûþòKöWùýó@êDðDïëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù_¯v ® ÜZ , Ó q ó_òPô + ÓZ *ò q éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçií¸øB°H-ªx ñPùªê2óUùæèçç! ì!çið
êçiô1êïKçBý
êë$
+ò .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
û¸êïó_íþíêïKçiùçh|PöUñPéçoù©êë_UçiçBìIêéDóUðAë_å!å÷ëUéçiõUçBòùñPðDïó ùüûþýúìKí¸çð ûþéðBñKûêîóWù©êïKû ùWû¸êîæèëUñKí ôD!ç3D!çBòKç |ð û ó_í
å÷ëUéñPùêë ñPùçêïKç<_êó-DPí¸çýIçBêïKëôy ÿìKìPí¸ønûþòKö óêDó-DKíþçêëäêïKû ùIùüûþýúìKí¸ç1ùüçiéûþçiùéçoùüû ùªêëUésv}ûþòPôñð
êëWéð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
æèëUñKí ô1ìKéëðBçBçiôóWùùüñPðDïb7ñ©û¸éDùüêôKéó]æpñKìäóIêó-DPí¸çå÷ëWé3`=ï¸sïçö|PöUñKéçiùóUòPôûþòPùüçiéüêóUí¸í«ð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êõ]óUí¸ñPçiùûþò
êïPçiùçêçBéýùC¯÷ûþòúë_êïPçBé#æèëUéDôKù WôëUò(¹ êûþòPùüçiéüêóWð
êñó_íéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çëUé#ûþòPôñð
êóUòPð çõ@ó_íþñKçoù#û¸òXAïKýù#óUòPôÑ¶çBòPéøù
éçiùìçoð
êûþõUçií¸ø nû¸ò[êëêïPçêD-ó DKíþç ^néDó@êïKçBé ð ëUònõWçBéêîêïPçBý ûþò[êëúð ëUýúìKíþ!ç ²|öUñKéçiùë_å©û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç ó_òPô æéû¸êçêïPëWùç
ûþ$ò °H
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
ÿí¸êïPëUñKöWï ûêû ùüòb¹ êúòKçiðBçiùùóUéø0¸_|PòPôlûêïKçií¸ìå÷ñPíêë æéû¸êç ÎU êïPç éçið êó_òPöUñKí ó_éIó_òPôlìëWíþóUéAå÷ëWéýùë_å
çióWðDï«KWñó_ò[êû¸êªø ûþò êïKçêDó-DKíþç]¸åøUëUñóUéçñPùûþòKö¤óäðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êëWé êïPó_êïPóUù êïKç óDKû¸íþû¸êªø¤êë ìçiéüå÷ëWéý ð ëUýúìKíþç!
ó_éû¸êïKýúç êûþð æûêïKëUñKêAêïPç òKçiçiô å÷ëWéIðBëUònõUçiéùû¸ëWòED!ç êªæèçBçiò éçið
êDó_òKöWñKí ó_éAóUòPô ìëWíþóUéå÷ëWéýù«êïKçBòlêïKû ùç!nêéDó
ôëð ñPýIçiò[êó@êû¸ëWòúûþùð ëUýúìKíþç êçBíþøAñKòPòKçiðBçiùùóUéøT¶ë@æèçBõWçBé_û¸å^øWëUñó_éçèå÷ëUéDð çoôAêëì!çBéå÷ëUéýkð ëWýúìKí¸ç IóUéû¸êïKýúçBêû ð
_íþëUòPöUïPóUòPBô X¯=óUôKôKûêû¸ëWòóUòPô1ùüBñ DKêéDóUð
êû¸ëWò ûþòéçoð
êóUòKöUñPíþóUéîå÷ëWé
ý Kó_òô ýñKíêû¸ìPí¸û ðBó_êûþëUòäó_òPô1ôûþõnûþùû¸ëWò ûþòìëWíþóUé
å÷ëUéý °HKæéû¸êûþòKöúçióUðDï K[ñPó_ò[êûêªøûþò DëUêï1å÷ëUéýùæû¸íþyí D!çñPùüçBå÷ñKíbûþòPôçiçiyô
Gë@æ êïPó@êúëUñP é UöUûþõUçB$ò |PöUñPéçoùAó_éç ûþòPùçBéêçoôû¸ò[êë êïKçBûþéúéçoùüì!çið êûþõUç íþëðBó_êûþëUòPùAû¸òlêïKç êó DKí¸ç æèç ðBóUò
ìKéëð çBçolô xªñPùüêóWùæû¸êXï ±_"ôç êçBéýIûþòKçêïKçêë_êDó_í!û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çå÷éëWýuêïKç2û¸òPôKû¸õnû ôñPó_í!ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù aõû¸òPðBçêïKûþù
û ùóúùüçiéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê Pæ_ç nòKë@æcêïPó_êëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò1êëçBíþçið êéëU<ò
Pë@ æ ¯ éçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç ÏûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç °óUôPôKùêëIå÷ëWéý
êïPç êë_êDó_í ëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUbò
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL
Gë@æ êïPó@êæèç<nòKë@æ êë_êDó_íõUëWíêDó_öWç ó_òPô êëUêó_íûþýúìçoôKó_òð çîæçðBóUò/ó_ìPìKí¸øAïPý]¹ ùÑ%{ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïçy° êë
ôçBêçBéýúû¸òPç êë_êDó_íbðBñKééçBò[ê
1Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäåª6¬"4X;h.§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am +*
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z

WñPùªêóWù æûêïJ±k" êïKçúêëUêóUíîð ñKééçBò[ê2ûþòóäùüçiéûþçiùÿ²ð ûþéðBñKû¸êûþùùïPóUéçoô¤çK[ñPóUí¸íþøéDnø óUí¸íð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù
LïKû ùèûþùùüêûþí¸í!êéñKçlDçoðBóUñPùüç2ûþò óIùüçiéûþçiùèð ûþéðBñKû¸êêïKçBéçû ùèëUòKíþøóùûþòKöUíþçìPó_êï å÷ëUéèçBíþçið êéëUòPùîêë
Pë@æ_[êïKçiéçBå÷ëUéç
êïPçéó_êçë_åêïKçiû¸éa
ë@ælýAñùªêñKòPûå÷ëWéýhêïKéëUñKöWïKëUñê0ëWòPùüçK[ñKçBò[êíþøUæçðió_òêéDó_òPùüå÷çBé©êïPçh|PöUñKéçiù©å÷ëWéð ñKééçBò[ê
ûþòWêëIêïKçðBëUíþñKýúòPùå÷ëUéêïKçéçiùûþùüêëWéóUòPô û¸òPôKñPð
êëUéó_íþû&U ç
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL
G ë@æxóUí¸íêïPó_ê¹ ùAíþç å¼êIêë¿|PöUñKéç û ùAêïKç õUëUí¸êóUöUçôéëUì/óUð éëWùù êïKç éçiùûþùüêëWéAó_òôû¸òôñPð

êëUé#éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçií¸ø
LïKû ùû ùôëUòKç2êïKéëWñKöUï êïPçñPùüçëUåaAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ¯Õ`=I"¸sç(°HKó_ìPìKí¸ûþçiô1õWçBéêû ðBó_íþíþøû¸òçióWðDï1ðBëUíþñKýúòë_å{êïKç êóDKíþç
Þ, .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
R L Total
6.3756 - j4.8071 3.6244 + j4.8071 10 + j0
E Volts
7.9847 ∠ -37.016o 6.0203 ∠ 52.984o 10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
ÿòô æû¸êï êïPó@ê «ëWñKé êó DKí¸çúû ùð ëWýúìKí¸çBêç LïKçç!KóUð êAùóUýúçIéñKíþçiù æèçó_ìKìKíþûþçiô û¸ò êïKçó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ëUåh±_
E = IZ E = IZ
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùóUìKìKíþøäêë¤ÿuð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùóWùæçií¸í{{æû¸êï êïKçðBó]õWçió@ê êïPó@êAóUí¸í8K[ñPóUò[êû¸êûþçiù ýAñùªêD!çéçBìKéçiùçBò[êçoô óUòPô

ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êçoôûþò1ðBëUýúìKíþ!ç éDó@êïKçBéèêïPó_òùðió_í ó_éå÷ëUéýaõëIíþëUòPöIóWùìPïPóUùç2ùïKû¸å¼êûþùèìKéëUì!çBéíþøéçiìKéçoùüçiò[êçiô û¸ò1ëUñPé
ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êûþëUò ù UêïKçiéçûþùòKëå÷ñPòPôKó_ýúçiòWêDó_í^ôû }!çiéçiòPð çû¸òïPë@ææèçóUìKìKéëWóWðDïDóUùûþðÿðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù#õWçBéDùüñù
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êí¸ø
éçBí ó@êç1êëéçoó_í v}íþûå÷çýúçióWùüñPéçiýIçiò[êùó_éç1êïKë[ùüçûþò ½ -ðÁÏ¿ Î Á Î Õ$òKëUêéçoð
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òKëUê ÞB ® Ü + Þ<¯ éçoó_íbéçið êóUòKöUñKí ó_Hé °ëUCé )$ ò , Ü n ¯÷ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéø éçoð
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êå÷ëWéý ë_åòKë_êDó@êûþëUò¤êïPóUò¤ìëWíþóUéûþò éçBí ó@êû¸ëWòêë éçoó_í v}æèëUéíþô1ýúçióWùüñPéçiýIçiò[êù 2ÿù ¸ùüêó_êçoö ô DçBå÷ëUéç ¸
æûþí¸í©û¸òôûþðió@êç DëUêï¤ì!ëUí ó_é2ó_òPôéçið êóUòKöUñKí ó_éå÷ëWéýùë_åçióWðDöï KWñó_ò[êû¸êªø ûþò¤ýø1ÿ ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êêD-ó DKíþçiùùüûþýúìKí¸ø1å÷ëWé
ð ëWònõUçBòPû¸çiòPð çë_åýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí7ðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëW(ò LïKû ù2ûþù2òKëUê-ó DPùëUíþñêçií¸øäòPçið çoùùó_éø 'DKñêýó]ø D!çIïPçBíþìå÷ñKí#å÷ëWé
êïPëWùçå÷ëWí¸íþë@æû¸òPöIóUí¸ëWòKöæû¸êïPëUñêêïPlç D!çBòP!ç |KêëUå«ó_òóUôõ@óUòPð çoô ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êëWé @¸å«æèç æçiéçéçoùªêéû ð
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êóUòPð çT¸êûþùèùüøný DëWí¸û&ÐBçoôÑD[øêïPçíþç êüêçBé=rçóUòPô
ýIçoóUùñKéçiôûþòëUïKýù?ªx ñPùüêí¸û&U ç éçiùûþùüêóUòPð çÑ¯Õo"° ó_òPô éçióUð êóUòPð çÑ¯åk°H
Ã ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiùp¯þçy° ó_éç7ýó_òPóUöUçiô8ªx ñPùüê{íþûW ç#éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçiùa¯Òo^° ûþòùüçiéûþçiù ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê{ó_òó_íþønùû ù ùçBéû¸çoù û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù
óUôKô êëäå÷ëUéý êïKç êë_êDó_íû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç
UñùªêD ç1ùüñKéçúêë ìçiéüå÷ëWéýµó_íþíðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPùûþòlðBëUýúìKíþç!:÷¯ òKëUê
ùðió_í ó_éH#° å÷ëWéý8ç q ! Iû#ç "_·ûç $·üCC7ç %
Ã ÿpìPñKéçií¸ø éçoùüû ùüêûþõUç2û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çæûþí¸í«ó_íþæèó]øùïPó]õUçóIìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç2ëUå«ç óWð
êí¸ø ,rq ¯{ç &:I¾o Ûß ,q °!
Ã ÿhìKñKéçBíþø ûþòPôñPð êûþõUçûþýúìçoôKó_òð çæûþí¸í©ó_íþæèó]øùïPó]õWç óúìPïPóUùçAó_òPöUíþç2ëUå#ç!K óUð êíþø·l* ,rq ¯{çJI " Û ß
* ,q °!
1Z¨('Z¨¼y©3©*)#)T/+)M3/7mZªm§CihäÕª6¬4<;=.§Cih .@ª6k.l;TªP§am Þn
Ã AïKý¹ ùC%«ó]æå÷ëUéÿð ûþéðBñKû¸êùp`:I¾¸sç½^Z¸CI `=ïçJ^$çMI¾`hï?¸
Ã ïKçBò éçiùû ùªêëUéDùAó_òôû¸òôñPð

êëUéDùAóUéçýúûçiôêëUöWç êïPçBéAûþòlðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù7êïPç êë_êóUíûþýúìçoôKó_òð ç æûþíþíïPó]õWç
ó Kì ïóUùçIóUòKöUíþçùëUýúçBæïPçBéç D!ç êªæèçBçiò ,q ó_òôM·l* ,q LïPçúðBû¸éDð ñPûêð ñKééçBò[ê2æûþíþí©ïó]õUçúó ìKïóUùçIóUòKöUíþç
ùüëWýIçiæïKçBéçlDçBêªæçiçBò ,q ó_òôv * ,rq
Ã õnçBéû¸çoùÿ²ðBû¸éDð ñPûêDù !ç ïKû&DKûêêïKç ùó_ýúçIå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiùóUùùçBéûþçiù_±_²ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êùð ñPééçBò[êûþù
ñKòKû¸å÷ëUéý êïKéëWñKöUïPëUñêêïKçðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êõUëWíêDó_öUçôKéëWìPùóUôPô1êëå÷ëWéý êïKçêë_êDó_í«õUëUí¸êóUöUçPó_òPôûþýúìçoôKó_òð çiù
óUôKô êëIå÷ëUéý êïKç êëUêóUí û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç
ÕÖ-, Û BÝ Û#ÝÞ©ßBÞbà7áAÛTÙ!ßRS¤ãÙèà©áAÛÚÙß Û#ÙãäßDà7Þ

.0/ 1/3242 52
%bçBê¹ ùêóUçêïKçùó_ýúçð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êùå÷ëUéëUñPéùçBéûþçiùç!KóUýIìPí¸çð ûþéDð ñKû¸êó_òPô1ð ëWòKòKçoð

êêïKçiý ûþòìPó_éDó_íþíþçBí{
Ú
³ 10 V R 5Ω L 10 mH
60 Hz
èçiðió_ñPùçêïKçì!ë@æçiéùëUñPéðBç2ïóUùèêïPçùóUýIç2å÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ø óWùèêïKçùçBéûþçiù!ç KóUýIìPí¸çð ûþéDð ñKû¸êKóUòPô êïKçéçiùûþùüêëWé

_ó òôäû¸òôñPð
êëUékD!ë_êï ïPó]õUçêïKçúùóUýúçAõ@ó_íþñKçiùë_åéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçó_òôäû¸òôñPð
êDó_òPðBç^éçiùìçoð
êûþõUçií¸ø!êïKçiøäýAñPùüê2óUíþùë
ïPó]õWçêïPç1ùó_ýúç1õ]óUí¸ñPçiùë_åûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçõë#æèç1ðió_òJD!çBöWû¸ò/ëUñKéóUòPó_íþøùüû ùêDó-DKíþç æû¸êï/êïPç1ùó_ýúç_öUûþõUçiò#
õ@ó_íþñKçiù
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
LïKç ëUòPí¸ø ôK~û }^çBéçBòPðBç û¸ò1ëUñKéóUòPó_íþøùüû ùêçoðDïKòKû KWñPçêïKû ùêûþýúçûþùèêïPó@êæèç2æûþíþí{ó_ìKìPí¸øêïKç éñPí¸çoùë_å«ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùû¸òPùüêçoóUôëUå©êïKçéñKíþçiùå÷ëWéùçBéû¸çoùð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùCLïKçAó_ìPìKéë[óUðDï1ûþùå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUí¸íþø êïKçùó_ýúçóWùå÷ëUél±k"
ç"nòKë@æêïó@êõUëUí¸êóUöUçû ùèùüïPóUéçoôúñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýúí¸øÑDnøó_íþí!ðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êDùîûþò óAìPó_éDó_íþí¸çiíðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ênùëAæèçðBóUòêéDó_òùªå÷çié
êïPçk|PöUñKéç ë_å«êë_êDó_íbõWëUí¸êóUöUçÑ¯ n, õWëUí¸êù ß ,q °êëó_íþíbð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êùðBëUíþñKýúòPù
ÞÓ .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Gë@ælæçðBóUòó_ìPìKí¸øÑAïKý¹ ù0%{ó]æ¯å¸sIl`=ïçy°{õUçBéêû ðBóUí¸íþø2êë2êªæèë2ðBëUíþñKýúòPù©ë_åPêïKçèêóDKí¸çUðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êûþòKö ð ñKééçBò[ê

Etotal = ER = EL
êïPéëWñKöUï êïKçéçiùû ùªêëUéó_òPô1ð ñPééçBò[êêïKéëUñPöUï êïKçûþòPôñPð êëWé

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 2.6526 ∠ -90o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=

WñPùªêóWùæûê¿
ï ±kpðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù BDKéDó_òðDïðBñKééçiòWêDùû¸òäóúìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíbÿpðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êóUôPô êëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêëUêóUí{ð ñKééçBò[ê
Z Z
¯Õó ûþéDðDïKïKë-}C¹ ùñKééçiòWê3%«ó]æpùüêûþí¸íbïPëUí ôKùèêéñKç2å÷ëUéÿcóUùû¸êôû ô å÷ëWé3±kh°!

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526 2 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 2.6526 ∠ -90o 3.3221 ∠ -52.984o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
©ñ û¸òó_íþí¸øPêë_êóUí«ûþýúìçoôKó_òð çðió_òöD!çðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiôöDnø1ñPùüûþòKööAïKý¹ ù"%{ó]æü¯{ç(Il`hï?¸°õWçBéêû ðBóUí¸íþø ûþòäêïKç L{ëv

Itotal = IR + IL
êóUí& ð ëWí¸ñKýúò(_¸ òð û ôçBò[êóUí¸íþø^ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí©ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçIðió_ò óUíþùëXD!çIðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiôöDnøäñPùûþòKö ó éçoð ûþìKéënðió_í{å÷ëUéýAñKí ó

1Z¨('Z¨¼y©3©*)#)T/+)M3/7mZªm§CihäÕª6¬4<;=.§Cih .@ª6k.l;TªP§am Þ®
û ôçBò[êû ðBóUí^êëúêïPó@êñPùçiô ûþòðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸òPöIìó_éDó_íþí¸çií!éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçiù
èZ =
1
parallel
1 6 1 6 1
èZ + èZ + . . . èZ
LïKçëUòKíþø ìKéë DKíþçBýeæûêïAñPùûþòKöêïKûþù«å÷ëWéýñKíþóûþù«êïó@ê«û¸ê©êªø[ìPûþðió_íþí¸ø ûþò[õWëUíþõUçoù{óíþë_ê©ë_åðió_í ð ñKí ó@êëUéTUçBøùüêéëWçiù
1 2 n
êëðió_ééøëWñêèÿòPô1û¸å#øUëUñb¹ éçôç êçBéýIûþòKçoô êëéñPò êïKéëUñKöWï1óIå÷ëWéýñKíþóIíþûWç êïKû ù3Uí¸ëWòKöUïPóUòPôy DçìKéçBìó_éçiô

å÷ëUé ó õUçBéøíþóUéöWçAó_ýúëWñKò[ê2ëUåîæëWsé k èñê NxªñPùüêóUùæûêïE±_hðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù^æçIë_å¼êçBò ïPó]õUçýAñKí¸êûþìKíþçëWìêûþëUòPù2ûþò
ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êûþòKöIêïPç K[ñPó_ò[êû¸êûþçiùû¸òäëWñKéó_òPóUí¸øùûþùèêDó-DKíþçiùóUòPô êïKû ùç óUýúìKí¸çû ùòPëôû~}^çBéçBò[ê7Gëýó_êüêçiéæïKû ðDï
æó]ø¤øUëWñ ðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçúêëUêó_íîû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð éç ¯þAïKý ¹ ù %{ó]æÄëUé êïKçéçið ûþìKéëðBó_í7å÷ëWéýñKí ó °H©øUëWñ æû¸íþíóUééû¸õWçIó_êêïPç
ùó_ýúlç |PöUñKéç
R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526 2 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 2.6526 ∠ -90o 3.322 ∠ -52.984o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 1.8122 + j2.4035
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 3.0102 ∠ 52.984o
Ohm’s Rule of parallel

Law or circuits:
1
Z= E Ztotal =
I 1 1
+
ZR ZL
Ã ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù ¯{çy° ó_éç¤ýó_òPóUöUçiô xªñùªêí¸&û Uç éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çiéù ¯Õo° û¸òpìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
¸û ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoùôûþýIûþòKû ùüïêëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêë_êóUíbûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçPñùüûþòKöúêïPçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í^å÷ëWéýñKíþó#+
WñPùªê"DçAùñKéç
êëäì!çBéå÷ëUéý ó_íþíîðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù û¸òðBëUýúìKíþç!ã¯ òKë_êIùðió_í ó_éH°å÷ëWéýöç q-! I n ïZ¯ n ïç#"· n ïç$X·Qéé
n ïç%N°
Ã AïKý¹ ùC%«ó]æå÷ëUéÿð ûþéðBñKû¸êùp`:I¾¸sç½^Z¸CI `=ïçJ^$çMI¾`hï?¸
Ã ïKçBòéçiùû ùªêëUéDùîó_òôúû¸òPôKñPð
êëUéDùóUéçýúûçiôêëUöWç êïPçBéîûþòìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí!ð ûþéðBñKû¸êùl¯âxªñPùüêóWùîûþò ùçBéû¸çoùîðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù°H
êïKç êë_êDó_íèû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç æû¸íþíèïPó]õUç ó ìKïPóWùüç óUòKöUíþç ùëUýúçBæïPçBéçD çBêªæçiçBò ,rq óUòPô½·l* r, q ELïKç1ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ð ñKééçiò[êèæûþí¸í{ïPó]õUçóIìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç ùëUýúçiæïKçBéç"!D ç êªæèçBçiò , q ó_òPôXv * , q
Ã ÷#ó_éDó_íþí¸çií[ÿ ð ûþéðBñKûêDù#ç!ïKû&DKû¸ê7êïKçùó_ýúçèå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíKìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiù7óUù7ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíZ±_ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêDù «õUëUí¸êóUöUçèûþù
ñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýhêïKéëUñPöUïKëWñê7êïKçð ûþéDð ñKû¸êDKéóUòPðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù#óUôKôAêë2å÷ëWéýhêïKçêëUêóUíKð ñKééçiò[êUóUòPôAûþýúìçoôKó_òð çiù
ôû¸ýúûþòKû ùüï«¼¯ êïKéëUñKöWï êïKçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í!å÷ëUéýAñPíþór°êëIå÷ëUéýxêïKç êë_êDó_íbûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBç
Þ-) .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
ÕÖ87 9(RS¤ãÙèà7áAÛ;: ãäßBÛ1<Þ
¸ òäó_ò1ûþôKçió_í«ðBóUùçóUò1ûþòPôñð
êëWéóUð êùóUùóIìKñPéçií¸ø éçoóUð
êû¸õWç2ôKçBõnûþðBçpLïPó_êûþùKû¸êùëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëÿcð ñKééçBò[ê
û ùùªêéû ð
êí¸Xø DPóUùçiô ëUòûþòPôñPð êûþõUçéçióUð êûþëUò êëðDïPóUòKöUçoùûþòäð ñKééçBò[êKóUòPô1òKë_êçBíþçið êéëUò å÷éû ð
êû¸ëWòäóUùû ùêïKçðióUùç
æû¸êïäéçiùûþùüêûþõUçðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êD ù h¶ë@æèçBõWçBé û¸òPôKñPð
êëUéDùó_éçòKë_êlKWñPûêçAùüëìPñKéçûþòêïPçBûþééçióUð êûþõUçkD!çBïPó]õnûþëUé7L«ë
D!çBöUûþò æû¸ê(ï êïKçi'ø ¹ éç ýóUôç ë_åæûþéç ó_òPô æ< ç [òPë@ækêïPó@êó_íþíèæû¸éçì!ëWùùüçoùùçiùùüëWýIç ýúçióUùñKéD-ó DKíþç óUýIëWñKò[ê
ë_åéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç ¯÷ñKòKíþçiùùû¸ê ¹ ù1ùüñKì!çBéDð ëWòPôñPð êûþòKö æûþé?ç °H LïKû <ù DKñKûþísê v}ûþòéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç¤óWð
êù óUùêïKëWñKöUïû¸ê æèçBéç
ð ëWòKòKçoð
êçoô ûþòäùüçiéûþçiùæû¸êï1êïKçìçiéüå÷çoð
êûþòPôñPð êóUòPð çëUå{êïPçð ëUûþ{í í¸&û Uç êïKûþù
Equivalent circuit for a real inductor
=
Wire resistance
R
Ideal inductor
eL
ëUòùüç KWñPçBò[êíþø êïKç û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç ë_åóUònø/éçióUíûþòPôñPð êëWé1æûþíþí óUí¸æó]øù²D!ç ó/ð ëWýIìPí¸ç ðBëUý DKû¸òó@êûþëUòcë_å
é çiùûþùüêóUòPð ç ó_òPô1ûþòPôñPð êûþõUçéçióWð
êóUòPð ç
ëUýúì!ëUñKòôû¸òPö êïKûþù ìPéëDKí¸çiýûþù ùëUýúç êïKûþòKö1ðió_íþí¸çoô¤êïKç]Ö?>½A@ »!Î bæïKû ðDï û ùÿ"¹ ùêçBòPôKçBòPðBøäêë]
Pë@æ
êïPéëWñKöUïcêïKç ëUñêçBéäó_éçióWù ëUåóð ëUòôñPð
êëUé¹ ù1ð éëWùùvùçið êûþëUòéDó@êïPçBé êïPóUòcêïKéëWñKöUïêïKç ýúûþôPôí¸ç ïKçiò
çBíþçið êéëUòP"ù
Pë@ækû¸ò óùüûþòKöWí¸çôûþéçoð
êû¸ëWò¯Õ±_h°H{êïKçiø¤ñPùçIêïKçúçBò[êû¸éçð éëWùù6v ùüçoð
êû¸ëWòPó_í7ó_éçió ë_åîêïKçð ëWòPôñPð êëWé
êë ýIë@õWç `íþçið êéëUòPùùæû¸êðDïKûþòKö ôûþéçið
êû¸ëWòPùëUå=
ë@æ_«ëWò êïKç ë_êïPçBéïPóUòPôy©êçiòPô êë ó]õUëWûþô êéDó]õUçií#êïKéëUñPöUï
êïPçõUçiéø ýIû ôKôíþçëUå#ó ð ëUòôñPð
êëUé Kíþû¸ýúû¸êûþòKöêïPç!ç }^çið êûþõUçAðBéë[ùù vùçið êûþëUòPóUí ó_éçióó]õ@ó_ûþíþó DKíþç 7LïPçAù nûþòä!ç }^çið ê
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øR = (RDC)(k)
a
f
AC
Where,
øR c
= AC resistance at given frequency "f"
AC
øR = Resistance at zero frequency (DC)
DC
b =
k = Wire gage factor (see table below)
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êëUéå÷ëWéõ]óUéûþëUñùéëUñPòPô
f = Frequency of AC in MHz (MegaHertz)
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d eZ g Z fgZ#B
hhhNhhhhhNhhhhhNhhhNhNhhNhhh
i NrNNNNrNN ?¥ =¢¦
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i NrNNNNrNN §N§p¢
¥ NNNNrNNNNrN N¤p¢§
NNNNrNNNNrN ¦N¦p¢¦
NNNNrNNNNrN B£p¢¤
§ NNNNrNNNNrN ¡7¢§
? NNNrNNNNrN ¥ £p¢
NNNrNNNNrN £p¢
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øR = (R )(k) af
AC DC
øR = (25 Ω)(27.6) 10
AC
øR j
= 2.182 kΩ
AC
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uvoltage slope = 0 uvoltage slope = max. (+)

tcurrent = 0 tcurrent = max. (+)
e=
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Time
tcurrent
voltage slope = 0
=0
tcurrent
voltage slope = max. (-)
= max. (-)
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e=
i=
+ p=
F
Time
-
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êëUéð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê @êïK3ç * , ôçiöUéçBçèìKïPóWùüçùïKûå¼pê D!ç êªæèçBçiòúõUëUí¸êóUöUçó_òPôIð ñPééçBò[ê#éçoùüñPíêDù
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óUðBéë[ùù©êïKçéçiùû ùªêëUéîóUòPôIêïKçéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç-ë }^çBéçiô DnøêïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUé _êïKçÿ ð ñPééçBò[ê#êïPéëWñKöUïóðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWé#ûþùó
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õnûþòPð çðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWék
ù UðBëUòPôKñPð
ê äð ñKééçiò[ê ûþò ìKéëUì!ëUéêûþëUò êëäêïKçéó_êçëUåèõWëUí¸êó_öWçIðDïó_òKöWç bêïKçBø æû¸íþíîìóUùù
ýúëUéçAð ñPééçBò[êå÷ëWéå óWùªêçBsé vðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöúõUëWíêDó_öWçiù ¯=óUùêïKçiøðDïó_éöUçó_òô¤ôû ùðDïPóUéöWç êë êïKçIùóUýIçAõUëUí¸êóUöUçì!çió ù
ûþò íþçiùù2êûþýúç °H©ó_òPô í¸çoùùðBñKééçiòWê2å÷ëUéùíþë@æçié v ðDïPó_òPöUûþòKöõUëWíêDó_öUço ù ïPó@ê êïPûþùýúçoó_òPù2û ù2êïPó_ê éçióWð
êDó_òPðBçûþò
ëUïPýúùèå÷ëWéó_ònø ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUéû _ù ÏÖ! ðÝÂ2ìKéëUì!ëUéêûþëUòPóUíêëúêïKç å÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ø ë_å{êïKçó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöð ñPééçBò[ê
L 1
XC = j
2πfC
B?NãZ ý #N?B=
NB#?jsBrZ' BN#?BH- g
¥ 8¢¦ ¥ ¦N§
?¥N ¡8¢ ¥ ¥ ¤
¥ ¦ N ¢ r¡N N
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êëUéDùëUìBv
ì!ëWùçå óUùüêçiéèðDïó_òKöWû¸òKöð ñKééçiò[êùpnD øúìKéëôñPð ûþòKööUéçió@êçBéõWëUí¸êóUöUçôéëUìù n^ ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéDùëUìPìë[ùüçå óUùüêçBéèðDïPó_òPöUûþòKö
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éçióUð êóUòPð ç]÷¯ ûþò ëWïKýù°!Nªx ñPùªêóUù ÿëWé_±keðBñKééçiòWê ûþò ó1ùüûþýúìKí¸çIéçiùûþùüêûþõUçIð ûþéðBñKûê û ùç[K ñPó_í©êë êïPçIõWëUí¸êóUöUç
÷¯ ûþòõUëWíêDùè° ôûþõnûþôçoô][D øêïKçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç²¯ û¸òëUïPýúù°H
'Z¨ gB¨©.æ.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ü®

³ 10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz
XC = 26.5258 Ω
µI = E
L
X
10 V
I=
26.5258 Ω
º
¶ë@æèçBõWçBé _æèçòKçiçiôúê ë UçiçBìûþòýúû¸òôúêïPó_êõWëUí¸êó_öWçó_òôð ñKééçiò[êó_éçòKëUêûþòìKïPóWùüçïKçBéç7ÿùæèóWùîùïKë@æò
I = 0.3770 A
çióUéíþûþçBéUêïKç2ðBñKééçiòWêèïPóUùèóìKïPóUùçùïKû¸å¼êë_å@·l* , æûêï éçiùìçoð
êèêëAêïKç õUëWíêDó_öWçb¸å©æçéçiìKéçiùçBò[êîêïKçiùçìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçiùëUåõUëWíêDó_öUçóUòPô ðBñKééçBò[êIýúó_êïKçiýó@êû ðBóUí¸íþø7æèç ðió_ò ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êç êïKç ìKïPóWùüç1ó_òKöWí¸çëUåêïKç1ûþòPôñPð êëUé¹ ù
éçióUð êûþõUç2ëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò êëð ñPééçBò[ê
Voltage
Opposition =
Current
10 V ∠ 0o
Opposition = º
0.3770 A ∠ 90o
j
Opposition = 26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o
For a capacitor:
À
90o -90o
º
0o
E Opposition
z¤ó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø iæçîùó]øêïPó@êbêïKçìKïóUùçó_òKöWí¸ç#ëUånóðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUé ¹ ù^ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò2êëð ñPééçBò[êbû ù vþ* ,q ]ýúçióUòKûþòKö

(XC)
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êû¸õWç
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ðBñKééçiòWê Dçoð ëWýIçoùúð éûêûþðió_íþí¸ø ûþýIì!ëUéêóUò[êIûþò/ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êó_òPóUí¸øùûþù #çiùìçoð û ó_íþí¸ø å÷ëWéúðBëUýúìKíþ!ç ÿ
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ìKïPóUùç!v ùïKûå¼êçiôùüêëWéóUöUçó_òôéçií¸çoóUùçë_åbçiòKçBéöUøû¸ò ûêDùîçií¸çoð
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Ã èó_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUç2éçoóUð
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ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êù@Gë@æ æèçèæûþíþíKð ëUý DKûþòKçîêïKçèêªæë ð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êù©êëUöWç êïPçBé7û¸òúùçBéû¸çoù{å÷ëWéý²óUòPôû¸ònõUçoùªêû¸ö[ó@êçîêïKçç!}^çið
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øR
Ú
5Ω

³ 10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz
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æûþí¸í«ë-}^çBé"ÓÞB + Ó + ò Û ëUå©éçióWð
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ç K[ñPóUíêëäêïKç1ð ëWýIìPí¸ ç ùñKýµë_åêïPçêªæèë¤ònñK ý D!çBéD ù ¿LïPçêçiéý å÷ëUéAêïKû ùIð ëUýúìKíþ!ç ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êë ð ñKééçBò[ê
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éçióUð êóUòPð ç @¸ ò êïPç-ó D!ë@õUç2!ç Kó_ýúìKíþç êïKç êëUêóUíbð ûþéðBñKûêûþýúìçoôKó_òð ç ûþù
Ztotal = (5 Ω resistance) + (26.5258 Ω capacitive reactance)
Ú
Ztotal = 5 Ω (R) + 26.5258 Ω (XC)
èZ = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o)
total
or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 - j26.5258 Ω)
èZ = 5 - j26.5258 Ω or
j
26.993 Ω ∠ -79.325o
total
'Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäs.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ü+
¸ ýúìçoôKó_òð çû ùéçBí ó@êçoô êëäõUëWíêDó_öWçúóUòPôð ñPééçBò[êCxªñPùüêóUùøUëUñ ýúûþöUï[êAç!ì!çið ê©û¸ò óýó_òPòKçBéAùûþýIûþí ó_éêë
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û¸òéAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ_
Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:
ê ë E ì E
E = IZ I= ì Z= ë
Z I
í
All quantities expressed in
¸ òYå óUð ê êïKûþù û ù ó å óUé ýúëUéç¤ð ëWýIìPéçiïKçBòPùûþõUçå÷ëUéý ë_ å AïKý ¹ Xù %{ó]æ êïó_òæïPó_ê æóUùúêDó_ñKöWïWê û¸òæ±_
complex, not scalar, form
Bç íþçið êéëUòKû ðBù ¯Õ`hI"¸6o°HxªñPùªêóUùû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çûþùóå óUéýúëUéçAð ëWýúìKéçiïKçBòùüûþõUçç nìPéçoùùû¸ëWòë_åëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêëêïPç
Pë@æëUåçBíþçið
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êóUòPð çùüçiìPó_éDó@êçBíþø/ëWé ûþò
ð ëWýDKûþòPó_êûþëUòM¯ ùçBéû¸çoùï@ìPó_éDó_íþí¸çií °![ðió_ò]DçóUòPôùüïPëUñKí ôXD!çéçBìKéçiùçBò[êçoô óWùóúùüûþòKöUíþç û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç
L«ëðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçð ñKééçBò[êû¸ò êïPç -ó D!ë@õUçúð ûþéðBñKû¸ê ©æ
ç |PéDùªêòPçBçiô êëäöUûþõUçó1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçúéçBå÷çBéçBòPðBçå÷ëWéêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWçùëUñKéDð ç [æïPûþðDï1ûþùèöWçBòKçiéóUí¸íþøóUùùüñPýIçoôêë D!_ç ÐBçié$ë =¯ÒLïKç ìKïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çoùîëUå«éçiùûþùüêûþõUç ó_òô ðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçIóUé<ç Á-ð \ ÁÂ?Ö ,q óUòPô v * ,rq ^éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçBíþø ^éçBö[ó_éDôí¸çoùùë_å#êïPçöWû¸õWçBò¤ìKïóUùçó_òPöUíþçiùå÷ëWéõWëUí¸êóUöUçëWé
ð ñPééçBò[ê °!
E
I=
Z
10 V ∠ 0o
I=
26.933 Ω ∠ -79.325o
I = 370.5 mA ∠ 79.325o
ÿù©æû¸êïIêïPçèìPñKéçií¸øðió_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUçð ûþéðBñKû¸ê@êïKçð ñKééçiò[ê©æó]õUçûþù©íþçióUôKû¸òKöêïPçõUëUí¸êóUöUçæèó]õWç"¯÷ëUåPêïKçùüëWñKéðBç°!
ó_í¸êïPëUñKöWï êïKûþùêûþýIç êïKçôû}!çiéçiòPð ç û ù"Ü*# ® Ó +q ûþòPùªêçióWô ëUå©óå÷ñKíþíT* ,q
phase shift =
79.325 degrees
e=
+ i=
Time
-
ÿùæèçíþçió_éòKçoôúû¸òêïKç ÿ /û¸òPôKñPð
êDó_òPðBçðDïPóUìêçiéWêïKçl@êDó-DKíþçAýIçBêïKëôëUåbëUéöWóUòKûÐiû¸òPöð ûþéðBñKûêhK[ñPó_ò[êû¸êûþçiù
û ùóúõUçiéø ñPùç å÷ñKí{êënëUí å÷ëWéÿcó_òPóUí¸øùûþùaxªñPùªê2óUùû¸êû ùå÷ëUél±kpóUòPó_íþøùüû ù =%bçBê¹ ùìKí óUðBçëUñênòKë@æò]|PöWñKéçiùå÷ëWé
êïPûþùùçBéûþçiùð ûþéðBñKû¸êû¸ò[êëóêóDKíþçó_òPô1ð ëWòWêû¸ònñKç êïKçó_òó_íþønùû ùñùüûþòKöIêïKû ùêë[ëWíÒ
ÜÞ .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/×©"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
ñKééçiò[ê«ûþòó2ùüçiéûþçiù©ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê©û ù7ùüïPóUéçoôçK[ñPóUí¸íþø_Dnøó_íþíð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù_ùüëêïKç=|PöWñKéçoù{ìPíþóWð çiôAû¸òAêïKçCL{ëUêó_í
ð ëWí¸ñPýIò1å÷ëWéð ñKééçiò[êðió_òDçôKûþùüêéûDPñêçoô êëó_íþí ë_êïPçBéð ëWí¸ñPýIòùóUùæèçBíþíÒ
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
Rule of series
circuits:
ëUò[êû¸ònñKûþòKöæû¸êïäëUñPéó_òPóUí¸øùûþùKæèçðBóUòóUìKìKíþøöAïPý]¹ ù3%«ó]æ¯Ò`=I"¸6o°õWçBéêû ðBóUí¸íþøêë ôç êçBéýIûþòKçõWëUí¸êóUöUç

Itotal = IR = IC
óUðBéë[ùùêïKçéçoùüû ùüêëUéóUòPô ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWé

R C Total
343.11m + j1.8203 9.6569 - j1.8203 10 + j0
E Volts
1.8523 ∠ 79.325o 9.8269 ∠ -10.675o 10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
GëUêû ð çïPë@ælêïKçõWëUí¸êó_öWçóUðBéë[ùù©êïKçéçiùûþùüêëWé#ïPóUùêïKç!ç KóUð êîùóUýúçìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçóUùêïKçð ñKééçiò[êêïKéëUñPöUï

E = IZ E = IZ
¸û êKêçBíþí¸ûþòKöñùêïPó_ê"`ó_òô<¸ó_éçûþò1ìPïPóUùç¯¼å÷ëWéêïPçéçoùüû ùªêëUéëWòKí¸øB°!7LïKçõWëUí¸êóUöUçóUðBéë[ùùêïPçAðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéïPóWù

óúìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþç ë_å@v n, ÞrÜ + q Pç!KóWð
êíþøX* , q ð!ÖÖêïPóUòêïKçìPïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çëUå«êïKçð ûþéðBñKû¸êð ñKééçiò[êpLïKû ùêçií¸í ùñPù
êïó@êêïPçðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWé¹ ùèõUëWíêDó_öUç ó_òô ðBñKééçBò[êó_éç ùªêû¸íþíb* ,rq ëUñêëUå«ìKïPóWùüç æû¸êïçióWðDï ëUêïKçié
%bçBê ¹ ùðDïKçið ëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPùèæûêö
ï õB÷p¸s=`3
'Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäs.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am ÜÜ
øR
1
Ú 2
5Ω

³ 10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz
0 0
# Z?$?y?
ú æ æ#2? g
(æ¥ ¦
#½¥û?N-
¢ # ù ü
¢þý 'Zæ# ú ?yÿs¥$ ú ¥aÿs$:( ú
¢þý 'Zæ# ú ý ?ÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ$× ý ú
¢ Z
rB ú ?ÿ¥$ ú ¥$ ( ú
8¢ rN Z' ¢§r¦ ¥ Zr ¤p¢§ ¥ £ ZN ¡8¢£ ¦
rB ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥$ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' £8¢¤r¡N¡ Z' ¢ N£ N ¢ N £ ZN¥
É = 1.852 V ∠ 79.33o
R
EC = 9.827 V ∠ -10.67o
I = 370.5 mA ∠ -100.7o
AòPðBçó_ö[ó_ûþò(ZõZ÷p¸s=`ð ëWòå÷ñPùû¸òKöWí¸øúìKéûþòWêDùêïKçð ñPééçBò[êìPïPóUùçóUòKöUíþç2ó_êóAõ@ó_íþñKççK[ñPó_í!êëêïPçéçióUí!ìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçAìKíþñPù n ò , q ¯ ëUé2ýIûþònñPù n ò , q °!k¶ ë@æçiõUçié! ûê¹ ù ó ùüûþýúìKí¸çIýó@êêçBé2êë ð ëWééçið êêïKûþù"P| öWñKéçó_òô¤ðDïKçið1 êë
ùçBçû¸å{ëWñKéîæèëUé û ùèð ëUééçið
êb¸ ò êïKû ùðióUùçW êïKç"v n,, âÜ q ëUñêìKñê=[D øõZ÷8¸s=`å÷ëWéð ñPééçBò[êìPïPóUùçó_òPöUíþçç[K ñPó_êçoù
êëóúì!ëWùûêû¸õWçÜ*B ®q P æïKûþðDïäôënçoùð ëUééçiùìëWòPôêëIëWñKéìKéçBõnûþëUñPùí¸øðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiô<P| öWñKéç2ë_å8Ü*# ® Ó +q
ÿö[ó_ûþò(! ûê ýAñPùüê"!D çAçiýúìKïPóUùû&BÐ çiôäêïPó_êêïKçðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiôP| öWñKéçiùðBëUééçoùüì!ëUòôû¸òPöúêë éçióUí~v íþûå÷çõUëUí¸êóUöUçóUòPô
ð ñPééçBò[êýúçióWùüñKéçBýúçiòWêDùAóUéçúêïKëWùçûþò ½ -ðÁÏ å÷ëWéý7 òKëUêAéçoð
êDó_òKöWñKíþóUéå÷ëUéý¿Kñ ëWéç!K ó_ýúìKíþç7 û¸åæç æçiéçúêë
óUð êñPóUí¸íþø²KD ñKûþí ôêïKûþùùçBéûþçiùèéçoùüû ùüêëUésv ðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéîð ûþéDð ñKû¸êó_òPô ýIçoóUùñKéçõWëUí¸êó_öWçóWð éëWùùêïKç éçoùüû ùªêëUéW ëWñKéõUëWíêsv
ýúç êçBé©æëWñKíþôû¸òPôKûþðió@êçõWëUí¸êùo òPë_ê ® ) ® nn ýúû¸íþí¸ûþõUëWíêDù7¯ éçoó_í[éçoð
êDó_òKöWñKíþóUé° ëUé n òrÓ ,® õUëWíêDù8÷¯ ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéø
éçið
êDó_òKöWñKí ó_éH°Hko çióUí©ûþòPùüêéñKýúçBò[êù ðBëUòKòKçoð
êçiôêë éçióUí©ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù2ìKéë@õnûþôKçû¸òôûþðió@êû¸ëWòPù ð ëUééçiùìëWòPôûþòKöêë êïPç
õUçoð
êëUéèí¸çiòKö_êïE÷¯ ýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKç° ë_åbêïKç ðBó_í ð ñPíþó_êçiôP| öUñPéçoù @ ïKûþí¸ç2êïPç2éçið êóUòKöUñKí ó_éîå÷ëUéýxë_å«ðBëUýúìKíþç! ònñKý!D çBé
òKëUêó@êû¸ëWò û ùñPùç å÷ñPíå÷ëUéì!çBéå÷ëUéýúû¸òPöóWôKôû¸êûþëUòó_òô ùñBD êéóWð
êû¸ëWò(b û¸êAûþùAó ýúëWéçó-D ùªêéóWð
ê å÷ëUéýÚëUåèòKëUêó_êûþëUò
êïó_òìëWíþóUén æïKû ðDïäó_íþëUòKç ïPóWùôûþéçoð
êð ëWééçiùìëWòPôçiòPð çêëúêéñKç ýúçióWùüñPéçiýIçiò[êù
ÃË ¼½ ÌÁ- » û ù2êïKçúêë_êDó_í#ýúçióWùüñKéçIë_åëWìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êë1çií¸çoð
êéû ðúð ñKééçiò[êóUòPô ûþù2êïKçð ëWýIìPí¸ç ÷¯ õWçið
êëUéH°
ùüñKý ë_åC¯Õ_ éçióUí&r° éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç2óUòPôM¯Õ_ ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéøZr#° éçióUð êóUòPð ç
Üò .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/×©"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
Ã ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiùp¯þçy° ó_éç7ýó_òPóUöUçiô8xªñPùüê{íþûWç#éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçiùa¯Òo°^ûþòùüçiéûþçiù ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê{ó_òó_íþønùû ù ùçBéû¸çoù û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù

óUôKô êëäå÷ëUéý êïKç êë_êDó_íû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç
UñùªêDç1ùüñKéçúêë ìçiéüå÷ëWéýµó_íþíðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPùûþòlðBëUýúìKíþç!:¯÷òKëUê
ùðió_í ó_éH#° å÷ëWéý8ç q! Iûç " ·ûç $ ·üCC7ç %
Ã ÷ íþçióUùçäòKëUêç¤êïPó@ê1û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù óUí¸æó]øùóUôKôû¸òcùçBéûþçiùèéçBö[ó_éDôíþçiùùë_åæïPó_ê êªønìç ë_åAðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êDù
ð ëUýúìKéû ùüçêïKçIû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù _L ïPó_ê2û ù ^ éçiùûþùüêûþõUçû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç^ û¸òPôKñPð
êû¸õWçûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçb óUòPô¤ðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç
û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çó_éç2êëÑ!D ç êéçió@êçiô êïPçùóUýIç æó]øýó@êïPçBýó@êûþðió_íþí¸ø
Ã ÿpìPñKéçií¸ø éçoùüû ùüêûþõUç2û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çæûþí¸í«ó_íþæèó]øùïPó]õUçóIìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç2ëUå«ç óWð
êí¸ø ,rq ¯{ç &:I¾o Ûß ,q °!
Ã ÿeìKñKéçBíþø ðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWçû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çæûþíþí«ó_íþæó]ønùèïPó]õWçóúìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþç ë_å#ç!K óUð êíþø²v * ,q ¯þç I¾ Ûß
vþ* ,q °H
Ã A ïKý¹ ùC«% ó]æå÷ëUéÿð ûþéðBñKû¸êùp`:I¾¸sç½^Z¸CI `=ïçJ^$çMI¾`hï?¸
Ã ïKçBòéçiùûþùüêëWéùó_òô1ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWéùó_éç2ýIû çiô êëWöUçBêïKçiéû¸òäð ûþéDð ñKû¸êù êïPç êë_êDó_íbûþýúìçoôKó_òð çæûþí¸íbïó]õUç ó
ìKïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸ç ùëUýúçBæïKçiéçk!D ç êªæèçBçiò ,rq óUòPô<vþ* ,q
Ã nõ çBéû¸çoùÿ²ðBû¸éDð ñPûêDù ç! ïKû&KD ûêêïKç ùó_ýúçIå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiùóUùùçBéûþçiù_±_²ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù ð ñPééçBò[êûþù
ñKòKû¸å÷ëUéý êïKéëWñKöUïPëUñêêïKçðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê õUëWíêDó_öUçôKéëWìPùóUôPô1êëå÷ëWéý êïKçêë_êDó_í«õUëUí¸êóUöUçP ó_òPôûþýúìçoôKó_òð çiù
óUôKô êëIå÷ëUéý êïKç êëUêóUí û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç
, -, Ö .0/Û1/3242BÝ52Û#ÝÞ©ßBÞbà7áAÛTÙÙP/3/Ùß
à©áAÛ Ùß Û#Ùãäß
à©Þ
GùûþòKöêïPçùó_ýúçõ@ó_íþñKçðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êDùûþòëUñKéèùüçiéûþçiù#ç Kó_ýúìKíþçð ûþéðBñKû¸ê[æçæûþíþíð ëWòKòKçoð
êîêïKçBýÄûþòìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíPóUòPô
ùçBç æïPó@êïó_ìKì!çBòPù
øR Ú5 Ω
100 µF
³ 10 V C
60 Hz
èçiðió_ñPùçêïKçì!ë@æçiéùëUñPéðBç2ïóUùèêïPçùóUýIç2å÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ø óWùèêïKçùçBéûþçiù!ç KóUýIìPí¸çð ûþéDð ñKû¸êKóUòPô êïKçéçiùûþùüêëWé

_ó òô ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéhD!ë_êï1ïPó]õWçêïPç ùó_ýúç2õ@ó_íþñKçiùèë_å©éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çóUòPô1ðBó_ìóUð û¸êóUòPð çnéçoùüì!çið êûþõUçBíþø[êïKçBøýñPùªêóUíþùë
ïPó]õWçêïPç1ùó_ýúç1õ]óUí¸ñPçiùë_åûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçõë#æèç1ðió_òJD!çBöWû¸ò/ëUñKéóUòPó_íþøùüû ùêDó-DKíþç æû¸êï/êïPç1ùó_ýúç_öUûþõUçiò#
õ@ó_íþñKçiù
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
LïKû Cù D!çBûþòKö óìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíbðBû¸éDð ñPûêòPë@æ_Pæèç_[òPë@æcêïPó@êõWëUí¸êóUöUç ûþùùüïó_éçiô1çK[ñPóUí¸íþøXDnøó_íþí{ð ëWýIì!ëUòPçBò[êùùë
æèç ðió_ò1ìKí óUð ç êïKçk|PöWñKéçå÷ëUéêë_êDó_í õWëUí¸êó_öWç¯ n, õUëWíêDù ß ,q °èû¸òó_íþí êïPçð ëUíþñKýúòPù
'Z¨('Z¨¼y©3©*)#)T/+)M3/7mZªm§Cihä.0©¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am Ü-*
R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Gë@ælæçðBóUòó_ìPìKí¸ø AïPý]¹ ùa%{ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïçy°bõWçBéêû ðBóUí¸íþø2êë2êªæë2ð ëWí¸ñKýúòPù7ûþòêïKçèêóDKí¸çUðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êûþòKö ð ñKééçBò[ê

Etotal = ER = EC
êïPéëWñKöUï êïKçéçiùû ùªêëUéó_òPô1ð ñPééçBò[êêïKéëUñPöUï êïKçðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUé

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 376.99m ∠ 90o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=

WñPùªê#óUù©æû¸êÑ
ï ±k ð ûþéðBñKû¸êù DKéóUòPðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù{ûþòúóìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíÿ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêóUôPôñKìêë2å÷ëUéýeêïPçêë_êDó_íð ñKééçBò[ê
Z Z
¯Õó ûþéDðDïKïKë-}C¹ ùñKééçiòWê3%«ó]æpó_ö[ó_ûþò$°H

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m 2 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 376.99m ∠ 90o 2.0352 ∠ 10.675o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
ñ©û¸òó_íþí¸ø @êëUêó_ínûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçðBó_òD!çðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiô DnøñPùüûþòKöAïKý¹ ùa%{ó]ææ¯þç(Il`=ï¸° õUçiéüêûþðió_íþí¸øûþòêïKç3L{ëUêó_í

Itotal = IR + IC
ð ëWí¸ñPýIòb©ÿù«æèçùó]æûþòêïKçÿ ûþòPôñPð êóUòPð çðDïPóUìêçié@ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí[ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçðió_òIó_í ùüë"DçðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êçoôDnøñPùû¸òPö

ò, .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/×©"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
óéçið ûþìKéëðBó_íå÷ëUéýAñKí óûþôKçBò[êû ðBóUí#êëäêïPó@êñPùüçoô û¸ò ðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸òPöäìPó_éDó_íþí¸çiíéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoù <¸êAûþùAòKë_êçBæèëUéêïnøäêë
ýúçBò[êûþëUò êïó@êêïPûþùìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí^ûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçéñPí¸ç ïKëWíþôKùêéñKçéçBö[ó_éDôíþçiùùë_å©êïPçlnûþòPô1ë_å©û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoùìKíþóWð çoô ûþò
ìPóUéóUí¸íþçB{í b¸ òIë_êïKçBé7æèëUéDôKù ]û¸êôënçiùò(¹ ê#ýó@êêçié#ûå!æç¹ éçèðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸òPö2ó2ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê#ðBëUýúì!ëWùçiôëUåPìPóUéóUí¸íþçBínéçiùûþùüêëWéù
ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí^ûþòPôñPð êëUéDùìPó_éDó_íþí¸çií ðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéùnëUéùëUýúçð ëUý DKûþòPó@êû¸ëWòêïPçBéçBë_å6#ûþò êïKç å÷ëWéý ëUå«ûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçiù¯þçy°H
ó_íþíêïPçêçBéýùó_éçð ëUýúýúëUòYó_òôðió_ãò Dç¤óUìKìKíþû¸çoôñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýIíþøêë êïKç¤ùó_ýúç1å÷ëUéýAñKí Bó æAòPðBçäó_öWóUû¸bò êïPç
ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí^ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç å÷ëUéýAñKí óIí¸ënë ùèíþû Wç êïKû ù
èZ =
1
parallel
1 1 1
+ + ...
LïKçëWòKíþø ôéDó]æCDPóUð êëñùüûþòKöúêïPûþùçK[ñPó_êûþëUòûþùêïKçIùüûþöUòPû~|ðió_ò[êó_ýúëWñKò[êë_å#æèëUé éçK[ñKûþéçoô êëæèëUé û¸ê
Z1 Z2 Zn
ëUñKê{çoùüì!çiðBûþóUí¸íþø æû¸êïPëUñêêïKç óUùùûþùüêóUòPð çúë_åóðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êëWéðBó_ìó-DKíþçúë_åýúóUòKûþìKñKí ó@êûþòKö¤ðBëUýúìKíþç!EK[ñPóUòWêûêû¸çoù
oçiöWó_éDôíþçiùù2ë_åïKë@æuæèçðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êçúêë_êDó_íûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçúå÷ëUéëWñKéìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê<¯ çBû¸êïKçiéAïKý¹ ù%{ó]æuëWéêïPç
éçið ûþìKéëðBó_í!å÷ëWéýñKíþór°Hæèç æû¸íþí{ó_ééû¸õWç2ó_êèêïKçùó_ýúçl|PöUñKéç
R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m 2 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 376.99m ∠ 90o 2.0352 ∠ 10.675o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 4.8284 - j910.14m
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 4.9135 ∠ -10.675o
Ohm’s or Rule of parallel

Law circuits:
E 1
Z= Ztotal =
I 1 1
+
ZR ZC
Ã ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù ¯{çy° ó_éç¤ýó_òPóUöUçiô xªñùªêí¸&û Uç éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çiéù ¯Õo° û¸òpìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
¸û ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoùôûþýIûþòKû ùüïêëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêë_êóUíbûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçPñùüûþòKöúêïPçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í^å÷ëWéýñKíþó#+
WñPùªê"DçAùñKéç
êëäì!çBéå÷ëUéý ó_íþíîðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù û¸òðBëUýúìKíþç!ã¯ òKë_êIùðió_í ó_éH°å÷ëWéýöç q-! I n ïZ¯ n ïç " · n ïç $ ·Qéé
n ïç % °
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êïKç1êëUêóUíû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çäæûþí¸íïó]õUçó ìPïPóUùçäó_òKöWí¸çäùëUýúçBæïKçié]ç D!ç êªæèçBçBò ,q óUòPJô v * ,rq :LïKçäð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ð ñKééçiò[êèæûþí¸í{ïPó]õUçóIìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç ùëUýúçiæïKçBé"ç D!ç êªæèçBçiò ,q ó_òPöô ·l* ,rq
Ã ÷#ó_éDó_íþí¸çií[ ÿ ð ûþéðBñKûêDù#!ç ïK&û DKû¸ê7êïKçùó_ýúçèå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíKìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiù7óUù7ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBZí ±_ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêD ù «õUëUí¸êóUöUçèûþù
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ôû¸ýúûþòKû ùü«ï ¯¼êïKéëUñKöWï êïKçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í!å÷ëUéýAñPíþró °êëIå÷ëUéýxêïKç êë_êDó_íbûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBç
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B#N N NrNNNNrNNNNrN ZgZ g[g
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ù g r ' ù Q? N ù
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±û¸çií¸çoð
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ðBóUìPóUðBûêDó_òPðBç
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Equivalent circuit for a real capacitor
Rseries
tcapacitor
Ideal Rparallel
ñKëWéüêñKòPó_êçBíþø [êïKçiùçùªêéó]øúéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoùèóUéç2ñPùñPó_íþíþøë_å«ýúëôçoùªêûþýIìóUð

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ùïKëUñKí ô òKçBõWçB_é D!çñPùçiô æûêï ÿ hñPòKí¸çoùùûêû ùýú~û ço:ô ¯åDKû óUùçi#ô °2æû¸êïóäðBëUòPùüêóUòWê ±_uõUëUí¸êóUöUçIìKéçBõUçiò[êûþòKö
êïPç2ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUéîå÷éëWýxçBõWçB8é D!çBûþòKöúùü#ñ DZxªçið êçiôêëIéçiõUçiéùçõUëWíêDó_öWç T`îõUçiòêïKçi(ò nêïPçBûþéèéçiùû ùªêû¸õWçðDïPó_éDóUð êçiéû ùªêûþðiù
ýó]ø D!ç êënëùüçiõUçBéç óùüïKëWéüêDð ëWýIûþòKöå÷ëUéêïKçó_ìKìPí¸û ðBó_êûþëUòó_ònønæèó]ø
k lnmpoWqsrut
w x y z { y | z x y | }
~ x } y | z x w y | } z
úÖi×
7 Ø ÝÛßBÝÞ W¡s¢£¡/RS P
%bçBê¹ ùêóUçêïKç å÷ëWí¸íþë@æûþòKöúç!Kó_ýúìKíþçð ûþéðBñKûêóUòPô1ó_òPóUí¸øNÐBç û¸ê
øR
250 Ω
³
³ V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz
C
1.5 µF
LïKçl|PéDùªêùüêçiì û ùêëúôKç êçiéýúûþòKç êïPçéçoóUð

êDó_òPðBçiùk¯÷ûþòëUïKýù°å÷ëUéêïKçû¸òôñPð
êëUéóUòPôêïKçðBóUìPóUðBûêëUé
ò®
ò-) .0»"©¼§0/8]Br¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/×©"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/:9¥¤)¦¤#©¬"4 .
L
XL = 2πfL
L
XL = (2)(π)(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XL = 245.04 Ω
1
XC =
2πfC
L 1
XC =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)
LïKçòPç!nêIùüêçiì ûþùAêë ç!ìKéçiùùAó_íþíîéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçiùóUòPôéçióUð êóUòPð çoùû¸ò/óäýó@êïPçBýó@êûþðió_íþí¸ø ð ëWýIýúëWò å÷ëUéý]

XC = 1.7684 kΩ
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçCo çBýúçiýD!çBéêïPó@êóUòäû¸òôñPð
êû¸õWçéçióUð êóUòPð ç2êéDó_òùüí ó@êçiùûþò[êëóúì!ëWùûêû¸õWçû¸ýóUöUûþòPó_éøûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç
¯÷ëWé óUòûþýúìçoôKó_òð ç/ó_êM·l* ,rq °H æïKû¸íþçlóðió_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUçéçióWð
êóUòPð ç êéóUòPùíþó_êçiù¤û¸ò[êëpóòKçBö[ó@êû¸õWçû¸ýó_öWû¸òó_éø
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç÷¯ ûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçó_êpvþ* , q °!0o çiùûþùüêóUòPð çU ë_åbðBëUñKéDùüçU û ùîùüêûþí¸íéçiöWóUéôçoôóWùîó ìKñPéçií¸øÑ_ éçióUí&2 ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç
÷¯ ì!ëUí ó_éóUòKöUíþç ë_å ,q °!
ZR = 250 + j0 Ω or 250 Ω ∠ 0o
èZ = 0 + j245.04 Ω or 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o

L
èZ = 0 - j1.7684k Ω or 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o

C
ZR
250 Ω ∠ 0o
³ V
120 ZL 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
60 Hz èZ
C
1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
Gë@_ æ ]æû¸êïúó_íþrí K[ñPóUò[êû¸êûþçiù«ë_åPëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë2çBíþçið
êéû ðîðBñKééçiòWê©ç!ìKéçiùùüçoôûþòóðBëUýúýúëUò(_ðBëUýúìKíþç!ònñKýD!çBé
å÷ëUéýó@ê_¯ óWùû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù KóUòPô òPë_êóUùèéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoùëWééçoóUð
êDó_òPðBçiù°H[êïPçBø ðió_ò]Dç ïPóUòPôíþçiô û¸ò êïKçùó_ýúç2æèó]ø
óUù7ìPíþóUû¸òúéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoù7û¸ò_ó ±_lðBû¸éDð ñPûê@LïKû ù#û ùó_òúû ôçióUíêûþýúçêëôéDó]ælñPìó_òúó_òPóUí¸øùûþù©êDó-DKíþçå÷ëUé#êïKû ùð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ó_òô¤ûþòPùüçiéüêó_íþí«êïK²ç _öWû¸õWçB#ò ²|PöUñKéçiù¯¼êë_êDó_í7õUëWíêDó_öUç!óUòPôäêïKçúû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù2ë_åêïKçéçiùû ùªêëUé!ûþòPôñð
êëWé óUòPô
ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéH°H
Br¨§¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<¥¤)1¤#©"¬4 . ò+
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
G òPí¸çoùù ëUêïKçiéæû ùüçùìçoð û|Pçiô(bêïPçúùëUñPéðBçIõWëUí¸êóUöUçAæûþíþípDçëWñKééç å÷çBéçBòð çå÷ëUéìKïPóWùüçùïKû¸å¼ê7ó_òPô ùüëæûþí¸í

D!ç2æéû¸êüêçiò ó_êóUò ó_òPöUíþçëUå ,q poçBýúçBý DçiéêïPó@êèêïPçBéçû ùòKëúùüñPðDïêïKûþòKöóUùèó_ò]Uó-DùüëWí¸ñêçó_òKöWí¸çë_å«ìPïPóUùç
ùïKûå¼êîå÷ëUéîó õWëUí¸êó_öWçëUéîðBñKééçBò[êWùû¸òPðBçûê¹ ùó_íþæèó]øù#ó_K[ñPóUòWêûêªøéçiíþó_êûþõUçèêëó_òKëUêïKçié#æèó]õWç å÷ëUéýT÷îïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çoù
å÷ëUé2ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç bïKë@æèçBõWçBé ¯ í¸&û UçêïPëWùçëUåêïKçIéçiùûþùüêëWé !û¸òôñPð
êëUé bó_òPô ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUHé °H^ó_éç nòKë@æò ó DPùëUíþñêçií¸ø
D!çiðBóUñPùç¤êïPç ìPïPóUùç éçBí ó@êû¸ëWòPùüïPû¸ìPX ù DçBêªæçiçBòpõUëUí¸êóUöUç óUòPôcðBñKééçiòWêó@êçióWðDïcð ëWýIì!ëUòPçBò[ê1óUéç -ó DPùëUíþñêçií¸ø
ô ç |PòKçi(ô
GëUêû ð ç1êïó@ ê ¸H¹ ý óUùùüñPýIûþòKöó ìçiéüå÷çoð
êí¸ø éçióWð
êû¸õWç ûþòPôñPð êëWé ó_òPôðBóUìPóUðBûêëUé æû¸êïYû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çäìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçiùëUå!ç KóUð êíþ½ø ·l* , ó_òMô vþ* ,q #éçiùì!çið
êû¸õWçBíþø ÿí¸êïKëWñKöUï éçióUíðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êDùAæèëU(ò ¹ ê D!ç ì!çBéå÷çið êûþò êïKûþù
éçBöWóUé(ô êïKçiøYùïKëWñKíþô Dç å ó_ûþéíþøð íþëWùç ñKëUéùû¸ýúìKíþûþðBûêªø ¸H¹ í¸í óUùùñKýúç ì!çBéå÷çið
êí¸øYéçióWð
êûþõUç û¸òPôKñPð
êëUéDù óUòPô
ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéDùå÷éëWý òKë@æcëWò ûþòýAø ç Kó_ýúìKíþçðBó_í ð ñPíþó_êûþëUòPùè!ç KðBçBìêæïKçiéç òKëUêçoô ëUêïKçiéæû ùüç
õnûþòPð çêïPçIó Dë@õWç!ç Kó_ýúìKíþçúð ûþéðBñKûê2ûþù ó1ùüçiéûþçiùð ûþéðBñKû¸ê æè
ç nòKë@æeêïó@ê êïKçêëUêóUí©ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çIûþù
ç K[ñPóUí^êëúêïKçùüñPý ë_å©êïKçûþòPôûþõnûþôKñPó_í ù Kù#ë
Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC
Ztotal = (250 + j0 Ω) + (0 + j245.04 Ω) + (0 - j1.7684k Ω)
Ztotal = 250 - j1.5233k Ω or 1.5437 kΩ ∠ -80.680o

¸ òPùçBéêûþòKöêïKû ùh|PöWñKéç2å÷ëWéêë_êDó_íbûþýúìçoôKó_òð ç û¸ò[êëëUñKéêDó-DKíþç
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
®
I Amps
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ±
0 - j1.7684k
²
250 - j1.5233k
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Rule of series
³Z circuits:
total = ZR + ZL + ZC
çúðió_ò òKë@ækóUìKìKíþøEAïKý¹ ù_%«ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïo"°õWçBéêû ðBó_íþíþøäû¸ò êïPçÑL{ëUêóUí&1ð ëWí¸ñKýúò êë]|PòPô êë_êóUíð ñKééçBò[ê
å÷ëUéêïKû ùùüçiéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñPûê
òÞ .0»"©¼§0/8]Br¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/×©"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/:9¥¤)¦¤#©¬"4 .
R L
¬C Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m ®
I ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o Amps
250 + j0
± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E
I= ³
èçBûþòKö¤ó ùçBéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê#ðBñKééçBò[êAýñPùüêDç çK[ñPóUíêïPéëWñKöUï óUí¸íèð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù¿Lï[ñù 7æèç ðBóUò êó-WçêïPç
Z
|PöWñKéç ëDêóUû¸òKçoôå÷ëWéêëUêó_í«ð ñKééçiò[êóUòPôôûþùüêéû&DKñêçû¸êêëúçoóUðDï1ë_å{êïKçë_êïKçBéðBëUíþñKýúòPù

120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m ®
I ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o µ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o Amps
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k ° 250 - j1.5233k

Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Rule of series
¶I circuits:
G ë@ææèç¹ éçìPéçiìPó_éçiô êë ó_ìKìKíþø¿AïKý¹ ù"%{ó]æü¯Õ`hI"¸sçy°êëçoóUðDïäëUå©êïKçAûþòPôûþõnûþôKñPó_í©ð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êð ëWí¸ñKýúòPù

total = IR = IL = IC
ûþò êïKç êóDKíþçnêëôKç êçiéýúûþòKçõUëWíêDó_öWç2ôéëUìù

·
3.1472 + j19.177 -18.797 + j3.0848 135.65 - j22.262 120 + j0
E Volts
19.434 ∠ 80.680o 19.048 ∠ 170.68o 137.46 ∠ -9.3199o 120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m ®
I µ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o µ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o µ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o µ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o Amps
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k ° 250 - j1.5233k

Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Ohm’s Ohm’s Ohm’s

Law Law Law
¸ E = IZ ¸ E = IZ ¸ E = IZ
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ER + EL + EC should equal Etotal
3.1472 + j19.177 V ER
¹
-18.797 + j3.0848 V EL
+ 135.65 - j22.262 V EC
º
120 + j0 V Etotal
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1 2
250 Ω
³
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120 L 650 mH
60 Hz

C
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É = 19.43 V ∠ 80.68o
R
EL = 19.05 V ∠ 170.7o
É = 137.5 V ∠ -9.320o
C
µI = 77.73 mA ∠ -99.32o (actual phase angle = 80.68o)
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R L ³ C
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60 Hz
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³120 V ZR ZL ZC
60 Hz

250 Ω ∠ 0o 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o

245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
è ½[Ê?ÑHÆÚÕÕÔÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀÍÊéÓÆÕ[ÌÀ¼`À4ýÖÂ?ÀÐ¼?¼?À¾ Æ¼3½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀÐ¼ ¯{ç(° ÏXÞÔÀOÝÆÚÍH¼?ÀâÊ÷ÌÉÖHÆÍHÆÚÍÆÕ[ß¼?½¼Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀÆÍ¾
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E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
¯ ² 250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k

Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
ó ÍÉÄøÞP½ÍÉÎìÊÑÆøÊÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ3½¿¼¼-ÑÆÂ?ÀÐ¾JÀ×NÌÆÕ[ÕßÈßÆÕ[ÕUÝâÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ4ÍNÊ¼*½Í ÆOÖÆÚÂ!ÆÚÕÕ[ÀÕËÝâ½Â!ÝâÌÉ½[ÊÏÞÒÀéÝ4ÆÍJÊ?Â!ÆÚÍ¼ÁÃÀÂ

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R L
¬C Total
E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
250 + j0
± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC
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E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
$
480m + j0
0 - j489.71m 0 + j67.858m
I $ $ % Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o
° 250 + j0 ±
0 + j245.04
±
0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
Ohm’s Ohm’s Ohm’s

Law Law Law
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120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
,
480m + j0
±
0 - j489.71m
±0 + j67.858m
$
480m - j421.85m ®
I - % Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o 639.03m ∠ -41.311o
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k 141.05 + j123.96
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 187.79 ∠ 41.311o
Ohms
ë ½[Ê?ÑÀ4Â3ÅÜÀâÊÑÉÄ¾ÏUÖÀÂ-ÁÃÄÂ?ÅÜÀÐ¾ ÖÂ?ÄÖÀÂ?ÕßÏXÞP½[ÕÕ+ÖÂ?ÄøÓ½¿¾ÀûÊ?ÑÉÀùÝâÄÂÂÀÝ8Ê3ÆÍ¼-ÞÒÀ4Â!¼Û!"À4Ê ¹ `

¼ ÊÂ?ß ÆÚÍÆÕ[ß Ð ½ ÍÉÎÊÑÉ½¼
Ýâ½Â!ÝâÌÉ½[Ê_ÞP½CÊÑ õZ÷p¸?êÒë ÆÚÍ¾¼?À4À¥ÞPÑÆÚÊ_ÑÆÚÖÉÖÀ4Í¼4î
Br¨ B¨¼y©3©*)#)Ëñ+)M¥¤)¦¤#©¬5ò ð Ø
battery symbols are "dummy"

voltage sources for SPICE to
use
. as í current measurement
points. All are set to 0 volts.
2 2 2 2
º º º
Vic Vil Vic
º /
4
Vi
øR
3 bogus 6
1 5
øR
0
L ³
C
³ V
120 250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz
0 0 0 0
13254 NùN 2628794:29;79<

ú>=?=5@?132A=9BC@ ï 7ED
ú7F=5B?132G@
ú794HBHIH132J@
ú7 ù B 132J@
4LK3M e ; ï FN =9OCP:=9B
ú7L2JBHQH132J@
4>=RIH@?B N @
ù = N @?Q N @ES
23=RQH@T=VU N ;
UW132 ù 7XDY=RQC@?QC@
U ý 4:7ED8<?132H7>sZ ú7L[67>Zsú794:[67>Zsú7 ù [?7\Zsú7L28[
U ý 4:7ED8<?132H7 ý sZ ú:7C[67 ý sZ ú:794[67 ý Z ú7 ù [G7 ý Zsú7L2C[
UWO]D8^
4O_ 7>sZ ú:7C[ 7\sZ ú794[ 7>sZ ú7 ù [ 7>Z ú7L28[

QÙW@L@C@ :@ = QÙWILaC@ PL@:= WU bC@C@ PL@= WU bCaLc LP @= QÙdcCbCQ P@CB
4O_ 7 ý Z ú7C[ 7 ý Zsú794:[ 7 ý Zsú:7 ù [ 7 ý sZ ú7L28[
QÙW@L@C@ :@ = P U=9I:= @= @eUW@C@C@ @C@ PaÙW@C@C@ @ = aÙd@C@C@ @=
Ó » f¼§Uñ`h]BLiRh5ñ`f ð j§ flk ð ñGfgk5ònmóé¼+ñ+òlflk ð ñõôoh¥¤)¦¤3flk*ò
ð g ð

µI = 639.0 mA ∠ -41.31o
total
µI = 480 mA ∠ 0o
R
IL = 489.7 mA ∠ -90o
IC = 67.86 mA ∠ 90o
p Ê5ÊÄÄ]JÆOÕ½CÊ?Ê?ÕÀéÈ½CÊ¥ÄÚÁ¦ÊÂ?½¿Ý)ÀÂ?ßÊ?ÄùÎÀ4Êrq8s p?êÒë ÞÔÄÂ(½ÍÉÎÆ¼5ÞÒÀ÷ÞÒÄÌÉÕ¿¾JÕ½tÀ÷ÄÍJÊ?ÑÉ½¿¼¥Ýâ½ÂÝ4ÌÉ½[ÊouÃ½Í¼-ÊÆÕ[Õ½[ÍÎ
v ¾ÉÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß v ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀ¼?ÄÌÂÝ4À¼ì½Í ÀÆÝ!ÑõÈÉÂ!ÆÚÍÝ!ÑçÊ?Ä ÄÈÊ!ÆÚ½Í ÝâÌÉÂÂÀ4ÍNÊìíÎÌÂ?ÀÐ¼ÆÚÍ¾ ½[Í¼-ÊÆÕ[Õ½ÍÉÎ Ê?ÑÀ v ¾ÉÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß v
ÂÀ¼?½¼-Ê?ÄÂ3½[ÍHÊ?ÑÉÀO½Í¾ÌÝ8Ê?ÄÂéÈÂÆÍÝ!Ñ Ê?ÄÖÂ?ÀÓÀ4ÍNÊ÷Æs¾É½[ÂÀÝâÊé½Í¾ÌÝâÊ?ÄÂ?ú Ê?ÄÚú ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀû¼?ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀÕ[ÄÄÖ#ÏXÞPÑ½Ý!ÑRq8s p?êÒë
Ý4ÆÍÉÍÉÄÊ1Ê?ÄÕÀ4Â!ÆøÊÀEwâÏÈÉÌÊÔÞÔÀ_¾½¿¾ÜÎÀ4Ê1Ê?ÑÉÀ5ÖÉÂ?ÄÖÀÂ¦ÂÀÆ¾É½[ÍÉÎN¼4Û ë ÓÀ4ÍÜÅÜÄÂÀÔÊÑÆÚÍÜÊÑÆøÊÐÏÈßé½[Í¼-ÊÆÕ[Õ½ÍÉÎ¥Ê?ÑÉÀ*¾ÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß
ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀ5¼-ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀ¼guÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÒÅûÀ4Ê?ÀÂ¼)w1½ÍOÊÑÉÀ*ÖÂ?ÄÖÀÂÒ¾½ÂÀÝ8Ê½[ÄÍ¼ÏÞÒÀ5ÞÒÀ4ÂÀ*ÆÈÉÕ[À5Ê?ÄÜÆÓÄ½¾ûÊÑÆøÊà½¾É½[ÄN¼-ßÍÝ4ÂÆ¼-ßéÄÚÁ
q8s p?êÒë ÄÚÁÖÉÂ½ÍÊ½[ÍÎéÝâÌÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊ+íÎÌÉÂÀ¼5ØXx Ù ÄÌÊàÄÚÁÖÑÆ¼?ÀÛ ö ÑÉ½¿¼ÔÞàÆßÏÄÌÉÂàÝâÌÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊ+ÖÉÑÆ¼?À5ÂÀÆ¾É½[ÍÉÎN¼¦Ý4ÆÅÜÀ5ÄÌÉÊ
Ê?ÄÜÀ4ýÆÝ8ÊÕ[ßOÅìÆÚÊÝ!ÑÄÌÉÂPÑÆÚÍ¾ùÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕÆÚÊ?½ÄÍ¼Û
y )z {|}e~}>: gG?
øÄ Þ Ê?ÑÆÚÊàÞÒÀ] ÓÀ¥¼?À4À4ÍáÑÉÄøÞ£¼?À4Â½[ÀÐ¼ÔÆÍ¾áÖÆÚÂ!ÆÚÕÕ[ÀÕ» ê Ýâ½ÂÝ4ÌÉ½[ÊàÆÍÆÚÕß¼-½¿¼Ò½¼ÒÍÉÄÊÒÁÃÌÍ¾ÉÆÚÅÜÀÍÊ!ÆÚÕÕ[ßO¾É½CüÀ4ÂÀ4ÍNÊàÊ?ÑÆÍ

`ê Ýâ½Â!ÝâÌÉ½[ÊàÆÍÆÚÕß¼-½¿¼Ï½[Ê_¼-ÑÉÄÌÉÕ¿¾ÝâÄÅÜÀÆ¼+ÍÉÄÜ¼?ÌÉÂ?ÖÂ?½¿¼-À5Ê?ÑÆÚÊ_¼-ÀÂ?½À¼-ú ÖÆÚÂ!ÆÚÕÕ[ÀÕÆÚÍÆÕ[ß¼?½¼ÔÞÒÄÌÉÕ¿¾OÈÀ5ÊÑÉÀ`¼?ÆÅÜÀÆ¼
ÞÒÀ4ÕÕAÏ æ Ì¼-Ê5Ì¼?½ÍÉÎìÝâÄÅÜÖÉÕÀâýáÍNÌÅ÷ÈÀ4Â!¼à½[Í¼-Ê?ÀÐÆ¾ùÄÚÁU¼?ÝÆÚÕ¿ÆÚÂÒÊ?ÄÜÂÀ4ÖÉÂÀ¼?À4ÍNÊPÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀÏÝâÌÉÂÂÀ4ÍNÊÏÉÆÍ¾½ÅÜÖÀÐ¾ÉÆÚÍÝâÀÛ
ö ÆÀ*Ê?Ñ½¼_¼?À4Â½À¼-ú ÖÆÂÆÕ[ÕÀ4ÕÝâ½Â!ÝâÌÉ½[ÊPÁÃÄÂPÀ4ýÆÅÜÖÉÕ[Àî

C1

4.7 µF
L 650 mH

120
V R 470 Ω
60 Hz
C2 1.5 µF
ö ÑÉÀíÂ!¼ÊàÄÂ!¾ÀÂÒÄÁËÈÉÌ¼-½ÍÉÀ¼¼ÏÉÆ¼ÒÌ¼?ÌÆÚÕ Ï½¼ÒÊÄû¾ÉÀâÊ?ÀÂ?ÅÜ½ÍÉÀ¥ÓøÆÚÕÌÉÀ¼àÄÁË½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4Àu\w+ÁÃÄÂ_ÆÕ[ÕÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ4ÍNÊ!¼

ÈÆ¼-ÀÐ¾ÄÍ ÊÑÉÀÜÁÃÂÀ×NÌÉÀ4ÍÝâßÄÁÔÊÑÉÀO» ê ÖÄøÞÒÀ4Â`¼?ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀÛ ö ÄJ¾ÄÊÑÉ½¼ÏXÞÔÀÜÍÉÀÀ¾ Ê?ÄíÂ!¼-Ê÷¾ÀâÊÀ4ÂÅû½ÍÉÀìÓøÆÚÕÌÉÀÐ¼¥ÄÚÁ
ÂÀÆÝâÊÆÍÝâÀuwUÁÃÄÂÔÆÕ[Õ½[Í¾ÉÌÝ8ÊÄÂ!¼+ÆÚÍ¾ìÝ4ÆÚÖÆÝâ½[Ê?ÄÂ¼ÏÚÊÑÉÀ4ÍOÝ4ÄÍÓÀÂ-Ê¦ÂÀÆÝ8Ê!ÆÚÍÝ4ÀuwÔÆÚÍ¾ÜÂ?ÀÐ¼-½¿¼Ê!ÆÚÍÝ4Àulw1íÎÌÂ?ÀÐ¼
½ÍÊÄÜÖÉÂ?ÄÖÀÂP½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀu\wÔÁÃÄÂÅî
Li8iJñ`h}mñ \flh}fg¡V¡Ëñ`¡¢hr£j¡ £3fgk5ò ð ¤
Reactances and Resistances:
1 XL = 2πfL
XC1 =
2πfC1
1 XL = (2)(π)(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XC1 =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(4.7 µF)
XC1 = 564.38 Ω XL = 245.04 Ω
1
XC2 =
2πfC2
1
XC2 = R = 470 Ω
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)
XC2 = 1.7684 kΩ
ZC1 = 0 - j564.38 Ω or 564.38 Ω ∠ -90o

¥
ZL = 0 + j245.04 Ω or 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
¥
ZC2 = 0 - j1.7684k Ω or 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
ZR = 470 + j0 Ω or 470 Ω ∠ 0o
ÄøÞgÞÔÀ`ÝÆÚÍ¼-À4Ê_ÌÉÖùÊ?ÑÉÀ`½ÍÉ½[Ê?½¿ÆÚÕÓøÆÚÕÌÉÀ¼_½[ÍÄÌÂÔÊ!ÆÚÈÉÕÀî
«C ¬L «C R ª Total
1 2
E
120 + j0 ¦ Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I
§ Amps
©Z ¯ 0 - j564.38 ¯ 0 + j245.04 ¯ 0 - j1.7684k ® 470 + j0 ¨ Ohms
° 564.38 ∠ -90o
± 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90 o ® 470 ∠ 0o
² À4½ÍÉÎéÆû¼?À4Â½[ÀÐ¼ú ÖÆÚÂ!ÆÚÕÕÀ4Õ å
ÿ³4þ :´µ þ
Ý4½[Â!ÝâÌ½CÊÐÏNÞÒÀÅ÷Ì¼-ÊPÂ?ÀÐ¾ÌÝâÀ*½CÊàÊÄûÆ÷Ê?ÄÊÆÚÕ½ÅÜÖÀÐ¾ÉÆÚÍÝ4À*½ÍùÅûÄÂ?À5Ê?ÑÆÍ
Ä ÍÀé¼-Ê?À4Ö#Û ö ÑÉÀéíÂ!¼Ê¥¼ÊÀ4Ö ½¼5Ê?ÄùÝâÄÅéÈÉ½ÍÉÀ¶" ÆÚÍ¾ ê#· Æ¼Æ¼?À4Â½À¼5Ý4ÄÅéÈÉ½[ÍÆøÊ?½ÄÍÄÚÁ¦½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À¼ÏÈßsÆ¾É¾½ÍÉÎ
Ê?ÑÀ4½Â_½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀÐ¼PÊÄÎÀ4Ê?ÑÉÀÂÛ ö ÑÉÀ4ÍÏÊ?ÑÆÚÊ5½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À3ÞP½[ÕÕÈÀ÷ÝâÄÅ÷ÈÉ½ÍÉÀÐ¾á½ÍJÖÆÂÆÕ[ÕÀ4ÕÞP½[Ê?ÑÊÑÉÀ3½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À
ÄÚÁÊÑÉÀ5ÂÀ¼?½¿¼ÊÄÂÐÏÚÊ?ÄûÆÚÂÂ?½ÓÀ_ÆÚÊÔÆÚÍÄÚÊ?ÑÀ4ÂÔÝ4ÄÅéÈÉ½[ÍÆøÊ?½ÄÍìÄÁ½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀÐ¼4Û ¸X½ÍÆÚÕÕ[ßÏÊÑÆøÊP×NÌÆÚÍNÊ½CÊßûÞP½[ÕÕÈÀÆ¾É¾ÀÐ¾
Ê?ÄûÊÑÉÀ`½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀ`ÄÁ ê+¹ ÊÄìÆÚÂÂ?½ÓÀ¥ÆøÊàÊ?ÑÀ¥Ê?ÄÚÊ!ÆÚÕ½ÅÜÖÀÐ¾ÉÆÚÍÝâÀÛ
p ÍOÄÂ¾ÀÂ+ÊÑÆøÊàÄÌÂ+Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀ5ÅìÆßÜÁÃÄÕÕÄøÞ ÆÕ[ÕÊÑÉÀ¼?À¼-Ê?ÀÖ¼ÏN½[ÊàÞP½[ÕÕÈÀÍÉÀÝ4À¼¼?ÆÂ?ßéÊ?ÄÜÆ¾¾OÆ¾É¾É½CÊ½[ÄÍÆÚÕÝâÄÕ[ÌÉÅÜÍ¼
Ê?Äá½CÊ`¼?ÄìÊ?ÑÆÚÊÀÐÆÝ!Ñs¼-Ê?ÀÖÅìÆßáÈÀûÂ?ÀÖÉÂ?ÀÐ¼-ÀÍNÊ?À¾Û5»5¾É¾É½[ÍÉÎùÅÜÄÂÀ÷ÝâÄÕ[ÌÅûÍ¼5ÑÉÄÂ?½»º4ÄÍNÊÆÚÕÕßÊÄOÊ?ÑÀ÷Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀé¼?ÑÉÄøÞPÍ
ÆÚÈÄøÓÀPÞÒÄÌÕ¾ûÈÀ_½[ÅÜÖÉÂ!ÆÝâÊ?½¿Ý4ÆÕÁÃÄÂ+ÁÃÄÂÅÜÆÚÊ-Ê½[ÍÉÎ`ÂÀÆ¼-ÄÍ¼Ï¼-Ä p ÞP½Õ[ÕÖÉÕ¿ÆÝâÀ*Æ¥ÍÉÀ4Þ ÂÄøÞ ÄÁÝ4ÄÕÌÉÅÜÍ¼1ÌÉÍ¾À4ÂÍÉÀÆÚÊ?ÑÏ
ÀÆÝ!ÑùÝ4ÄÕÌÉÅÜÍù¾ÉÀ¼?½[ÎÍÆøÊÀ¾áÈNßá½CÊ!¼àÂ?ÀÐ¼-ÖÀÝâÊ?½ÓÀ`ÝâÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ4ÍNÊ5ÝâÄÅ÷ÈÉ½ÍÆÚÊ?½ÄÍî
¼ ð¾½ fl¿Uñ`hTLiRh5ñ`f ð ¿jflk ð ñGfgk5ònmó+ñ+òlflk ð ñõôohr£j¡e£3flk*ò ð
Á Â Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
E Volts
À
I Amps
Z Ohms
ê ÆÚÕ¿ÝâÌÕÆÚÊ?½ÍÉÎÊÑÉÀ¼?ÀìÍÉÀÞÄuÝ4ÄÅéÈÉ½[ÍÆøÊ?½ÄÍ:w5½ÅÜÖÀÐ¾ÉÆÚÍÝâÀ¼¥ÞP½ÕÕ¦Â?ÀÐ×NÌÉ½[ÂÀÜÝâÄÅÜÖÉÕÀâý Æ¾É¾½[Ê?½ÄÍ ÁÃÄÂ¥¼?À4Â½À¼`ÝâÄÅûú

ÈÉ½ÍÆøÊ½[ÄÍ¼ÏÆÍ¾Ê?ÑÀ v ÂÀÝ4½[ÖÂ?ÄÝ4ÆÕ v ÁÃÄÂ?ÅéÌÉÕÆìÁÃÄÂ*Ý4ÄÅÜÖÉÕÀâý½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀÐ¼5½ÍsÖÆÂÆÕ[ÕÀ4Õ Û ö ÑÉ½¿¼_Ê½[ÅÜÀÏÊÑÉÀ4ÂÀ÷½¿¼_ÍÄ
ÆÓÄ½¾ÆÚÍÝ4À*ÄÁ#Ê?ÑÀ`Â?ÀÐÝâ½ÖÉÂ?ÄÝÆÚÕÁÃÄÂÅ÷ÌÉÕ¿ÆÉîXÊÑÉÀ`Â?ÀÐ×NÌÉ½[ÂÀ¾íÎÌÉÂ?ÀÐ¼àÝ4ÆÚÍùÈÀ3ÆÚÂÂ?½ÓÀÐ¾ÆøÊ_ÍÄûÄÊ?ÑÉÀÂPÞÒÆßÅ
Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
Æ
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ç Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Rule of series Rule of series

circuits: circuits:
ZL--C2 = ZL + ZC2 Ztotal = ZC1 + ZR//(L--C2)
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
ZR//(L--C2) =
1 1
+
ZR ZL--C2
qCÈXÈÉ»ÊËÌ]Í`ÎÏÑÐGÏ]ÒÓ`Í(ÈXÔÏ]Ê3ÕoÖ)Ì×Ø»ÈlÔÏ]ÊLÖ'Ì]ÉtÊ3Í`ÌÔÏØtÒÙÊÚÏÓ v]Û ÏÖ)ÌØÝÜ v Ð#ÈlÔXÌÊÍ'ÌÑÚÈØ»Þ¶ÕÉ»Í'ÔÌ]Ó'ÕoÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ
ÚÓ'Ï]ÙßÖ'ÎÈ#à3Ó'ÍWÖ¾Ö'Ì]×ØtÈá Û Î3É»Í¾ËÉtâÈXÍãÒ3Í¾Ï]Ê3ÈÖ)Ì×Ø»ÈäÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎoÚÏ]ÒÓeÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3Í¾ÌÊ3ÕoÌÊÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓ¾Ö'Ì]×ØtÈäÐ+ÉtÖ(Î¶Ö(ÎÓ'ÈÈ+ÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3Íá
æ ÏÑÐAÖ'Î3ÌÑÖrÐ#È¶çCÊÏÑÐAÖ'ÎÈoÖ(ÏÖ)ÌØãÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈéu xêXx3á ¤]¼!ëíì îdï x á ¤Lð êEñ)wgÌÊ3ÕÖ(ÎÈoÖ(Ï]Ö'Ì]ØãâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È|uWêEòó|â]ÏØåÖ)Í
ì óñwÜ\ÐÈôÔXÌÊÌ]èèØ»ÞõgÎÙ ÍgöVÌ9Ð÷u p(øùäú \w+â]ÈÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÌ]ØtØ»Þ|É»ÊÖ'ÎÈ v Û Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø v ÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊéÖ(ÏüÌÓ'Ó(É»â]ÈÌÖÌàjË]ÒÓ'ÈÚÏÓ
(Ö Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø>ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖXý
Lþ8þJ8ÿdÿ g¡V¡ ÿ`¡r£j¡ £
ï
Á Â Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m À
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
449.11 ∠ -17.147 o
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s

Law
E
I=
Z
#Ö>Ö'ÎÉ»ÍVèjÏÉtÊLÖVÐ#È`ÌÍWçgÏ]ÒÓ)ÍWÈXØtâÈXÍ:Ö'ÎÈ+×LÒÈXÍWÖ(É»Ï]ÊVý>ÌÓ'È¾Ö(ÎÈXÓ(È`Ì]ÊCÞgÔÏÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖ'Í>Ï]ÓVÔÏ]ÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖ ÔÏ]Ù¶×ÉtÊjÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍ
Ð+ÎÉûÔ)ÎRÍ(Î3ÌÓ'ÈÈÉtÖ(Î3ÈÓ¶Ö(ÎÈ|Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ#â]ÏØåÖ)ÌË]È|Ï]ÓÖ'ÎÈ!Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ#ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖ p Ê Ö(ÎÉûÍÔÌÍWÈÜã×:ÏÖ'Î ¹ ÌÊ3Õ Ö'ÎÈ|èjÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ
ÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê| úú u ö
· wÍWÎjÌÓ'È}Ö(Î3ÈrÍ'ÌÙÈou Ö(Ï]Ö'Ì]Øûw#ÔÒ3Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖXÜCÍ(ÉtÊ3ÔÈlÖ'ÎÈÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØ:É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈÉûÍäÔÏÙoè:ÏÍ(ÈXÕÏÚ
Ö(Î3ÈÖdÐÏÍ(ÈÖ)ÍÏÚäÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈEÍÉ»Ê Í(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍXá Û ÎLÒjÍÜãÐÈÔXÌÊ¢Ö(Ó)ÌÊ3ÍWÚÈÓrÖ'ÎÈà3ËÒÓ'È¶ÚÏÓÖ(Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø`ÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖÉtÊLÖ(Ïé×:ÏÖ'Î
ÔÏØtÒ3ÙoÊjÍý
C 1
L C 2 R
E Volts
$ 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o
245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
$ 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z "
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
æ ÏÑÐÜXÐÈeÔXÌÊÔXÌØûÔÒØûÌÑÖ'ÈãâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È Õ8Ó'Ï]è3Í>ÌÔÓ'ÏÍ'Í' ¹ ÌÊ3ÕgÖ'ÎÈ`Í(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ î è3ÌÓ)ÌØ»Ø»ÈØÑÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊrÏÚ8 ú]ú uö

· w
Ò3Í(ÉtÊ3ËõgÎ3Ùü Í}ö Ì9ÐTu ùäøgp \wâ]ÈÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÌ]ØtØ»ÞÉ»ÊüÖ(ÎÏLÍWÈÖ'Ì]×Ø»ÈrÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3ÍXý
)( ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿, -¾ÿ.
/10`ÿ -¾ÿ324r£j¡e£
5
½ l
C L
C R
$ 70.467 - j43.4001 2
E 6 82.760 ∠ -31.629 o Volts

& 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o
245.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90 o
470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Ohm’s
7 Law
E = IZ
L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
∠ 41.225 o
120 ∠ 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
∠ -17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E = IZ
£×LÒÉûÔ)çÕ8Ï]Ò3×ØtÈ î Ô)Î3ÈXÔ)çÏÚ>ÏÒÓÐ#Ï]Ó'çÌÑÖ`Ö'ÎÉûÍè:Ï]É»ÊLÖ#Ð#Ï]Ò3Ø»Õ×:ÈgÖ(Ï¶Í(ÈÈÐ+ÎÈÖ(ÎÈXÓÏÓÊÏ]Ö`Ö'ÎÈgâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]ÈlÕ8Ó'Ï]èjÍ
Ì ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í ¹ Ì]Ê3Õ¶Ö(ÎÈlÍ(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍ î è3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØCÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊoÏÚ\ ú]ú uö
· wãÉtÊ3ÕÈÈXÕÌÕÕ¶ÒèÖ(ÏrÖ'ÎÈäÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØÝá;lÔÔÏ]Ó)Õ8É»ÊË
]
Ö(Ï=<rÉ»Ó'Ô)Î3ÎÏ?>+ ÍA@ Ï]ØtÖ'ÌËÈöVÌ9ÐÜCÖ(Î3ÈÞ!Í(ÎÏÒØ»Õ>Å
B
Etotal should be equal to EC1 + ER//(L--C2)
C
70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V Indeed, it is!
Û Î3ÌÖäØûÌ]ÍWÖ}ÍdÖ'ÈèÐäÌ]ÍäÙÈÓ'ÈØ»Þ|ÌoèÓ'ÈXÔÌ]Ò8Ö(É»Ï]ÊVá p ÊéÌoèÓ'Ï]×Ø»ÈÙíÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÌÍäÙÌÊCÞ|ÍWÖ(ÈèjÍ+Ì]Í#Ö(Î3É»Í+ÏÊÈrÎ3Ì]ÍXÜCÖ(Î3ÈÓ'È
ÉûÍÙ¶Ò3Ô)ÎüÏ]èè:Ï]Ó(Ö(ÒÊ3ÉåÖdÞÚÏÓ#ÈXÓ(Ó'Ï]ÓEáeõÔÔÌÍWÉ»Ï]ÊjÌØjÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í î Ô)ÎÈXÔ)ç8ÍeØ»É»ç]ÈgÖ(Î3ÌÖäÏÊÈrÔÌÊüÍ(Ì9âÈgÌ¶èjÈXÓ'Í(Ï]ÊüÌôØ»ÏÖ+Ï]Ú Ð#Ï]Ó'ç
ÌÊjÕ|ÒÊ3ÊÈXÔÈXÍ'Í(Ì]Ó(ÞÚÓ'Ò3ÍWÖ(Ó)ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|×CÞ|ÉûÕ8ÈÊLÖ'ÉåÚÞCÉ»ÊËèÓ(Ï×Ø»ÈÙÍäèÓ'ÉtÏÓäÖ(ÏoÖ(ÎÈràjÊ3ÌØVÍWÖ(ÈXè!Ï]Ú Ö'ÎÈèÓ'Ï]×Ø»ÈÙá
+Ú Ö'ÈÓÎ3Ì9âCÉtÊËÍ(Ï]Ø»â]ÈEÕoÚÏ]Óâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È+Õ8Ó'Ï]è3ÍÌ]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(
Í ¹ ÌÊ3ÕoÖ'ÎÈlÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê úú u ö
· wÜCÐ#ÈlÌËLÌÉ»ÊÌÍWç
Ï]Ò3Ó'Í(ÈØ»â]ÈEÍeÖ'ÎÈ`×Ò3ÈXÍWÖ(É»Ï]Ê>ý¾Ð+Î3ÌÖäÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓ+ÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]ÊÈXÊLÖ'ÍäÍWÎjÌÓ'ÈlÖ'ÎÈÍ(Ì]ÙoÈâ]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈlÏ]Ó+ÔÒÓ(Ó'ÈÊLÖD p Ê|Ö'ÎÉ»Í+ÔXÌ]Í(È]ÜLÖ(Î3È
Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ(ÏÓgugw`Ì]Ê3ÕÖ(Î3ÈgÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊÏÚVÖ(ÎÈgÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓäÌÊ3ÕÖ'ÎÈrÍWÈEÔÏ]ÊjÕÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ(ÏÓgu ö
· wÍWÎjÌÓ'È+Ö(ÎÈrÍ'ÌÙÈ
â]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈ]Ü×:ÈXÔXÌÒ3Í(È+Ö(Î3ÏÍ(ÈlÍWÈÖ'Í`ÏÚ>É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈXÍ`Ì]Ó(È+É»Êè3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØ3Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎÈXÌÔ)ÎoÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓXá Û ÎÈXÓ(ÈÚÏ]Ó'È]Ü]Ð#ÈlÔXÌÊÖ(Ó)ÌÊjÍdÚÈXÓ
Ö(Î3Èâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]Ègà3Ë]Ò3Ó(F È EdÒ3ÍWÖlÍWÏØtâÈXÕ|ÚÏ]Ó+É»ÊLÖ(ÏoÖ(ÎÈÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3Í#ÚÏ]Ó}AÌ]Ê3Õ ö
· ý
ð
C L
C
H 49.533 + j43.400
R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
: 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9 Amps
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90
o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
! 470 + j0
470 ∠ 0 o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
∠ 41.225 o
∠ 41.225 o
120 ∠ 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
∠ -17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
æ ÏÑÐGÐ#È] Ó(È}Ì]ØtØ:ÍWÈÖ`ÚÏÓÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØûÌÑÖ(É»ÊËÔÒÓ(Ó'ÈÊLÖeÖ'ÎÓ'Ï]ÒËÎÖ(ÎÈgÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ'Ï]Ó`Ì]Ê3ÕoÖ(Î3Ó(ÏÒË]ÎÖ'ÎÈlÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ`ÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê
ö
· á}Ø»Ø>ÐÈrÊÈXÈXÕ!Ö(ÏÕÏoÉûÍ+Ìè3èØtÞéõgÎÙ Í+ö Ì9Ð u p(øù#ú >weâÈÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÌØ»Ø»ÞÉtÊ×:ÏÖ'ÎüÏ]ÚVÖ'ÎÏÍ(ÈÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3ÍXý
C L
C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
8 Volts
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 ∠ 41.225 o
& 76.899m + j124.86m 105.39m + j92.341m 9 Amps

I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
" 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
Z # 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90
o
1.7684k ∠ -90 o ! 470 ∠ 0 o
Ohms
Ohm’s
% 7J
Law
E
I=
Z
x ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿, -¾ÿ.
/10`ÿ -¾ÿ324r£j¡e£
5
½ l
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
! 49.533 + j43.400 ! 49.533 + j43.400 1
8 Volts
E I 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o I 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o
120 + j0
120 ∠ 0o
&
-28.490m + j32.516m 76.899m + j124.86m
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371 o
Z " 0 - j1.5233k ! 429.15 - j132.41 ! 429.15 - j696.79

1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11 ∠ -17.147 o
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
% J
I=
E
Z
Ê3ÏÖ(Î3ÈÓ¥×Ò3É»Ô)çéÕ8ÏÒ×Ø»È î Ô)ÎÈXÔ)çüÏÚ`ÏÒÓÐÏÓ(çÌÑÖÖ(ÎÉûÍèjÏÉtÊLÖrÐÏÒØûÕé×jÈ¶Ö(ÏÍ(ÈÈôÉtÚeÖ'ÎÈoÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊÖgà3Ë]Ò3Ó(ÈEÍ}ÚÏÓ

}
ö
· Ì]Ê3Õ!AÌÕÕüÒè|Ö'ÏÖ(ÎÈrÖ'ÏÖ)ÌØ>ÔÒ3Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖXáKgÔÔÏÓ'ÕÉtÊËoÖ'ÏL<rÉ»Ó)Ô)ÎÎÏ?>+ ÍÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊÖ}ö Ì9ÐÜCÖ(ÎÈXÞ!Í(ÎÏ]ÒØûÕ\ý
IR//(L--C2) should be equal to IR + I(L--C2)
105.39m + j92.341m
+ -28.490m + j32.516m
C
76.899m + j124.86m Indeed, it is!
qCÉ»Ê3ÔÈôÖ(ÎÈoöRÌ]Ê3M Õ · Ì]Ó(ÈôÔÏ]ÊÊ3ÈXÔÖ'ÈXÕéÉ»ÊÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍÜ:ÌÊ3ÕÍWÉ»Ê3ÔÈ¶ÐÈôçLÊ3ÏÑÐHÖ'ÎÈ¶ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊÖlÖ(ÎÓ'Ï]ÒËÎÖ(ÎÈXÉtÓrÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ
Ô ÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê ÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈÜ Ð#ÈÔÌ]Ê Õ8É»ÍWÖ(Ó'É»×Ò8Ö(ÈÖ'Î3ÌÑÖoÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖàjË]ÒÓ'ÈÖ(ÏÖ'ÎÈ|ö6ÌÊjÕN · ÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3ÍrÚÏØtØ»ÏÑÐ+É»ÊË
Ö(Î3ÈÓ(ÒØ»ÈrÏÚ ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍäÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖ'Í}Ð+ÎÈÓ'È×CÞÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ+ÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]ÊÈXÊLÖ'Í+Í(Î3ÌÓ'ÈlÖ'ÎÈÍ'ÌÙÈÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖXý
C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
8 Volts
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 ∠ 41.225o
& 76.899m + j124.86m -28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m 105.39m + j92.341m 9 Amps
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
" 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
Z # 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
! 470 + j0
470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Rule of series
%I circuits:
L--C2 = IL = IC2
O ÉtÖ(ÎoÏ]ÊÈ#Ø»ÌÍdÖ ÍWÖ(ÈèuÌÔÖ'Ò3ÌØ»ØtÞÜ9ÖdÐÏrÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØûÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍ'wÜÑÐÈäÔÌ]Ê¶ÔÏÙèØtÈÖ(ÈäÏ]Ò3Ó¾Ì]Ê3ÌØ»Þ8ÍWÉûÍVÖ'Ì×3ØtÈÚÏ]ÓãÖ(Î3É»Í ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖXá

O tÉ Ö(Î¢ÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈÌÊ3ÕÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖlà3ËÒÓ(ÈEÍlÉ»Êè3Ø»ÌÔÈ¶ÚÏ]Órö5Ì]Ê3ÕP · ÜÌ]ØtØ¾Ð#ÈôÎ3Ì9âÈÖ'ÏüÕ8Ï!É»ÍrÌ]èèØ»ÞõgÎ3Ùü ÍröVÌ9Ð
u ùäøgp \wâ]ÈXÓWÖ'É»ÔXÌØ»ØtÞÉ»ÊüÖ(ÎÏLÍWÈÖdÐ#ÏÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3ÍäÖ'ÏÔXÌØûÔÒØûÌÑÖ'Èrâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]ÈrÕ8Ó'Ï]è3ÍXá
Q
C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1
R 57.501 + j50.382
2
! 49.533 + j43.400
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
-7.968 - j6.981
10.594 ∠ 221.22o 76.451 ∠ 41.225
I 65.857 ∠ 41.225o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
!
-28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o
! 105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m ∠ 41.225o
Amps
Z " 0 - j564.38 " "

# 564.38 ∠ -90
o
0 + j245.04
245.04 ∠ 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k ∠ -90o
470 + j0
470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ
æ ÏÑÐÜ8Ø»ÈÖE Í#Ö'ÒÓ'Ê!Ö'Ï|q8s p ù ÚÏ]Ó}ÌÔÏ]ÙèÒ8Ö'ÈÓ+âÈÓ'ÉåàjÔXÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|ÏÚ¾Ï]Ò3Ó#Ð#Ï]Ó'çý
more "dummy" voltage sources to

act as current measurement points
in the SPICE analysis (all set to 0
volts).
C1
4.7 µF
2 3 3
T T
T Vilc Vir
Vit
4
1
L S 6
650 mH
S120 V 5
60 Hz R 470 Ω

C2 1.5 µF
0 0 0
UVXW)YQZ\[]YWQ^?_U)ZÙbacadYcaeZ`^cac^`VfVb[gZ,Vgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnkgoclpWb[rq
j\[giskmotUVl
j\[)abV.u3vpUV3l
j\[gZtutwtUVl
Vk*otu3vFxzy?h
a.vn{twc{clg|
V)oX{tl}k~xz{?h
Zpwtlfv`ycl
xzUV.a[qk*wclXwcl
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjoKu,Njd_o;u,3['j[gi\3[r_zj\[gi\
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjv{,Njd_v{,3['j[)a`Vb.[_j\[)abVb
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj{Kl,Njd_{;l,3['j[)a`Vb.[_j\[)abVb
êXóó ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿, -¾ÿ.
/10`ÿ -¾ÿ324r£j¡e£
5
½ l
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjwKl,Njd_w;l,3['j[gZ\3[r_zj\[gZ\
xzY)qb
`Z YQ jo;u, jQ_oKu ['j\[ri\ [r_j\[gi\ k
wxzldlclQbblk xzodycwQbblk^duxkgwcuQbcl\k k~xv`wdwQ^dl\k {x1cucyQbcl\k
Z`YQ jv{, jQ_v{ ['j\[?a`Vb [r_j\[)a`Vc
wxzldlclQbblk k~xzld{cQbblk^k~x1uccQbclco vFxzucoduQ^dlco k~x1u\kgoQbclco
Z`YQ j{ jQ_{, ['j\[?a`Vb [r_j\[)a`Vc bo
wxzldlclQbblk yxzw)v`{Qbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k vFxzucoduQ^dlco k~x1u\kgoQbclco
Z`YQ jw jQ_w, ['j\[rZ\ [r_j\[gZ\
wxzldlclQbblk wxz{dcwQbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k k~xv`lk^dl\k vFxkgocoQbcl\k
ù ÌÔ)ÎôØ»ÉtÊ3È+ÏÚ:Ö(ÎÈlq8s p ù Ï]Ò8Ö'èÒ8ÖeØ»É»ÍWÖ(É»ÊËË]É»â]ÈEÍ Ö(ÎÈ+âÏ]ØtÖ'ÌËÈ]ÜÑâÏ]ØtÖ'ÌËÈè3Î3Ì]Í(È}ÌÊËØtÈÜÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖXÜ]Ì]Ê3ÕÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ
èÎ3ÌÍWÈoÌÊËØtÈôÚÏ]Ó+ ¹ Ü>ö`Ü' · Ü\ÌÊ3Õ ÜÉtÊÖ(Î3ÌÖÏÓ'Õ8ÈXÓXálÍÞ]ÏÒÔÌ]ÊÍ(ÈÈ]Ü:Ö'ÎÈXÍ(ÈôàjË]ÒÓ'ÈXÍÕ8Ï!ÔÏ]Ê3ÔÒÓÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÏ]Ò3Ó
Î3Ì]Ê3Õ î ÔÌØûÔÒ3Ø»ÌÖ(ÈXÕ|à3ËÒÓ(ÈEÍ#ÉtÊüÖ(Î3ÈÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖlÌ]Ê3ÌØ»Þ8ÍWÉûÍÖ'Ì]×ØtÈá
lÍ`ÕÌÒÊLÖ'ÉtÊË¶ÌÖ'Ì]Í(çÌ]ÍeÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ î è3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈbØ 5ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖÌÊ3Ì]ØtÞ8Í(É»Í¾ÙÌ9ÞoÌèè:ÈXÌ]ÓXÜÉåÖ`Ù¶Ò3ÍWÖ`×jÈlÈÙèÎ3ÌÍWÉ»ºÈEÕoÖ(Î3ÌÖ
Ö(Î3ÈÓ'È¶ÉûÍÊÏÖ'ÎÉtÊ3Ë!Ó'ÈXÌ]ØtØ»ÞÊÈÐnËÏ]É»ÊË|ÏÊÎÈXÓ(È¶×jÈEÍWÉûÕ8ÈEÍlÖ'ÎÈÒ3Í(È¶Ï]ÚÔÏÙoè3ØtÈ ÊCÒÙ¶×jÈXÓ'ÍXá¶õgÎÙ Íö Ì9Ð÷uÉ»Ê ÉtÖ'Í
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capacitor charging: voltage increasing (in opposite polarity)

inductor discharging: current decreasing
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capacitor fully charged: voltage at (-) peak

inductor fully discharged: zero current
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capacitor discharging: voltage decreasing

inductor charging: current increasing
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capacitor fully discharged: zero voltage

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capacitor charging: voltage increasing

inductor discharging: current decreasing
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capacitor fully charged: voltage at (+) peak

inductor fully discharged: zero current
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XL = 2πfL XC =
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2πfL =
2πfC
Multiplying both sides by f eliminates the f

term in the denominator of the fraction . . .
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2πf2L =
2πC
Dividing both sides by 2πL leaves f2 by itself

on the left-hand side of the equation . . .
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f2 =
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equation leaves f by itself on the left side . . .
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f=
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. . . simplifying . . .
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XL = 2πfL
XL = (2)(π)(159.155 Hz)(100 mH)
XL = 100 Ω
1
XC =
2πfC
X =
1
C
(2)(π)(159.155 Hz)(10 µF)
XC = 100 Ω

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Zparallel =
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Zparallel =
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100 Ω ∠ 90o 100 Ω ∠ -90o
¥
Zparallel = 0.01 ∠ -90o 1+ 0.01 ∠ 90o
¥
Zparallel = 01 Undefined!
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series
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series
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k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x ! x m x x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x ! m x x x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x x! m x x x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wjx ``ycQ^Qlco x x !m x x
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k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uc'o `c^Ql\k}x x x m x o x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x x x m o x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x x o m x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x xÛ ! m x x x
k~xz2 `òQbbldo ujx ``lcwQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x ! x m x x x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo ojx ``w\k^Qlco x ! x m x x x
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R 100 Ω
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plot voltage waveform
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These waveforms are

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2.0377 + j2.4569 2.9623 - j2.4569 5 + j0
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3.1919 ∠ 50.328o 3.8486 ∠ -39.6716o 5 ∠ 0o
926.22µ + j1.1168m 926.22µ + j1.1168m 926.22µ + j1.1168m
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1.4509m ∠ 50.328o 1.4509m ∠ 50.328o 1.4509m ∠ 50.328o
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1.3807m + j1.1098m 1.3807m + j1.1098m 1.3807m + j1.1098m
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ER = [3.1919 V ∠ 50.328o (60 Hz)] + [3.8971 V ∠ 38.793o (90 Hz)]
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©#ªB«c¬ ;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯·¶ ªB«¸ª ± ¯°¹aº ´ ¶-¹«c¯ ²°µM» ¶ ²M´ ¬ » ¯/¼½«0¾j¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ ¿!º »!² ª¯#À ´ « ² ¼½¹« ´ ¬Áº ´Â ¹ µM´ ¿ ²°Ãc´^µ°´ ª¶ ² ¼³Ä ´
ïBc»0µ ¼ ²0 Å ï ¹ Â ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¯·¾¼³Ä ´ ¯ ²°Ã0´ ÀÆª)¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«Rª¬!ÄSªB« ² ª¾ ´Ç å ÂNÈd´ÉÈd´ µ°´X² ¹[¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«Rªbºcª«c¬ ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´µH» ¯°¼³«c¾
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ ¿!¼ ² À¼½¾ Ã ²Ê± ¹¹Ë)¯/¹À ´-²°Ã ¼³«0¾ ± ¼³Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
Inductive band-pass filter
Source lfilter
High-pass
section
lfilter
Low-pass
section
nR L
1 2
L nR
1 load
Í Ã0´ÉÂ ª¶ ²H²MÃ ª ²¤²MÃ0´Ã ¼³¾ Ã!; ª¯M¯¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«Î¶-¹À ´ ¯ ïB8cµ ¯ ² ï ¼½« ²MÃ ¼½¯^¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«R¼½«c¯ ²M´ ª¬Ï¹ Âd²°Ã0´± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯4¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«
jÀ ªBË ´ ¯N«c¹a¬!¼³Ð ´µM´ «c¶ ´ ¼½«)¼ ² ¯'¹SÄ ´ µ ª ±³± ¹ ´ µ ª ² ¼½¹« Ç å ²#È ¼ ±½± ¯ ² ¼ ±½±8c±C²M´µ ¹ »!² ª ±½±ÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹ ¹ Ã ¼½¾ Ã ¹ µN² ¹ ¹ ± ¹ È^Ç
Ò Ã ¼ ±³´¤²MÃ0´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ± ¼Ì¬ ´ ªa¹ Â ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«0¼½«0¾ ± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯#ªB«¬ Ã ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯ ² ¹¾ ´-²°Ãc´µ#² ¹ÀjªBË ´ ªÉºªB«c¬ ª¯M¯
8c±³²°´ µ ¼Ì¯¯°¹ » «¬F¿¼ ² ¼Ì¯Ê«c¹ ²È ¼ ²°Ã ¹ »!² ¶ ´µ°² ª¼³« ± ¼³À¼ ² ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ Ç © ´ ¶ ª » ¯ ´^²°Ã ¼½¯ ²Å ´ ¹ Â ºcªB«¬ ;® ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´µHÈ ¹ µ Ë¯#º Å
µM´±½Å ¼½«0¾K¹« ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹« ² ¹ =Ô³Õ*ÖNê)» « È ªB« ²°´ ¬ ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ ¿9¼ ² ¶ª«.º ´ ¬!¼ < ¶ »0±³²² ¹>¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«.¯ » ¶ Ã ª 8c±³²°´µ
² ¹Zª ±½± ¹ È» « Ã ¼½«c¬ ´ µ°´ ¬ ª¯°¯MªB¾ ´XÈ ¼ ²MÃ ¼½« ²MÃ0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µM´ ¬ ÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å¸µ ª«0¾ ´Ç ©'¹ ²°ÃÏ²MÃ0á± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯4ª«c¬ Ã ¼³¾ Ã!;® ª¯M¯
¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«c¯ È ¼ ±³± ª ±³È ª Å ¯aº ´ º ± ¹!¶@Ë¼³«0¾§¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹§¯°¹À ´¸´-×²M´ « ² ¿#ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¼ µ ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½« ´ ¬ ´ Ð¹ µ/² ÀjªBË ´ ¯ Â ¹ µ ª«
ª ²°²°´ « » ª ²°´ ¬ ìÑµM´ ¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ªBÀ 0± ¼ ²°» ¬ 4´ í ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ª ² º ´ ¯ ² ¿ ´ Ä ´ «jª ²9²°Ã0´Ê´ ªËÓ¹ Â²MÃ0´ïB ª¯M¯ ; ºcªB«¬ ïÊÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅÓµ ª«0¾ ´Ç
ØÊ¹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´)²°Ã0´ ¶ »0µ Ä ´b´ ªËK¹« ²°Ãc´)0µM´ Ä¼½¹ » ¯ ð0ñ å°Ù'Úª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯ Ó²MÃ0´)± ¹ª¬>Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¹ Â·²°Ã ¼Ì¯ 8±C²M´µ « ´ Ä ´µÓµ ¼Ì¯ ´ ¯
ªBº¹SÄ áP0Ç¢BÛ Ä¹ ±³² ¯ ¿Fª ±³²°Ã ¹ » ¾ ÃÏ²°Ã0´ ¯°¹ »0µ ¶ ´ Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¼Ì¯¤ª ÂÑ»c±³± Ä¹ ±³² Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯¤¯/¼½¾«cª ± ª ²/²M´ « » ª ² ¼³¹«Rº ´ ¶¹À ´ ¯HÀ¹ µM´
g Oló ôihõ \i]%^öQ÷0øùúû!]%^öü
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²°Ãc´^ ª¯M¯ ; ºcª«c¬ Ç Ò ´^È ¼ ±½± ¬!¼½¯M¶ » ¯°¯ ²MÃ ¹¯ ´ À ´-²°Ã ¹¬c¯Êª ± ¼ ²/²M±³´^± ª ²M´µ ¼½« ²MÃ ¼Ì¯Ê¶ Ã ª 0²°´µ*Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý.å ª¯M=@¯°? ªûy¾ þB´ fA ÿ0¹?S« æ@±½æHÅj8² ¹ ±C²M´ÂÑµMµX´ È: »0¹ ´ µ «cË!¶-¯ ¼ ´ ² ¯¹ÏÈ ¯M¶ ¼ ²°µMÃ ´´¼³«¸«§ª¹ »!¶ ²^´ µ/ÂÑ² µMªB´ ¼½: « »0µ ´ ªB«c«0¶-¾ ¼ ´ ´¯ Ç ²°Ã ª ² ª µM´² ¹¹ ± ¹ È ¹ µ^² ¹¹ Ã ¼½¾ Ã ¿D¾¼³Ä¼½«0¾ ´ ª¯ Å
Ý Ä ©'¼Ìª¯M«cª ; ¬ Ä ;´ µ ª¯M¯Mª ¯ Ç 8c±C²M´µ ¯Ê¶ª«[º ´ Àjª¬ ´ º Å ¯ ² ª¶@Ë ¼½«0¾ª ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¹« ²MÃ0´¤´ «c¬Á¹ Â ª Ã ¼½¾ Ã!; ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¿!¹ µ
Ý ï¶-¹å « ²/²M²Mµ ´ ¹ « ± » ¹ª « ²°!´ Å ï ¹ »0À µ ´ ¯ªB²°«´ ¯ µ°´ ² ¹c¹ ¿ Å µ°´¹ ¬ » » ª ¶ µ°´ ´¹ ï µ ª ²/¬!²M¼½´ À« » ¼³«cª ¼½² ¯ ¼³Ã «c¾ ¼³ïÉ«²°ªBÃ0À ´ 0¯°¼½± ¾¼ ²M«c» ª ¬ ± ´º Ç ´ ¼½Ò «0¾bÃ0´¯ ´« « ²#Å ¹ ² ». ²°»0µ «2¬!¹ È « ²°Ãc´ Ä¹ ±½» À ´
¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ªË ´ µ ¯ Ç
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åªBº± ¯°¹S¹RÄ ´ ¶ª ª±³«c±½´ ¬Á¬ º =@´ ?± ¹ ûÈ þSA/ªèÔèæê é~ª æJµ/û² ¼½?S¶ I»0æëÕ± ª û µÊ¿ µ =@ªB?«0û¾ þS´ Aì°¯ èë´í² è@Ö-º I Åb¿i¹ ²Mµ)Ã0´ ûÕS¶¹IÖ@À îÁ 8c¹±³« ²°´ ´ µ« ¯ ² ¿ ÄS²°ª Ã ±½¼Ì»0¯Ó´ Ë¯ Ç ¼½«cØÊ¬§¹ ¹ ² Â'¯ 8»0±Cµ°²Mc´µ µa¼Ì¯/ ¼½«0ª¾ ¯M±³¯ Å ´ ¿0¯X¼ ² ª ±½¶±dªBÂÑ«¸µ°´*º :´»c´ Àj«c¶ª¼ ¬ ´ ´ ¯
¹ »0² ¹ Â ª ± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯Xª«c¬§ª Ã ¼³¾ Ã!;® ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¿vï » ¯ ²É± ¼½Ë ´b²MÃ0´ ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯É¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«¿ ´-× ¶ ´ !²Ó²MÃ ª ²a²°Ã ¼½¯ ² ¼½À ´)È'´
¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²#²°Ã0´¤²È ¹ 8c±³²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¯#¼³« ª µ ª ±³±½´±vÈ ¼ ²°ÃZ´ ª¶ Ã ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ ¼³«c¯ ²°´ ª¬[¹ Â ¼³«¸¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Ç
passes low frequencies
Low-pass filter
Signal
input
ðSignal
output
High-pass filter
Ùd¹«¯ ²Mµ°» ¶ ²°´ ¬ » ¯°¼½«0passes

¾ ²È ¹j¶ª high
ª¶¼ ² frequencies
¼³Ä ´48±C²M´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«c¯ ¿!¼ ²Ê± ¹¹Ë!¯#¯/¹À ´-²°Ã ¼³«0¾ ± ¼½Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
"Twin-T" band-stop filter
R1 R2
pC
pC 1 pC
2 3
source nR nR
3 load
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ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¼Ì¯É¶¹À 0µ ¼½¯ ´ ¬¹ Â Ù ¿'ÙB¿%ª«c¬ ÿ )¼½«2ª Í
i¶-¹« 8 ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼³¹«ª¯ Èd´ ±³±®Ç Í¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ ¿ ²MÃ ¼½¯
ª µMµ ªB«0¾ ´ À ´ « ² ¼½¯H¶-¹ÀÀa¹« ±½Å Ë«0¹ È «Ïª¯4ªÍ È ¼³« ; Í 8c±³²°´ µ ¿v¾¼½Ä¼³«c¾b¯ Ã ª µ°¸µM´ ¯ ¹«c¯ ´XÈ·Ã0´ « ²°Ã0´ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²
ÄSª ±½»0´ ¯·ª µ°´ ¶ Ã ¹ ¯ ´ «)¼½« ²°Ã0´¤Â ¹ ±³± ¹ È ¼³«c¾ µ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯
Component value ratios for
the "Twin-T" band-stop filter
nR = R2 = 2(R3)
1
pC = C = (0.5)C
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Ý Í Ã0´HÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹ Â Àjª × ¼³À » À ª ²/²°´ « » ª ² ¼³¹«[¼Ì¯Ê¶ª ±³±½´ ¬ ²°Ãc]´ ûÕSIÖ@îÓÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅÇ
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¹ Â ª µ ¿ ²MÃ0´8c±³²°´ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ È'´
Ä ´ ¶-¹«c¶ ´ « ²Mµ ª ²°´ ¬Ï¹« Ã ªÄ ´É´ À 0± ¹ Å´ ¬ è3"êIÑî0èì ¶ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¯ ÕBì ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ ¿º »!²
« ´ Ä ´µ º¹ ²°Ã ª ²H²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´X² ¼³À ´Ç Ò ´ ¯ Ã ¹ »0± ¬ÏË«0¹ È º Å «0¹ È²°Ã ª ² ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«cª ² ¼³¹«c¯Ê¹ Â54 ªB«c¬>Ù È ¼ ±½±D²°´ «c¬ ² ¹
µM´ ¯°¹«cª ²°´ ¿!ª«c¬ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ 0µ ¹ ´µ°²Å ¶ª«[º ´^´-×!0± ¹¼ ²°´ ¬[¼½«¸¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«0¼½«0¾aºcªB«c¬ ;® ª¯°¯·ª«c¬[ºcªB«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹ )8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ Ç
´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯É¾¼½Ä ´ Àa¼½«0¼½À » À ¼½À ´ ¬0ªB«¶ ´ ª ²ÉµM´ ¯°¹«ªB«c¶ ´ ¿ È·Ã ¼ ±³´Á ª µ ª ±½±½´5± 4 0 Ù 6 ² ª«0Ë7^¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯
¾¼½Ä ´ Àª × ¼³À » À ¼³À ´ ¬0ª«c¶ ´ ª ²4²MÃ0´ ¼ µ¤µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²·ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅÇ 8 «0¹ È ¼½«0¾ ²MÃ ¼½¯ ¿ Èd´ÉÃ ªÄ ´X²È ¹bºª¯°¼½¶É¯ ²Mµ ª ²°´ ¾¼ ´ ¯
Â ¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«0¼³«c¾ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯#¹ µ ºªB«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹ [8c±³²°´ µ ¯ Ç
70¹ µ ºcªB«¬ ;® ª¯M¯ 8±C²M´µ ¯¿ ²°Ã0´²È ¹¸ºcª¯°¼Ì¶ µM´ ¯°¹«ªB« ² ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´ ¾¼ ´ ¯Hª µ°á²MÃ ¼½¯ Ó¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù ² ¹ ª¯°¯^ª¸¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¿¹ µ
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Series resonant band-pass filter
lfilter
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1
1
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mV 1V
1H 1 µF
nR 1 kΩ
1 load
0 0
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Í Ã0´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ºª¯°¼½¶^¯ ²Å±³´ ¹ ÂDµ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ºcª«c¬ ; ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ ´ À 0± ¹ Å ¯#ª ² ªB«cË)¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª µ ª ±³±½Ń± 4 Ù¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«cª ;
² ¼½¹« ² ¹j¯ Ã ¹ µ°² ¹ »!² ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹¹ Ã ¼½¾ Ã ¹ µ#² ¹¹ ± ¹ È ¼½« ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅbÂÑµ ¹ÀV¾ ´²/² ¼½«0¾ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´^± ¹ªN¬
g OPO ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Parallel resonant band-pass filter
lfilter
nR
1 2 2
1
Q 2
mV 500 Ω
:L pC
1
1 1 Rload 1 kΩ
1V 100 10
mH µF
0 0
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0 0
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± ¹ È ¼½À ´ ¬cªB«c¶ ´ ¿c¯ Ã ¹ µ°² ¼½«0¾a¹ »!²·²MÃ0´ ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ª«c¬[¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼½«0¾Àa¹ ¯ ² ¹ Â ¼ ² ª¶ µ ¹ ¯°¯'¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼Ì¯ ² ¹ µ·ÿÇ
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T » ¯ ²X± ¼½Ë ´j²MÃ0´)± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯^ªB«c¬ Ã ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ µM´±½Å ¼³«0¾¸¹«§ªÏ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ªB«c¬§ª ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±
¯ Ã ¹ µ/² ¼³«0¾Z¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²X² ¹Rª ²/²M´ « » ª ²M´b» « È ªB« ²°´ ¬ ÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯¿ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¶ª«§« ´ Ä ´µXcµ ¹SÄ¼Ì¬ ´
ÂÑ»0±½± ¼½« 0»!² ¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´ %Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´² ¹ ²MÃ0´¤± ¹ ª¬ Ç Í Ã ª ² ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´HÈ ¼ ±½± ª ±½È ª Å ¯dº ´ ¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼½«0¾¯/¹À ´ ªÀa¹ » « ²
¹ Â Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯°¹ ± ¹«c¾ª¯ ²°Ã0´ µ°´ ¼Ì¯·ª ± ¹ ª¬ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¹ »0²°0»!² ¹ Â²MÃ0´¤8c±³²°´ µ Ç
² ¯ Ã ¹ »0± ¬Éº ´ «c¹ ²°´ ¬ ²°Ã ª ²9²°Ã ¼Ì¯ Â ¹ µ À¹ Â ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¼½¯9Ä ´µMÅ^ ¹ 0»0± ª µ ¼½«jªB«cª ± ¹¾ µ ª¬0¼³¹ ²°» «0¼³«c¾
¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²°µMÅ ¿ Â ¹ µ ¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½«0¾Óª ª µ°² ¼Ì¶ »0± ª µ%µ ª¬!¼³¹ ÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅÓÂÑµ ¹À ²°Ã0´ À »0±³² ¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ¯d¹ ÂFÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯dªÄª¼ ± ªBº ±³´#ÂÑµ ¹À
²°Ãc´ ª« ²M´ «0«ª Ç «.À¹¯ ² ª«cª ± ¹¾ µ ª¬0¼³¹ ²M» « ´ µ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯¿ ²MÃ0´[µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«0¾Î¬!¼Ìª ±dÂ ¹ µ ¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«2¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«.Àa¹SÄ ´ ¯Éª
ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±½´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¼½«Zª ² ªB«cË)¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² Ç
Í Ã0´ ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±½´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ªB«¬Kª¼ µ°; ¶¹ µM´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ã ¹ È «Î¼³« ²°Ãc´ ªº¹SÄ ´ÉcÃ ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª cÃ ¹ Â ªÁ¯°¼½À c±³´µ ª¬!¼½¹
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Series resonant band-stop filter
R1 2
1 2
Q
500 Ω
mV 1V
L1 100 mH
Rload
n 1 kΩ
1
pC 3
10 µF
1
0 0
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0
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Parallel resonant band-stop filter
pC 10 µF
1
1 2
:L
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1 100 mH
nR 1 kΩ
1 load
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«ª ±½±²°Ã0´ ¯ ´#µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²G8c±³²°´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯¿ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼³Ä¼ ²Å ¬ ´ ´ «c¬0¯i¾ µM´ ª ²°±½Å^»0 ¹« ²°Ã0´ 0»0µ ¼ ²Å ¹ Âc²MÃ0´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ;
² ª«c¶ ´ ªB«c¬¸¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ª«c¶ ´X» ¯ ´ ¬ Ç Â9²°Ãc´µM´ ¼Ì¯ª« Å ¯ ²Mµ ª ÅÁµM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ ´ ¯ ´ ¶-¼Ìª ±½±³ÅZ± ¼³Ë ´±½Å ¼½« ²°Ãc´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ Ü¿ ²MÃ ¼½¯
È ¼ ±³± ¬!¼³À¼½«0¼Ì¯ ÃZ²MÃ0´X8c±³²°´ µ
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È ¹ µ ¬É¹ Â ¶ª »!² ¼½¹« ² ¹ ²MÃ ¹¯ ´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«0¼½«0¾ ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯iªB«c¬ Ã ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯i¼Ì¯9¼½«¹ µ ¬ ´µ ª ²i²MÃ ¼½¯ ¹¼³« ² Ç Âê²°´µ
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¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¼³Ä ´ ª«c¬Á¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¼³Ä ´^´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯ ² ¹¾ ´-²MÃ0´µ·± ¼³Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
Capacitive/inductive low-pass filter
filter
L1 2 L2
1 3
100 mH 100 mH
mV 1V pC nR 1 kΩ
1
1 1 µF load
0 0
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0
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²8µ ¯ ² ¿ ²MÃ ¼½¯i¯ ´´ À¯ ² ¹Hº ´ ª4¾¹¹!¬X¯ ²Mµ ª ²°´ ¾ Å ¿ªB«¬ ´± ¼½Àa¼½«cª ²°´ ¯ ²°Ãc´ « ´ ´ ¬ Â ¹ µ ª4¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ÇUH ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿
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/ !! %-cvÁ Z

»0µM´¤´ «0¹ » ¾ Ã ¿ Èd´ ¯ ´´¤²°Ãc´ Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ª¶ µ ¹ ¯°¯·Ù ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¯ ¼½Ë¼³«0¾ ² ¹bª Ã ¼³¾ Ã[ ¹¼½« ² ª ²·²°Ãc´
¯MªBÀ áÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅRÈ·Ã0´ µ°á²°Ãc´j± ¹ ª¬KÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¼Ì¯¤Àª × ¼³À » À Ç Â'È'´Èd´ µ°´´×´ ¶ ² ¼½«0¾ ²°Ã ¼½¯ 8±C²M´µ^² ¹ 0µ ¹SÄ¼Ì¬ ´ ª
¯°¼³À 0±½´^± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯ ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼½¹«¿ Èd´ À¼³¾ Ã ² º ´ ¬!¼Ì¯°ª 0 ¹¼½« ²M´ ¬Áº Åj²°Ãc´^µ°´ ¯ »0±³² ¯ Ç
o ´ ¯ ¼ ²M´Ï²MÃ ¼½¯ » «c¼³« ²°´ «c¬ ´ ¬ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB«¶ ´ ¿ ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯[Àjª¬ ´K»0 ¹ Â ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¯[ªB«c¬¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯[ª µM´
ÂÑµM´ : »0´ « ²M±³Åj» ¯ ´ ¬[ª¯ 8 «cª ± ¯ ² ª¾ ´ ¯%¼½« å Ù aPo¤Ù ¹ È'´µ ¯ »0c0± ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹ 8c±³²°´ µ'²°Ã0´H» « È ª« ²°´ ¬ å p Ù µ ¼ 00±½´ XÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
¹ »0² ¹ Â²°Ã0´ o¤Ù¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²°´ ¬ ÂÑµ ¹À å Ù Ç Ò ÃÅ ¼½¯ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ¿ ¼ Â²MÃ ¼½¯ ª µ/² ¼½¶ »0± ª µN8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« ¹¯M¯ ´ ¯°¯ ´ ¯dª ¹ ²°´ « ² ¼Ìª ±½±³Å
²°µ ¹ » º ±³´ ¯/¹À ´HµM´ ¯°¹«ªB« ²' ¹¼½« )² q
Í Ã0´ ªB«¯ È'´µi± ¼ ´ ¯9¼³« ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¹ Âc8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯/c¼ b ´ ¯9ªB«c¬ ²°Ã0´#ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯ ´ «c¶-¹ » « ²°´ µ°´ ¬ ÂÑµ ¹Àª«
Ùå ao^Ù¶¹«Ä ´ µ/²M´µ µM´ ¶ ² ¼ 8c´µ Ç Ò Ã ª ²ÊÈd´
µM´²°µMÅ ¼½«0¾ ² ¹j¬!¹¼½«¸ªB« å Ù ao^Ù ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »0c0±³Åb8c±C²M´µ ¼Ì¯Ê¯ ´ ª µ ª ²°´

o^ÙÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´HÂÑµ ¹À ªb¯/Àjª ±³± ªBÀ¹ » « ² ¹ Â9µ°´ ± ª ² ¼½Ä ´±½Å)Ã ¼³¾ Ã!; ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ Å å ÙÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´Ç Í Ãc´^8c±³²°´µ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯4ª«c¬
¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯ª µ°´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ±½±³Å¸: » ¼ ²°á± ª µ ¾ ´ ¯ ´ Ä ´µ ª i± HÊ´ « µMÅ ¯ Â ¹ µ²MÃ0´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¤ªB«c¬ ²°Ã ¹ » ¯°ª«c¬0¯H¹ 5Â r 7 Â ¹ µH²°Ãc´
¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯¤¼½¯ ²Å ¼Ì¶ª ± Ü¿iÀjªBË¼½«0¾ ²°Ãc´b8c±³²°´ µ
¯ µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²^ÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å Ä ´µMÅ ¿Ä ´µMÅK± ¹ È^Ç o¤Ù ¹ Â ¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ Ã ª¯Óª
ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ Å K¹ Â b ´ µ ¹¿%¯/¹ ²MÃ0´µM´
¯«0¹ È ª Å ¼ ² ¶ ªB« ÀªË ´ ªB« 4 ÙV¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²bµ°´ ¯/¹«cª ²M´Ç Í Ã0´Zµ ¼ 00±½´ Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¿
¹« ²MÃ0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µXÃ ªB«¬F¿G¼Ì¯ÓªZ«c¹« ; ¯/¼½« » ¯°¹¼Ì¬0ª ± å ÙÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¶¹«c¯°¼Ì¯ ² ¼³«0¾¸¹ Â ª ÂÑ» «c¬0ªÀ ´ « ² ª ±%ÂÑµ°´*: »0´ «c¶ Å ª ²X±³´ ª¯ ²
²È ¼Ì¶ ´¤²°Ãc´¤ÂÑµ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹ ÂD²°Ã0´ ¶¹«Ä ´ µ/²M´ ¬ å ÙÄ¹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¿ È ¼ ²°ÃZÃ ª µ À¹«c¼½¶ ¯#Àª« Åj² ¼½À ´ ¯ ²MÃ ª ² ¼½«¸ª¬0¬!¼ ² ¼½¹« Ç 70¹ µ
0±½» ¾ ; ¼½« ; ²MÃ0´-;È ª ±½±! ¹ È'´µ ¯ »000± ¼ ´ ¯ µM» «0«0¼½«0¾¤¹« OPH b Ù ¹ Èd´ µ OPH b k «0¼ ²°´ ¬' ² ª ²°´ ¯ E?BPH b·¼½«jÚ »0µ ¹ ´ -¿
²°Ãc´j± ¹ È'´ ¯ ²ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅÏ²°Ã0´8c±³²°´ µXÈ ¼ ±³±N´ Ä ´ µ ¯ ´´ ¼Ì¯ g eå sP H bt g PnP H bj¼½«ÎÚ »0µ ¹ ´ Ü¿ È·Ã ¼½¶ Ã ¼Ì¯ Èd´ ±³± ªº¹SÄ ´ ¼ ² ¯
µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²9 ¹¼½« ² Ç Í Ã0´µM´-Â ¹ µ°´ ¿ ²°Ã0´4 ¹ ²°´ « ² ¼½ª ±³±½ÅX²Mµ ¹ » º ±½´ ¯°¹À ´#µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²9 ¹¼³« ² ¼½«jª^¯ » ¶ Ã ª 8±C²M´µ ¼Ì¯N¶-¹À 0±³´²°´ ±³Å
!ñ ò<;ò ýÊüdõ÷>= ô =aöùDúûöiü%ýõ g Vþ
ªÄ¹¼½¬ ´ ¬ Ç
Í Ã0´HÂ ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼³«0¾'u°Ù'Ú2ª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯#¶ª ± ¶ »c± ª ²°´ ¯ ²MÃ0´ Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹ »0²°0»!² Ù¥ª«c¬so^Ù> Â ¹ µ ¯ » ¶ Ã ª 8±C²M´µ ¿ È ¼ ²MÃ
¯ ´µ ¼ ´ L¯ o¤Ù2ªB«¬ å Ùv g eBPH bSiÄ¹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´ ¯ 0µ ¹SÄ¼½¬!¼½«0¾^ª µ ¹ » ¾ Ã ª 00å µ ¹ × ¼½Àjª ² ¼³¹«É¹ Â²MÃ0´ À¼ ×!´ ¬ ; ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ Å
¹ »0²°0»!² ¹ Â ª« å ÙaPo¤Ù¥¶-¹« Ä ´µ°²°´ µ Ç
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AC/DC power supply filter
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mV
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Ò¼ ²°Ã ª ÂÑ»0±½± g e Ä¹ ±³² ¯ o¤Ù ª ²^²MÃ0´b± ¹ª¬Îª«c¬Î¹« ±½Å>þPcÇ g eKr9 ¹ Â Ù ±½´-Âê²XÂÑµ ¹À ²°Ã0´ g Ä¹ ±³² Ù¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´
¼½À ¹¯ ´ ¬Zª¶ µ ¹¯M¯ ²MÃ0´^± ¹ ª¬F¿ ²MÃ ¼Ì¯Ê¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« cµ ¹SÄ ´ ¯d¼ ² ¯ ´ ±CÂD² ¹jº ´ ªaå Ä ´µMÅb´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼½Ä ´¤ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »c00å ±½Åj8c±³²°´µ*Ç
Í Ã0´Ê±½´ ¯M¯°¹« ±³´ ª µ « ´ ¬ Ã0´ µ°´ ªº¹ »!²%µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²N´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¯%ª ± ¯°¹Xª 0c± ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹ ²°Ãc´ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«¹ ÂFÃ ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ » ¯°¼³«c¾
º¹ ²°Ã ¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯4ªB«¬Ï¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç ¹ ± ¹«0¾Áª¯ ²°Ã0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µ°´ ¬ÏªB«c¬ » «c¬ ´ ¯/¼ µM´ ¬ ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯Hª µM´ÓÈ'´±½±D² ¹ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ
¯°¼½¬ ´ ¹ ÂG²MÃ0´^µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²# ¹¼³« ² ¿ ²°Ã0´¤8c±³²°´ µÊÈ ¼ ±³±FÈ ¹ µ Ëb¹ËSª ÅÇ © »!² ¼ Â ª« Å ¯/¼½¾«ª ± ¹ Â ¯/¼½¾«c¼ 8 ¶ ªB« ² Àª¾«0¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ¶ ± ¹¯ ´
² ¹ ²MÃ0´^µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²#ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «¶ Å ¼Ì¯·ª 0c± ¼ ´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¼³« 0»!² ¹ Â²°Ãc´¤8c±C²M´µ ¿c¯ ²°µ ªB«0¾ ´4²MÃ ¼³«c¾¯ È ¼ ±³±FÃ ª 0´ N« f
g V@ ih ô Hø öiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Ý ºcÿ·ªB´ «c¯°¹¬ «c;® ªª« ¯°² ¯#¶ª¹«cÀÉ¬Áº0ºc¼³«ªBª «c² ¬ ¼½¹; ¯«² ¯i¹ ¹ [Â 8¶±Cª ²M ´ªµ ¯ ¶-¼ È ² ª¼ «c²MÃ ¶ ¹´ »0ª²·«c²°¬aÃ0¼³´ «c¬« » ´´ ¶ ¬² ªBÂ «c¹ ¶ µ ´ ª¶¬0ªB¬ «´ º ¬ ´Êµ°´´ À¯/¼Ì¯ 0² ± ªB¹ «Å ¶ ´ ´ ¬ ¼³² «¸¹Xªj¶ µM¶´ ¼ ª µ ²°¶ ´ » ¼ Ä ²·´ ²°µ°ÃÅXª ´ ²4Ð È ´ ¶ ¹ ² »0¼³Ä ± ¬ ´
¬!¼³À¼½«0¼Ì¯ ÃÁ²°Ãc´^ ª¯M¯°ª¾ ´ ¹ Â ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µM´ ¬ ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ Ç
o2π
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å¬ ´ ¯ ¯/¼½±½¾´ « «0¾Ç ²°ÃÅ : »ª¯¼½¶@Ë²°Ã ¼Ì¯¤´ µ°¶ » Ã ¯Mª ª 0± ²°¹ ´ÂµªBÃ « ªÅ ¯ªº ¬0´Ä´ «ª«c»0¶ ¸´ ¬ ² ¹8c±C²M²MÃ´µ ¼Ì¯ ¬ ´ ¹¯°¼³¼½¾« « ² ¿v²M¼ ´-² ×¹² º« ¹±³Å ¹Ë[º ´ ¼½¯Ê¾¼³¯ «»!¯ < ² ¶-¹[¼ ´ ¯M« ¶ ²·µ ª ² ² ¹ ¶ ÃÏ0µ ²°¹SÃ0Ä ´ ´ ¯ À »cµ/Å)Â ª ¶ ¹´ ¼½« ¹ ² Â9Ç 8cÍ ±³²°Ãc´´µ
Àjª ²MÃ0´ Àjå ª ² ¼½¶ ¯^¼½« Ä¹ ± Ä ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¶¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«§ªB«c¬ ÂÑµM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅKµ°´ ¯ ¹«c¯ ´j0µM´ ¬!¼Ì¶ ² ¼³¹«>¼½¯X¬cª » « ² ¼½«0¾ ² ¹
¯Mª Å¤²°Ã0´·±½´ ª¯ ]² XÈd´ ±³± º ´Å ¹«c¬ ²°Ã0´ ¯M¶-¹ ´ ¹ Âc²°Ãc´ º ´ ¾¼³«c«0¼³«c¾ ´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹«0¼Ì¶¯i¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²*Ç ²NÃ ª¯Dº ´ ´ «À Å ¼³« ²°´ « ²NÃ0´µM´
² ¹ 0µ°´ ¯ ´ « ²Ê²°Ã0´ ºcª¯°¼Ì¶ 0µ ¼³«c¶¼ c±³´ ¯4¹ ÂD8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« È ¼ ²MÃ ª¯ ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ Àjª ²°Ã ª¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´ ¿ ±½´ ªB«c¼³«0¾)¹« ²°Ãc´Ó ¹ Èd´ µ
¹ Âi²MÃ0´ u°Ù'Ú¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯ 0µ ¹¾ µ ªÀ ² ¹ ´×!0± ¹ µ°´H8c±³²°´ µ4´µ°Â ¹ µ ÀjªB«c¶ ´Ç Í Ãc´ º ´ « ´-8c² ¹ Â ¯ » ¶ Ã ¶-¹À 0»0²°´µ
¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹«Z¯/¹ Âê²È ª µ°´ ¶ª«0«0¹ ² º ´^» «c¬ ´µ ¯ ² ª ²°´ ¬F¿ Â ¹ µ#²MÃ0´ º ´ ¾¼½«0«0¼½«0¾b¯ ²°» ¬ ´ « ² ¹ µ#Â ¹ µ#²°Ã0´^È ¹ µ Ë¼³«0¾ ´ «c¾¼½« ´´ µ Ç
Ùd¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«j¯/¹ Âê²È ª µ°´·´ À ¹ È'´µ ¯ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²d² ¹ ´×c± ¹ µ°´ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ Â ª µ º ´ Å ¹«c¬ ²°Ã0´4µ°´ ª¶ Ã
Â¹ '²°Ãc´ ¼ µ Àjª ²°Ã ¯°Ë¼ ±½± ¯ Ç Ò¼ ²°Ã>²MÃ0´ ªBº0¼ ± ¼ ²ÅR² ¹¸¾ ´ « ´µ ª ²M´ ©d¹!¬ ´jc± ¹ ² ¯^ªB«¬ cµ°´ ¶-¼Ì¯ ´8 ¾ »0µM´ ¯ ¿ªB«>¼½« ²M» ¼ ² ¼½Ä ´j» « ;
¬ ´ µ ¯ ² ª«c¬!¼½«0¾Ï¹ Â ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¶-¹«c¶ ´ !² ¯É¶ªB«.º ´ ª ²°² ªB¼½« ´ ¬F¿ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ Ã ¼½¯a¯°¹À ´-²MÃ ¼³«c¾R¹ Âê²M´ « ± ¹¯ ²ÉÈ·Ãc´ «2ªK¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ² ¼½¯
º »0µ ¬ ´ « ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ãb²°Ã0´² ª¯/Ëa¹ Â ¯°¹ ± Ä¼³«0¾ ±³´ «0¾ ²MÃ Åa´ : » ª ² ¼½¹«c¯%º ÅaÃ ªB«c¬ Ç ÂÅ ¹ » ª µM´ «0¹ ²%Â ªÀa¼ ± ¼½ª µdÈ ¼ ²°Ãj²MÃ0´4» ¯ ´ ¹ Â
u°Ù'Ú.¹ µ ¹ ²°Ãc´µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹« 0µ ¹¾ µ ªÀj¯¿ ² ªË ´²°Ã0´¤² ¼³À ´¤² ¹aº ´ ¶¹À ´ ¯/¹ fi ²ÊÈ ¼ ±½± º ´ ¹ Â ¾ µ°´ ª ² º ´ « ´-80²
² ¹ Å ¹ »cµ ¯ ²M» ¬ ÅÇ ÍG¹X¯ ´ ´ u°Ù'ÚÎª«cª ±½Å ¯ ´ ¯ 0µM´ ¯ ´ « ²°´ ¬a¼³« ²MÃ ¼½¯%º¹¹ËÓ¼Ì¯%ªB«jª¼½¬ ² ¹ » «c¬ ´ µ ¯ ² ª«c¬!¼½«0¾X¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ ¿º »!²
² ¹Xª¶ ²M» ª ±½±³Å ¯ ´²N»0 ªB«¬aª«cª ±½Å b ´#Å ¹ »0µ ¹ È «¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯i¼Ì¯Nª¤À » ¶ Ã À¹ µM´#´ «0¾ ªB¾¼³«0¾^ª«c¬ È ¹ µ/²MÃ È·Ã ¼ ±½´
´ «¬ ´ ªÄ¹ µ ª¯·ªj¯ ²°» ¬ ´ « ² Ç
d

'& ¡ - UX_£¢WZY n¤ -DUXW ¤ ` UXWZY¦¥ZU^],¢ ¤ +É\Î`29U§-i¢+ÉW

¯ È'´)Ã ªÄ ´ ª ±½µM´ ª¬ Å ¯ ´´ «¿ ²°Ã0´ ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8c´± ¬ 0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬§º Å ªR¶ »0µ°µM´ « ²°; ¶ ª µMµ°Å ¼½«0¾¸¶-¹«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶ª«.¯ ² ¹ µM´
´å « ´µ ¾ ÅÇ Í Ã ¼Ì¯Á¯ ² ¹ µ ªB¾ ´ ¹ ÂÓ´ « ´µ ¾ Å ²°µ ªB«¯ ± ª ²M´ ¯ ² ¹2ª«¹ 0 ¹ ¯/¼ ² ¼½¹« ² ¹¶ Ã ªB«0¾ ´ ¯)¼³«¶ »0µMµM´ « ²)²MÃ0µ ¹ » ¾ Ã¥²°Ã ª ²
¶-¹«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ Ç Ù'ª ±½±³´ .¬ B¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¿ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¶ ªB«º ´ Àª¬ ´ À¹ µM´#0µ ¹«0¹ » «c¶ ´ ¬Óº ÅÉÂ ¹ µ À¼³«0¾ ²MÃ0´ ¶-¹«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
¼½« ² ¹ÉªX¶¹¼ ± ¿!ª«c¬ a¹ µN0µ ¹SÄ¼½¬!¼½«0¾Óª ª ²MÃ ¹ ÂÃ ¼³¾ Ã ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ ´µ À ´ ªBºc¼ ± ¼ ²ÅaÂ ¹ µN²°Ãc´ ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8c´± ¬ ² ¹É¬ ´ Ä ´± ¹ Ç
¨coiled wire
¨current
©magnetic field
¨current through
generated by
¨coil
¨current
å «¸ª 00µ ¹ × ¼½Àjª ²M´48 ¾ »0µM´4Â ¹ µ ªB«Z¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
¯#¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¶ ªB«Áº ´¤Â ¹ » «c¬ » ¯°¼³«c¾ ²MÃ ¼Ì¯ ´ : » ª ² ¼½¹«N
ªN2µA
L=
l
Where,
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
ªN = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
«µ = Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
A = Area of coil in square meters
Ò ´ ª ± ¯/¹§Ë«0¹ È ²°Ã ª ² ª«¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µb´× ¹¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹ª¶ Ã ª«0¾¼½«0¾>ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´ ± ¬ È ¼ ±½± ¬ ´ Ä ´± ¹ ª§Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
l = Average length of coil in meters
ª ¶ µ ¹ ¯°¯4¼ ² ¯ ±³´ «0¾ ²MÃÇ Í Ã0´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ

¯¹ 0 ¹¯°¼ ² ¼³¹« ² ¹Z¶ Ã ª«0¾ ´ ¯Ê¼½«K¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¼Ì¯HªbÀjªB«0¼ ÂÑ´ ¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«K¹ ÂN²MÃ ¼½¯ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¿
²°Ãc´ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ´ ¬[Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´H0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬[º Åb²MÃ0´ ¶ Ã ªB«c¾ ´ ¼³«Z¼ ² ¯·¹ È «ÁÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´± ¬Z¯ ²Mµ°´ «0¾ ²MÃ[cµ ¹!¬ » ¶¼³«c¾ªÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
È·Ã ¼Ì¶ ÃZ²°µ ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹)ÀjªB¼½« ² ªB¼½«Ï¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ª ²Ê²°Ã ª ² ¯MªBÀ ´ ÀjªB¾«0¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ªB«c¬Z¼½« ²°Ã ª ² ¯MªBÀ ´ ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ² ¼½¹« Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯Ê¼Ì¯4¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬
¯ ´±³Âê; ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¼³¹« Ç Í Ã0´ ¾ µ°´ ª ²M´µ'²°Ã0´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
¯·¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ëÀ ´ ª¯ »0µM´ ¬[¼³« ²°Ãc´^» «0¼ ² ¹ ÂLHÊ´ « µ°Å ¯)Ü¿ ²MÃ0´ À¹ µM´
g V7?
g V7O ih ô øöiüdý¬ ò iö ý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
¯ ´±³Âê; ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ÁÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´È ¼ ±³± º ´^0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ Â ¹ µ ªa¾¼½Ä ´ « µ ª ²M´ ¹ Â ¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¶ Ã ª«0¾ ´ ¹SÄ ´ µ%² ¼³À ´ Ç
² ¯ Ã ¹ »0± ¬ ¯ ² ªB«c¬ ² ¹ µM´ ª¯/¹«¿ ²MÃ0´ «¿ ²MÃ ª ² ¼ Â ª>¶ Ã ª«0¾¼½«0¾>ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8c´ ± ¬ 0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ º Å ¹« ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
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¶ µM´ ª ²°´ ¬K¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯ ²°µ ¹ Å´ ¬F¿¹« ±½Å ¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²°´ ¬ Ç ¯ È ¼ ²°Ã>²°Ãc'´ Écµ ¯ ²^²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ^´-× ªBÀ 0±½´jÈd´j± ¹¹Ë ´ ¬Îª ² ¿ ¹ Èd´ µ
²°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ·´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯·Ä ´ µ°Å ¾¹ ¹!¬ ÂÑµ ¹À ²°Ãc´^å 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅj² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¯°¼½¬ ´ ¯#¹ ÂD²°Ã0´ ¬ ´ Ä¼½¶ ´Ç
Í Ã0´'0µ ª¶ ² ¼½¶ ª ± ¯/¼½¾«c¼ É ¶ ªB«c¶ ´ ¹ Â0²°Ã ¼½¯i¼Ì¯DÀª¬ ´ Àa¹ µ°´ ª 0 ª µM´ « ²DÈ·Ãc´ «Éª«Éª ±C²M´µ «cª ² ¼³Ä ´ ¼Ì¯9¶-¹«¯/¼Ì¬ ´µM´ N¬ Fº ´Â ¹ µM´
²°Ãc´ ª¬0Ä ´ « ² ¹ Âv´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ²%²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ ¿BÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ aS¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²i±½´ Ä ´ ± ¶-¹«Ä ´µ ¯°¼³¹«a¶¹ »0± ¬¹« ±½Å º ´ ª¶ Ã ¼ ´ Ä ´ ¬ ²°Ã0µ ¹ » ¾ Ã
²°Ãc´[» ¯ ´ ¹ Â À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯ Ç å ¬ µ ª È ¼³«0¾K¹ Â ªKÀ¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-²µ°´ Ä ´ ª ± ¯ ²°Ã0´ ºcª¯/¼Ì¶ 0µ ¼½«c¶-¼ 0±½´
¼½« Ä¹ ± Ä ´ ¬9
A motor/generator set
Power
in
ð
Power
out
ïcoupling
Shaft
Motor Generator
«§¯ » ¶ Ã ªÁÀjª¶ Ã ¼³« ´ ¿GªZÀ¹ ² ¹ µ ¼Ì¯^À ´ ¶ Ã ª«0¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶-¹ »00±½´ ¬ ² ¹ÏªZ¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹
0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ á²MÃ0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µ°´ ¬ ±½´ Ä ´± ¯¤¹ Â Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ªB«c¬>¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ª ²¤²°Ãc´jµ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«c¾Á¯ ´ ´ ¬Î¹ Â'²°Ãc´ Àa¹ ² ¹ µ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ º¹ ²MÃ
À¹ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª«c¬Ï¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ª µM´ÓÂ ª¼ µM±³Å¸´Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¬ ´ Ä¼Ì¶ ´ ¯ ¿ ²°Ãcá» ¯ ´ ¹ Â º¹ ²°Ã ¼³« ²°Ã ¼½¯ Â ª¯ Ã ¼½¹«>¶-¹À ¹ » «c¬0¯ ²°Ã0´ ¼ µ
¼½« 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯b¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ²j²°Ã0´ ¹SÄ ´µ ª ±½±#´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯j¼½« ²°Ã0´¸µ ªB«0¾ ´ ¹ Â^Û Æ È ¹ µj±½´ ¯M¯ Ç Ò »0µ°²°Ã0´ µ À¹ µ°´ ¿%º ´ ¶ª » ¯ ´
À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯H¹ºÄ¼³¹ » ¯ ±½ÅZµ°S´ Ä » ¼ µM´ À¹SÄ¼½«0¾ ª µ°² ¯ ¿À ´ ¶ Ã ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ±iÈd´ ª µ ªB«c¬Rºcª ± ªB«c¶ ´ ª µ°´ÉÂ ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¼³« Í
Å @Û iË ô ø öiüdý¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
g »0´ «c¶-¼½«0¾Áº¹ ²°Ã ¯ ´ µ Ä¼Ì¶ á± ¼ ÂÑ´ ªB«c¬ ´ µ/Â ¹ µ Àjª«c¶ ´Ç Í µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¯¿¹« ²°Ãc´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µHÃ ªB«c¬F¿Gª µM´ ªBº ±³´É² ¹¸¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²
±½´ Ä ´ ± ¯d¹ Â å Ù Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬[¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ª ² Ä ´ µ°ÅÃ ¼½¾ Ã[´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²MÃ «0¹ÉÀ¹SÄ ¼½«0¾ ª µ°² ¯ ¿ÀªË¼³«0¾ ¹ ¯°¯°¼½º ±³´²°Ãc´
È ¼Ì¬ ´ ¯ 0µM´ ª¬Á¬!¼Ì¯ ²Mµ ¼½º »!² ¼³¹«Áª«c¬ » ¯ ´ ¹ ÂD´ ±³´ ¶ ²Mµ ¼Ì¶ ¹ È'´µ#È'´¤² ªBË ´4Â ¹ µ ¾ µ ªB« ²M´ ¬ Ç
«¸ª ±½±FÂ ªB¼ µ « ´ ¯M¯·¼ ² ¯ Ã ¹ »0± ¬Áº ´ «c¹ ²°´ ¬ ²°Ã ª ² À¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯ Ã ªÄ ´ «0¹ ² « ´ ¶ ´ ¯°¯Mª µ ¼ ±½Å º ´´ «¸¹ºc¯°¹ ±½´-²M´ ¬
º ÅÁ²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ Â ¹ µ'ÔSÔêÔ ª 00± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´É²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¯Êª µ°´ ¶ ±³´ ª µM±³Å ¯ »0´ µ ¼½¹ µ ¹SÄ ´ µ À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ
¯ ´-² ¯ Â ¹ µ ÙÄ¹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬Î¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²¤±½´ Ä ´± ¶¹«Ä ´ µ ¯°¼³¹«¿ ²°Ã0´ Å ¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² ¶-¹«Ä ´µ°² ¹« áÂÑµ°S´ Ä»c´ «c¶ Å ¹ Â Ù ¹ Èd´ µ
² ¹KªB«0¹ ²°Ã0å ´ µ ¿D¹ µ ëº ÅR²MÃ0´ Àj¯ ´± Ä ´ ¯)^¶¹«Ä ´ µ/² o^Ù ² ¹ å Ù¹ µ Ä ¼Ì¯Mª Í Ä ´µ ¯Mª sÇ ð ¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´² ¯Ó¶ å ªB«¬!¹Ïª ±³±
²°Ãc´ ¯ ´²MÃ ¼½«0¾¯ È ¼ ²°ÃZµM´± ª ² ¼½Ä ´ ¯°¼³À 0± ¼½¶¼ ²Å ¿cª ± º ´ ¼ ²#È ¼ ²°ÃÁ²MÃ0´¤± ¼½À¼ ² ª ² ¼½¹«¯·¹ ÂD3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ªB«¬)À ´ ¶ Ã ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ±Â ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯
ª ±½µM´ ª¬ Å ¬ ´ ¯M¶ µ ¼½º ´ ¬ Çtð ¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´² ¯Éª ± ¯/¹ Ã ªÄ ´²°Ã0´b» «0¼ Ä »0´[0µ ¹ ´µ°²Å ¹ Â Ë¼³« ´-² ¼Ì¶ ´ « ´µ ¾ Å ¯ ² ¹ µ ªB¾ ´
²°Ã ª ² ¼Ì¯ ¿S¼ Â0²MÃ0´ À¹ ² ¹ µ
¯ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »000±½Å ¼½¯GÀ¹À ´ « ² ª µ ¼ ±½Å ¼½« ²°´ µ°µM»0!²M´ ¬ Â ¹ µ ªB« Å¤µM´ ª¯°¹«¿ ¼ ² ¯DªB«0¾ »0± ª µ À¹À ´ « ²°» À
²MÃ0´ ¼³« ´µ°² ¼ÌªÓ¹ Â²°Ã ª ²'µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«0¾ÉÀjª¯M¯ È ¼ ±½± ÀjªB¼½« ² ªB¼½« µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼½¹«)¹ Â²MÃ0´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µNÂ ¹ µ ªa¯ Ã ¹ µ°² ¬ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹«¿ ²°Ã» ¯
¼Ì¯/¹ ± ª ² ¼½«0¾jªB« Åj± ¹ ª¬0¯ ¹ È'´µM´ ¬bº Å)²°Ã0´ ¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µdÂÑµ ¹ñ À ¾ ± ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯ Ó¼½« ²°Ã0´ Àjª¼³« ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ Å ¯ ²M´ À Ç
4 ¹¹Ë ¼½«0¾¶ ± ¹¯ ´±½Å ª ²#²°Ãc´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¯#¼³« ²°Ãc´ °Ù'Ú ªB«cª ±³Å ¯°¼½¯ ¿ Èd´ ¯ Ã ¹ »c± ¬Z¯ ´´ ª¶-¹ µMµM´ ¯ ¹«c¬ ´ «¶ ´ º ´-²È'´´ «
²°Ãc´[²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ
¯ µ ª ² ¼½¹Îª«c¬ ²MÃ0´Z²È ¹K¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¯ Ç ØÊ¹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´ZÃ ¹ ÈV²MÃ0´Z0µ ¼³Àjª µMÅ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ± ÅY Ã ªG¯ ÅÆ7Æ
² ¼½À ´ ¯dÀ¹ µM´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´Ê²MÃ ªB« ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ jÅÆ7Æ@Æ7Æ H Ä ´ µ ¯ » µ¯ ÅÆ@Æ H Ü¿!ª«c¬ ²°Ã ª ²%²MÃ0´ À ´ ª¯ »0µM´ ¬
Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯ ²°´ Í ¬0¹ È « µ ª ² ¼³¹ È ª¯ ÅÆ ² '¹ Å Ç Í Ã0´·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ È ¼ ²°Ã À¹ µM´ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´·È ¼ ±½±0Ã ªÄ ´dÃ ¼½¾ Ãc´µ Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬
±½´ ¯M¯^¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²²MÃ ªB« ²°Ã0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ Ç ¼½«c¶ á²MÃ0á²È ¹Z¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¤ª µM´È ¹ » «c¬Rª µ ¹ » «c¬ ²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´ ¶-¹ µ°´ Àjª ²°´ µ ¼Ìª ± ¼½«
²°Ãc´·²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ Â ¹ µN²MÃ0´ À¹¯ ²%´ Ç ¶¼ ´ « ² Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶Ê¶-¹ »00± ¼³«c¾^º ´²Èd´ ´ « ²°Ãc´·²È \¹ Ü¿ ²°Ã0´Ê ª µ ªBÀ ´-²M´µ ¯9ªSÐ ´ ¶ ² ¼³«c¾
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´·Â ¹ µN²°Ãc´·²È ¹É¶-¹¼ ± ¯Nª µM´·´ Ä » ª ±c´-× ¶ ´!²NÂ ¹ µ9²°Ãc´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¹ Âv²°»cµ «c¯%¼³« ´ ª¶ Ã ¶-¹¼ ±®Ç ÂÈd´·² ªBË ´ ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ
± ¹ ¹Ëbª ² ¹ »0µ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´Â ¹ µ À »0± ª0¿ È'´ ¯ ´´H²°Ã ª ² ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¼½¯ cµ ¹ ¹ µ/² ¼³¹«cª ±² ¹ ²MÃ0á3æ ò¯`ÔSìMè ¹ ÂG²°Ã0´ « » ÀÓº ´µ
¹ Â ¶-¹¼ ±v²M»0µ «c¯
óL = ªN2µA
ôl
Where,
óL = Inductance of coil in Henrys
ªN = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
«µ = Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
õA = öArea of coil in square meters
ôl = öAverage length of coil in meters
¹¿!¼ ² ¯ Ã ¹ »c± ¬[º ´ ª 0 ª µ°´ « ²'²°Ã ª ² ¹ »cµ#²È ¹¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯#¼½« ²MÃ0´^± ª¯ ² F° Ù'Ú ²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ#´-× ªBÀ 0±½´ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²
ÁÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´Éµ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯Ê¹ Â ÅSÆ@Æ` <Å ¯ Ã ¹ »0± ¬ Ã ªÄ ´ ¶-¹¼ ±G²°»0µ « µ ª ² ¼½¹¯4¹ Â ÅSÆF cÅ¿º ´ ¶ª »
¯ ´ ÅÆb¯ Ä » ª µM´ ¬ ´SÄ» ª ± ¯
ÅÆ7Æ Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯ È ¹ µ Ë!¯H¹ »!²¤² ¹¸º ´²MÃ0´ ¯°ªÀ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹ È'´ÉÂ ¹ » «c¬Kº ´²Èd´ ´ « 0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å ª«c¬K¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¯ª«c¬
¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¯jÅSÆF cÅSÜ¿¯°¹ È'´ ¶ª«)¯Mª Å ª¯%ª µM»0±½´Ê²MÃ ª ²'²°Ã0´ Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬b¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²%²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ Àjª ² ¼½¹« µ ª ² ¼³¹Ó¼½¯ ´Ä » ª ±c² ¹
²°Ãc´^µ ª ² ¼½¹a¹ ÂGÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»cµ «c¯#º ´-²È'´´ « 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÇ
Step-down transformer
÷
many turns few turns
high voltage low voltage load
low current high current
¬ ò 0Ï òõ öiü%ø'£3²Dø ô =µ´ õöiü%ø'£6´÷Ð= öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïü%ýõ Å Û?
Í Ã0´ ¯ ²°´FÍ®»0 aS¯ ²°´FÍ ¬!¹ È « ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¹ Â ¶-¹¼ ±!²M»0µ « µ ª ² ¼½¹¯i¼½«jª ²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¼½¯%ªB«cª ± ¹¾¹ » ¯ ² ¹H¾ ´ ª µi² ¹¹ ²MÃÉµ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯
¼½«ÁÀ ´ ¶ Ã ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ± ¾ ´ ª µ ¯ Å ¯ ²°´ À¯ ¿ ²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À¼½«0¾ÉÄSª ±³»0´ ¯#¹ Â ¯ ´´ ¬[ª«c¬ ² ¹ µ Ä »0´ ¼½«ÁÀ » ¶ Ã[²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´¤È ª Å
Torque reduction geartrain
ø
LARGE GEAR
(many teeth)
ø
SMALL GEAR
(few teeth)
low torque
high torque high speed
low speed
¯/Àjª ±½± ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È « ¹ È'´µ²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ4» ¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹Z¶-¹«Ä ´µ°² Å e ÆbÄ¹ ±³² å Ù ² ¹ OcÇ þ Ä ¹ ±C² å Ù¼Ì¯H¯ Ã ¹ È «Ï¹«
²°Ãc´^å ±³´Âê² ¼³« ²°Ãc´¤Â ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼½«0¾ 0Ã ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª 0Ã
²M´Í»0 ªB«¬^¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È « ²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ Â ¹ µG ¹ È'´µ ¬!¼½¯ ²°µ ¼½º »!² ¼½¹« 0»0µM ¹ ¯ ´ ¯¶ª«^º ´ ¾¼½¾ªB« ² ¼½¶i¼½« 0µ ¹ ¹ µ°² ¼½¹«
² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯/Àjª ±³±F²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ Ã ¹ È «ÁªBº¹SÄ ´ ¿0¯/¹À ´¤» «c¼ ² ¯Ê¯ ² ªB«c¬0¼³«0¾jª¯ ² ª ±½± ª¯·ª Ã ¹À ´Ç
Ý ÈÍ µ ¼ µMªB´H«c¯ ²°Â »0¹ µ µ «cÀ ¯ Ç´µ ¯U¯ ²Má»0 H¹ µ ¯ ²°´ ¬0¹ È «`4Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ª¶¶¹ µ ¬!¼½«0¾ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´·µ ª ² ¼½¹¯D¹ Â0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å¤² ¹¤¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ
Å 7Û O iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
ùN
Voltage transformation ratio = ùN secondary
primary
ùN
Current transformation ratio = ùN primary
secondary
Ý
Where,
ù N = number of turns in winding
Ý.²°å µ ªB²°«cµ ¯ ªBÂ «¹ µ¯ ÀÂ ¹ µ´Àµ*Ç ´µ ¬ ²Mµ´ ª¯°¼½«c¾¯ « Â ¹´ ¬µ À ² ´ ¹2µ ¼³¬ «c´ ¶ ¯°µ°¼³´¾ª« ¯ ´ ´ ¬ Ä² ¹¹ ±C² µMªB´ ¾ ¬ ´¸» ¶ ÂÑ´ µ ¹ÄÀ ¹ ±C² 0ªBµ ¾ ¼½´¤ÀjÂÑª µ µM¹Å.À ² 0¹2µ ¼³¯ Àj´ ¶ª ¹µM«cÅb¬0² ª ¹)µ°Å ¯ ´ ¼Ì¶-¯[¹«c¶ ¬0ª ±½ª ±³µ°´ Å ¬¥¼Ìª¯4¶ æ1ª Ñ±½èÕ±³!´ ¬Zæl¯Sª
)æ Ñlè æÌPÕ JLç²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç
å
Ý Í¯ ´ Ã0¶-á¹«²°¬0µ ªBª «cµMÅ ¯ Â ¼³¹ «cµ ¬ Àj» ª ¶ ² ² ¼½ªB¹«c« ¶ ´ µ ª ² 4 ¼½¹[ ¹µ ª Â ² ª ¼³¹ ²°Ç µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µHÈ ¼ ±½± º á´SÄ » ª ±D² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ Ä » ª µ°´Éµ ¹¹ ² ¹ Â ¼ ² ¯ 0µ ¼³Àjª µ°ÅZ² ¹
ú Voltage transformation ratio =

Ý
Lsecondary
Lprimary
'&)û üåý Ù ¤ -i2¢ ¤ Ü ý ¢3á,+ ý Ü§-i¢+°Þ

å¶-¼ µ¯°¶¼Ì¬ » ´#¼ ² ÂÑ¯ µ ¿ ¹²°À µ ªB²M«cÃ0¯ ´ Â ¹ ªBµ º0À ¼ ± ´¼ ²µ ÅÓ¯Êª² ¹ ± ¯/¹´ ª0¯/¼µ ±³¹SÅ Ä¶-¼Ì¬ ¹´«Ä ª´« µ°² ´-º ×´-²°²µMÈ'´ À ´´ ´ «j±³ÅZ¬!»¼CÐ ¯ ´´-µMÂÑ»0´ « ±D²NÂÑ´ ±½´ª Ä²°»c´±µ°¯i´ ¹ ¶Â ª Ä±½±½¹ ´ ±³¬ ² ª"Ì¾ æ´ ÕSÔcªBÔ«cÑ$¬"ëÕç¶ »0¿ µ°È·µM´ Ã « ¼½¶² Ã ¼½« ¼½¯ å ²°Ù.Ã0´ ªB«ªB¬º0¼ o^± ¼ ²Ù Å
² ¹¶-¹ »00±½´ ¹« ´ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²'² ¹ªB«c¹ ²°Ãc´µ'È ¼ ²MÃ ¹ »!²#²MÃ0´¤» ¯ ´ ¹ Â ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²'È ¼ µM´ ¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«c¯ Ç Ò ´ ¶ ªB«Á¬ ´ À¹«¯ ²Mµ ª ²°´ ª«
ª c0± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼½¹«Ï¹ Â9²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ²HÈ ¼ ²°Ã ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ u°Ù'Ú¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹«N ²MÃ ¼Ì¯ ² ¼³À ´ ¯ Ã ¹ È ¼½«0¾K¾ µ ¹ » «¬Fb¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¯
Â ¹ µd²°Ãc´²È ¹É¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯¿¼½À ¹¯°¼½«0¾aª Ã ¼½¾ Ã o^ÙÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ º ´-²È'´´ «)¹« ´ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ªB«c¬)¾ µ ¹ » «c¬ ²°Ã0µ ¹ » ¾ Ãj²°Ãc´» ¯ ´ ¹ Â
ªB«Zª¬c¬!¼ ² ¼³¹«cª ± Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´
(for SPICE to measure current)
mV
Rbogus i1 w
1 2 3 4
0V
mV 10 V
:L
1
:L
2
Rload 1 kΩ
1
10 kH 100 H
0 0 5 5
mV o250 V
2
0
¬ èò þ!ò ü%ûGü·öiý·ú ô ûRú/õ÷#û ô öDú÷>= Å \Û Ê
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
w0f q
}.
}
} }%
wvt0¥rcq
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xzb
{ [ w0!}u!7r B0xc{§~!x |!x~0xBzvqdx .u0|B ~0z`Vzcd!x¥Ã,h
7 Ã %/ @ Ã %/ @ Ã N/
°! Ã %/ @ Ã %/
} [ w0!}u!7r B0xci{ h
%/ !! / !! N/0 ¾~v1t Rvr~¨¦Ft z`t*zB
%/ !! %/ c N/0 ¼xcqB`z !r~ ¨ ¦Ft*`z t*zB
u°Ù'ÚK¯ Ã ¹ È ¯ ²°Ã0µ´ e7? ÆÄ¹ ±C² ,¯ o^Ùº ´ ¼³«0¾¤¼½À 0µ°´ ¯°¯ ´ ¬ »0 ¹« ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²9´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯ È ¼ ²°Ãaµ°´ ¯ ´ ¶ ²
² ¹[¾ µ ¹ » «¬F¿º »!² ª¯ Å ¹ » ¶ª«R¯ ´´X²MÃ0´µM´ ¼Ì¯«0¹ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¹« ²°Ãc´É0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² 6b ´µ ¹Ko^ÙÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ #ª ² «0¹!¬ ´ ¯
Å^ªB«c¬ e ¿ªB«c¬ ²°Ã0´¤²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ Àª ² ¼½¹«b¹ Â Ù ¹ È'´µ#ÂÑµ ¹À 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ² ¹j¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ µM´ Àjª¼³«c¯ ²MÃ0´ ¯MªBÀ ´
ª¯¤º ´-Â ¹ µ°´Ç Í Ã0´ ¼½À cµ°´ ¯°¯ ´ ¬KÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¼½«å ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ´-× ªÀ c±³´ ¼Ì¯^¹ Âê²M´ «§¶ª ±³±½´ ¬Îª Ö@ÕSéaéÕPç`æéjÕè Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ º ´ ¶ª » ¯ ´
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eÆe iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
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² ª ¼½¯9«c¹ ²°Ã ¼³«0¾^À¹ µ°´#²MÃ ªB«jª È ¼ µ°´ ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«Àjª¬ ´ ª ² ¯°¹À ´# ¹¼³« ² ¹«ª È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾Xº ´-²È'´´ « ²MÃ0´ Ä ´ µ°Å
´ «¬0å¯ Ç ØÊ¹ ² ¯ »0µM0µ ¼½¯°¼½«0¾ ±½Å ¿ ²MÃ0´bÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»cµ «aSÄ¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ÀjªB¾«0¼ ²M» ¬ ´jµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ Ã ¼ ¹ Â ªZ«0¹ µ Àjª ±i²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ
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Ù'ª µMµMÅ ¼½«0¾ ²MÃ0´ ¶-¹«c¶ ´ !² ¹ ÂÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ª ¯ ÂÑ»0µ°²°Ãc´µ ¿ Èd´H´ «c¬ »0ÁÈ ¼ ²MÃ ªBÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´Ê²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ ¿ È·Ã0´ µ°´ ª
¯ ± ¼Ì¬!¼½«0¾b¶-¹« ² ª¶ ² ¼Ì¯·À¹SÄ ´ ¬Zª ± ¹«0¾ ²°Ãc´^±³´ «0¾ ²MÃ ¹ Â ªB« ´-×! ¹¯ ´ ¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿cªº ±½´¤² ¹b¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²ÊÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼ ²
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ð ¹SÄ¼½«0¾ Í ¯ ± ¼Ì¬ ´ ¶-¹« ² ª¶ ² ¯ª µM´9² ¹ ¹4¼³À 0µ ª¶ ² ¼Ì¶ª ±B² ¹Êº ´%» ¯ ´ ¬¤¼½« ± ª µ ¾ ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¯ ²°µ ¼½ª ± ¹ Èd´ µF²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ ¿
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¼½« ² ¼½À ´ ¿9ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ Ã ¼³«c¾Ï¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ 0µ ¹SÄ¼½¬ ´ ª¸¶-¹«Ä ´ «0¼ ´ « ² À ´ ª«c¯ Ç Í Å ¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å ¿D¯ » ¶ Ã ² ª ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯
ª µM´ «c¹ ²d´ «0¾¼½« ´ ´µM´ ¬ ² ¹ Ã ª«c¬ ±½´ÊÂÑ»0±½<± Í®± ¹ª¬)¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¿ º »!² À » ¯ ² º ´ ª¶ ²°» ª ²°´ ¬j¹« ±½ÅjÈ·Ã0´ « ²°Ãc´4²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ%Ã ª¯
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Â ¹ µM´ ¾¹ ´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼½¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼³¹«Rª ±³² ¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ ª«c¬Ïº » ¼ ± ¬Rª ²°µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ4ÂÑµ ¹ÀÆª)¯°¼³«0¾ ±³áÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç «c¬ ´´ ¬ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯H¼½¯
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Í Ã0´ ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¼Ì¶ ²M´ ¬.ªº¹SÄ ´j´ µ/Â ¹ µ Àj¯aª¸Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯ ²M´Í»0§ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼³¹« Ç å ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «ª »!² ¹ Í
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Autotransformer
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»0² ¹ ²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ É «c¬ ¹ 0»c± ª µ9» ¯ ´ ¼½«jª 0c± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ Mµ ´Ä » ¼ µ ¼½«0¾¤ª¤¯ ± ¼³¾ Ã ² º¹¹¯ ² ¹ µ9µM´ ¬ » ¶ ² ¼½¹«a¼½«aÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
² ¹Ïª å ± ¹ ª¬ Ç Í Ã0´ ª ±³²°´ µ «cª ² ¼½Ä ´jÈ ¼ ²°Ã ªZ«0¹ µ Àjª ± Ñ¼Ì¯/¹ ± ª ²°´ ¬` °² µ ªB«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ^È ¹ »0± ¬Îº ´b² ¹ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µXÃ ªÄ ´ ï » ¯ ²Ó²°Ãc´
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¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å¸È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾R¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬Î¼³«§¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Í ªB¼Ì¬!¼½«0¾~6º¹¹¯ ² ¼½«0¾7¹ µ ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Í ¹ c ¹ ¯/¼½«0I¾ 6Bº » ¶@Ë¼³«0¾ 7 Â ª¯ Ã ¼½¹« Ç
µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ¿!¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¿!ªB«¬ ± ¹ª¬)Ä¹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¯#ª µM´ ¾¼½Ä ´ « ² ¹j¼ ±½±³» ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´¤Ã ¹ È¥²MÃ ¼½¯ È ¹ »0± ¬ È ¹ µ Ë Ç
ÒD¼ µ ¯ ² ¿ ²°Ã0´ Bº¹¹¯ ² ¼½«0¾7¸¶¹« É ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼½¹« ÇdHÊ´µM´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-¹¼ ±
¯ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¼½¯Ó¹ µ ¼ ´ « ²M´ ¬§¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯
Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²M±³Å ª¬0¬0¯ ² ¹ ²°Ã0´^cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
"boosting"
120 V 30 V 150 V
Ø ´×² ¿ ²MÃ0´ Bº » ¶@Ë¼½«0¾7K¶-¹« É ¾ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹« ÇÀH4´µM´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¶-¹¼ ±
¯ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¼Ì¯¹ µ ¼ ´ « ²M´ ¬¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯
Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²M±³Å ¯ » º ²°µ ª¶ ² ¯ ÂÑµ ¹À ²°Ãc´^0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´
"bucking"
120 V y
30 V 90 V
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Ñ¼Ì¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼½«0\¾ ²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ#Ã ªÄ¼³«0¾aº¹ ²°Ã¸cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅjÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç
4 ¼½Ë ´'µM´ ¾ »c± ª µ²Mµ ª«c¯ Â ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ ¿Sª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µDÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯9¶ ªB«aº ´'² ª 0´ ¬ ² ¹ 0µ ¹SÄ ¼Ì¬ ´ ÄSª µ ¼½ª ² ¼½¹«c¯D¼½« µ ª ² ¼³¹ Ç
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Àjª ±½± ÄSª µ ¼½ª¶¯ Â ¹ µ º ´ «c¶ Ã ² ¹ [» ¯ ´ ª µ°´ ¹ 0»0± ª µ' ¼ ´ ¶ ´ ¯'¹ ÂG´SÄ » ¼ À ´ « ²dÂ ¹ µd²MÃ0´H´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹«0¼Ì¶¯ ´-×!´µ ¼³À ´ « ²M´µ ¿
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Ý ÈÍ µ ¼³«cªB«c¬0¯¼³«0Â ¹ ¾ µ À ª´¼ µ µ*¯Ç ¶Í ªBÃ «¼Ì¯Êº ª ´Ï±½± ¹ S´ È Ä» ¯ ¼ Â0¹ µ ´ À¬ »0È ±³² ¼ ¼²°0Ã ±½´ À¯ ²M¹ ´µ°´ZÍ»0²MÃ ªBªB«>«cï¬» a¯ ¹ ² µ ª§¯ ²°´ ¯°¼½«0Í ¾¬0±½¹ ´¸È 0« µ ¼³µ Àjª ² ª ¼³¹ µMÅ ¯d¼½ª« «c²°¬Ã0´ ¯°¼³¯M«0ªB¾ À ±³´ ´ ¯ ¬ ´ ´ ¶Ä ¹¼Ì«c¶ ¬c´ª Ç µMÅ
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Ý.åª «[²Mµ ªª»!«c²¯ ¹Â ¹ ²°µ µ À ªB«c´ ¯ µ Â ¿ ¹ ´µ ×À ¶ ´´µ !²·¼½¯·È ªa¼ ²°¯/Ã ¼½«0¹ ¾ »!±³²Ê´ ¿ 0² µ ª ¹S0Ä¼½¬!´ ¼½¬)«0¾ ¼³«´¬ ±½»´ ¶ ¶ ²°² µ ¹ ¼½µ ¶ ª ¶-± ¹¼Ì¼ ¯/±v¹ » ± ª¯ ´ ² ¬¼½¹«² ¹Ç ¯ ²°´[»0 ¹ µ ¯ ²M´ ¬!¹ È «)Ä¹ ±³² ªB¾ ´Ê± ¼³Ë ´
Ý.å ÔS1ì "6ÔÖ ¼½¯4ªÉÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´ ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯ Â ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç

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å¯°¹¯ À Èd´É´ È ¯Mª¼ ²°È Ã ¼½ÄS«bª ªµMÅ ÂÑ¼³´«0È ¾ ± ¹ ª°¬ Ù'Ú>µ°´ ¯/ª¼Ì«c¯ ² ª ªB±½Å«c¯¶ ´ ´ ¯ ¯ ¿ ´ ª´ ÄµM± ´ ¼ «´ µ È ¼³« ¼ ²°²°Ã Ã ¼½ª[¯d¶¶ Ã¹«cª !¯ ² ²Mª´« µ ²¿ ²°ÄÃc¹ ´ ±C² ¹ ªB»!¾ ²M´ 0»!¼½« ² 0Ä»!¹ ²*±³Ç² ªBÍ ¾ ´ Ã0´ ¹ Â ¬ ª ´ ¾ ²°µ°µ ´ ªB´ «c¯ ¹ Â Â¹ µ ÄSÀ ª µ ´¼½µ ªÄS«cª ¶ µ´ ¼ ´ ¼½¯¯
ªSÐ ´ ¶ ²°´ ¬Ïº ÅZ²°Ã0´0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ª«c¬R¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÁÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾Z¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ¯ ¿ªBÀ¹«0¾[¹ ²MÃ0´µÂ ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ ¿F«0¹ ²H²°Ã0á±½´ ª¯ ² ¹ Â
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Û_&B7B!*+/&g,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;>+7?!#)1+,/&?01c#W,8!*C#&K!*)"17;>;>&?) ,,>"3W©&?;>&?) ,` &Bc#&?A+Bab!*)":L2&(7?!*2+&K0256_&?;3A+,>;>!#)+ Í
<=&?;>;>&B"& Ä 3 c5!*&?) ,> MLJ&,X6_&?&B)D0;>3 $F!#;/M!*)2"D+/&B7)"!#;/M63 )2"H3 )C+Ba[,/.&?MU7?!#)DLJ&E2+&(",/%µ#7?#)Tc#&B;,8µ,/.&
3$K0J&B"!*)7?&*<!' !#"-,/@!'"H3 ©J&B;/&B), &Bc#&?ÓN[OQ.!*,Z!+X,Z0.;>!+&"H&(+&B;/c&B+Q+$'&&GH0A!*)!*,/3#)ba+/' &?,BÆ +3 )Tc&B+ Í
,/3C!*,/&`6.!*,Z3W,Z$'&B!#)+BN
OQ.&
0;>02 +&
*<u!@!"¶=+/!# M·Z3A+Z,>E"H+$'&,/.3 )CE0;>T"7,>3 c&63 ,/.,>.&K0256_&?;3W,`"H3+>+/3 0!*,/&(+?N´§)
,/.&7B!#+/&-*<!;>&B+/3+,/3c#&E.&B!*,/3)C1&B &B$'&?) ,Ba,>.&0;>!7,>37B!*_0;>02 +&-<=#;
,/.&0256_&?;'"H3A+/+/30!5,>&B"U3A+,/.&B!*,
+/#$'&,>.3 )CE0¨N
Üb !#"+`!#;/&
&?)C3 )&B&?;>&B",/4+/!*<=&?M"H3A+/+/3 02!5,/&'!7&?;/,>!#3 )1$F!5GH3 $
$Ý!*$') ,#<0J56&B;BaLH,
,X6_!#"+[*<e& Ä !*J0J56&B;u;8!5,/3)CK!*;>&Z)*,Q)&(7&B+>+>!*;>3 M
3A"H&B),>37B!*ÓNu]#)+/3"&?;[,>.&B+/&,X6 ÅSÆ@Æ7Æ6_!*,,_;/&(+3A+X,>3 c&
.&(!5,/3)C'&?&?$'&B),8+?¸
I=4A
¦
250 V Rload 62.5 Ω
Þ
Pload = 1000 W
I=8A
ß
125 V Rload 15.625 Ω
Þ
Pload = 1000 W
Û_*,>..&B!*,/&?;8+Y"H3+>+/3 0!*,/&&G!#7,/M °ÅSÆ@Æ@ÆQ6Q!5,/,>+e*<0J56&B;BaL,¨,/.&?Mg"H+!*,Y"H3 ©&?;>&?) ,ec# ,>!*C&u!*)2"g7;>;>&?) ,

&?c#&B+
¶=&B3W,>.&?; Æ
¼#à 'c## ,>+!*)"á-!*$'0+Ba2; Å ¼#à c#W,8+!#)"½@!#$K02+>·N +/3 )Câ.$Æ +Ü¨!6P,>E"H&?,/&?;>$'3 )&g,/.&
ã °äB¡Hu¿ ¾Yå æ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿uÀ-Áè uæ å?¾ Z å QÁ Æ
¼ ¤
)&(7&B+>+>!*;>M;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&
#<,>.&B+/&'.&B!*,/3)C&?&?$'&?) ,>+F¶°éê^_È5´·a6_&'!#;/;>3c#&'!5,É C#;/&(+#<_ë ¼ N à Î !*)"£Å à N ë ¼#à
Îa;>&B+/02&(7,/3c#&B MN1´ì<,/.&(+&!*;>&Eh]!#"+?a6_&-$'3C#. ,
;>&<=&B;,>,/.&?3;K00J+/3W,>3 )%,/%7;>;/&B) ,3 )D,/&B;/$F+
*<
3$K0J&B"!*)7?&;8!5,>.&?;
,/.2!*)¡0!#3 )S;/&(+3A+,>!*)27&#a!* ,/.C#.S3 )S,/.3A+F7?!+&-,/.!*,BÆ +F!*_,/.&BMJÆ ;>&7?#$'0J+/&B"U#<
¶=)
;>&B!#7,>!#)7&·N:OQ.& Æ
¼#à c## ,
.&B!5,>&?;
6"UL2&+/!#3",>:LJ&!4.3 C.&?;
3 $'0J&B"!#)7&E !#"%,>.!*),>.& Å ¼#à c# ,
.&(!5,/&B;BN
´ì<Z6_&-"H&B+/3;/&("%,/1#0J&?;8!5,/&@,/.& Æ
¼#à c## ,.&(!5,>&?;&B &B$'&?) ,K"H3;>&B7,> M%)D! ~Å ¼à c#W,
0256_&?;K+MH+,/&?$a¥6_&
6_#A"&B)"01L2&B3 )C"H3A+>!*00J#3) ,/&B"bN²3W,>.ë ¼ N à Î#<u3 $'0J&B"!#)7&¶=;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&(·aJ,>.&F7;>;/&B) ,6_#A"4#) M
LJ& ¼ !*$'0+`¶V´/ê^_È5é éÅ ¼#à È*ë ¼ N à ·a!#)"F,>.&`0256_&?;Q"H3A+/+/30!5,>3 )-6_#A"@) MFLJ& ¼#à gÆ 6Q!5,,8+`¶Ví_ê´X^ é Å ¼#à G ¼ ·a
#;_#)& ÍlÄ 2!*;/,/&?;*<¨3 ,>+_;8!5,>&B"@0J56_&?;(NYOQ.&3$K0J&B"!*)7?&#<b,/.&`.&(!5,>&?;Q!*)"@,/.&c#W,8!*C#&*<b;+;>7?&6_#A"
LJ&$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&("fa!*)2"E6_&7")bÆ ,ZLH,>!#3 )E,/.&`<= e;>!*,/&("-0J56&B;"H3+>+/3 0!*,/3#)E<=;/$£,/.&.&B!*,/&?;(N
hZ¨.#0J&3A+Z)#, +X,(a,>.#C#.bNQ²3 ,/.1!F+,/&B0 Í 04,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;(a6_&7A"#0J&?;8!5,/&`,>.& Æ

¼à 'c# ,.&B!*,/&B;
&?&?$'&B),Z)-,>.& 'Å ¼à c# ,0256_&?;Z+/MH+X,>&?$î3 \&,/.3A+?¸
ï
ï I=4A
I=8A ð Rload
125 V 250 V ¦
62.5 Ω
1000 watts dissipation at the load resistor !
OQ.&g;8!5,>3 -*<¥,/.&,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(Æ +Z63 )"3 )C +Z0;>5cT3"&B+Q,>.&c# ,>!*C&g+X,>&?0 Í 0 ÔPçJñ 7;>;/&B) ,+X,>&?0 Í "H56)6_&
)&B&B"1<=#;`,>.&F*,>.&?;>63+/&K$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&(":!",>4#0J&?;8!5,>&
0;>#0J&?;>M#)1,/.3A+g+/MH+X,>&?$NFOe!#\#&F!7+/&
T#\:!*,
,/.&0;/3$F!*;>MF73;>7?3W, É C;>&B+B¸Å ¼#à c#W,8+_!*,Z½K!#$'0+?Nh+_<V!*;Z!#+_,>.&`0256_&?;+/00M-µ#\ )56Z+?a µg3 ,BÆ +0J56&B;/3)C
Å
! Î£¶°éê^_È5´·Z!"!5,'Å ¼à c# ,>+BaJ)*,!Eë ¼ N à Îd!"f»gOQ.&Kc#W,8!*C#&K!*)"17;>;>&?) , É C#;>&B+<=#;,/.&
à N ë ¼à
0;>3 $F!#;/M'63)"H3)CF!*;>&3)"H3A7?!5,>3 c&#<5Å à N ë ¼#à R
Î !#"-3 $'0J&B"!#)7&aH)*,_,/.&!7,/2!*fë ¼ N à
Î *<¨,/.&`!#"-3W,8+&BW<XN
´§)*,/.&?;`6;>"+?af)#,#)M4.!#+`;+X,>&?0 Í 01,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&B":c## ,>!#C#&K!*)"7;>;>&?) ,BafL,`3 ,g.!+
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&B" Ãª±Zò¬8ñ@ÔPJç Å8¬ !+Q6&B ÓN
OQ.&,>;>!#)+<=#;>$'!*,/3#)K;>!*,/3*<b3$'02&("!*)7?&Z3A+,/.&+ Ä 2!*;>&*<,/.&c## ,>!#C#&5È57;/;>&?) ,¥,/;8!*)+<=#;>$F!5,>3 )

;8!5,>3 2a
,/.&g+/!#$K&!+_,/.&63)"H3)CF3)"H7,>!*)27&`;>!*,/3¸
¼ ÅSÆ Ë
¾ ¥¿À ã ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿À
ó
Nsecondary
Voltage transformation ratio = ó
Nprimary
ó
Nprimary
Current transformation ratio = ó
Nsecondary
ó 2
Nsecondary
Impedance transformation ratio = ó
Nprimary
ó 2
ï Nsecondary
Inductance ratio = ó
Nprimary
Where,
ó
N = number of turns in winding
OQ.3A+7?#)7?;8+[63 ,/.@;&?G!*$'0&Z*<f,>.& ¼ ¸ ô+X,>&?0Hõì0F,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;u!*)"F,/.&3 $'0J&B"!#)7&;>!*,/3g*<¨ë ¼ N àgö

,/4ô à N ë ¼à
ö ¶V!'á2¸ ô;8!5,>3 2aH6.378.3A+ ¼ ¸ô+/÷ !#;/&("·Nu´§$K0J&B"!*)7?&`,/;8!*)+<=#;>$F!5,/3#)3A+Z!'.3C#.M-+/&<=¨!*L33W,XM
*<e,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+?a <=;3W,!# 56Z+Q!
!"@,>@"H3A+/+/3 02!5,/&`3 ,>+Q<= b;8!5,>&B"E0256_&?;Q&Bc#&?)3 <e,>.&0256_&?;+/MH+X,>&?$ø3A+Q)#,
!5,Q,>.&0;>#0J&?;c#W,8!*C&,>@"H3 ;>&B7,/M-"HF+/N
é&(7?!*J<=;/$î#;Q+,/2"HM@*<Y)&,X6_#;>\F!*)!# MH+/3+,>.&KùúBû Ãª±

üH±îý®5þu¬?Eÿ ú ¯¬?-ÿ¬8®5/¬?± a6.3A78.+,>!*,/&(+
,/.2!5,,/.&$'!*GH3 $
$ !*$') ,[*<20J56_&?;63 HLJ&Z"H3A+/+/3 02!5,/&("KL M
!!";>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&_6.&?)
,/.!*,[ !#"
;/&(+3A+X,8!*)7?&
3A+&B÷ !#H,/`,>.&ZOQ.&?c&?)3)JÈ*Z#;/,/)
;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&_#<2,>.&Z)&?,X6;/\
+00 MT3)C`,/.&0256_&?;(NYÉTL+X,>3W,>H,/&,/.&6_#;8"
µ*3$'02&("!*)27&Bµ-<=#;gµ#;/&(+3A+,>!*)27&Bµ@3 ),/.2!5,g"H&2)3W,>3 )!#)"1M##1.!c#&
,/.&'h]dc#&B;>+/3 )*<,/.!*,OQ.&?;/&B$N´ì<
6_&#Æ ;/&,/;>MT3 )C%,/#L,>!*3)¡,/.&B#;>&,>37B!*Z$F!5GH3$$ 0256_&?;@"3+>+30!*,/3#)¡<=;/$ !%!"fa6_&4$2+X,@LJ&:!*L &,>
0;>#0J&?;> M$F!*,>78.U,>.&4!#"D3 $'0J&B"!#)7&4!#)"D+/#;87&%¶VOQ.&?c#&B)3)JÈ5#;/,/#)J·g3$'02&("!*)7?&,/#C&,>.&?;(NDOQ.3A+'3+
C#&B)&?;8!*M$'#;>&F*<Z!47)7&B;/)%3)U+0J&B7?3!# 3º?&("1&B &(7,>;/3A7F73;>7?3 ,>+g+/78.U!#+g;>!"H3 ,>;>!#)+$'3 ,,>&?;È5!*) ,>&?))!!#)"
!*2"H3 F!#$K0 3&?;È5+/0J&B!*\&?;Q+MH+,/&B$'+BN[Üb&?,BÆ +_,>!#\#&!*)!*"3 F!*$'03&?;Z+/MH+X,>&?$ !#)"+&B&.5693 ,Z6;/\H+B¸
ã °äB¡Hu¿ ¾Yå æ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿uÀ-Áè uæ å?¾ Z å QÁ ¼ ôô

Audio amplifier

Speaker
Thevenin/Norton
Z=8Ω
Z = 500 Ω
. . . equivalent to . . .

ZThevenin

500 Ω Speaker
EThevenin
Z=8Ω
²3 ,/.'!*)K3 ) ,/&B;/)2!*T3 $'0J&B"!#)7&Q#< àö a*,/.&!*$'03&?;7?!#)

)Mg"H&?3 c&?;Y<=0J56&B;e,>!!"-¶V+/0J&B!*\&?;·
!*A+/
.!cT3)C à'ö *<Y3 $'0J&B"!#)7&NuÉT78.!!"@6_#A"-";/0-.3C#.&B;c#W,8!*C#&!*)"E"H;8!6¢ &(+/+Q7?;/;>&?) ,_,/.!#)
!*)½ ö +0J&B!#\#&B;_"H3A+>+30!5,>3 )C,>.&+/!#$K&`!*$') ,Q#<¨0J56&B;BNY´ì<Y!#)½ ö +/02&(!*\&?;_6&B;/&7#))&B7,/&B""H3;/&(7,> M',>
,/.& àFö !*$'032&?;Z!#++/.56)ba,/.& Ãª±ò¬8ñ ú Å8¬
±KÃA¯8± ú Å 6A"-;>&B+/ ,Z3 )c#&B;/M-02T#;g¶V 5602&(!*\E0256_&?;·
0J&?;/<=#;>$'!#)7&Nh""H3W,>3 )!*M#aJ,/.&K!*$'032&?;6_#",>&?)"4,/E"3+>+30!*,/&$';/&,>.!*):3W,8+Z<V!#3 ;`+.2!*;>&*<[0J56&B;
3)E,>.&`<=#;>$î#<Y.&(!5,Q,/;>MT3 )C
,>@"H;>3 c&,>.& 563 $'0J&B"!#)7&g+/0J&B!*\&?;(N
Oe$'!#\#&Y,/.3+e+MH+,/&?$6;/\L2&?,,/&B;Ba6_&[7?!#)+/&u!_,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;2,>Z$F!5,878.,>.&B+/&$'3+/$F!5,878.&B"3$K0J&B"!*)7?&B+BN
ÉT3)7&6&Æ ;>&QC##3)C<=;>#$!`.3 C.F3 $'0J&B"!#)7&g¶V.3 C.Fc#W,8!*C#&a*56S7;/;>&?) ,8·¥+/00 M
,/g!`56S3$'02&("!*)27&g¶=56
c#W,8!*C&#aT.3C#.47;>;>&?) ,8·!#"ba 6_&#Æ b)&?&("E,/'+/&g!K+,/&B0Hõ§"H56)-,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;B¸
impedance
"matching"
transformer
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Thevenin/Norton Z=8Ω
Z = 500 Ω
impedance ratio = 500 : 8

winding ratio = 7.906 : 1
Oe@#LH,8!*3):!*)43$'02&("!*)27&g,>;>!#)+<=#;>$'!*,/3#)4;8!5,>3 @#< à ¸ ½a6_&6_#A")&B&B"!-63 )"3 )CE;>!*,/3@&B÷ !#b,>
,/.&K+>÷ !*;>&;>T*,#< à ¸ ½¶ª,>.&F+/÷ !#;/&g;>T*,*<ë ¼ N à ¸ô#aJ#;TN ¤ ë¸ ô·N²3W,>.+/78.:!@,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;3):0!7&#a
,/.&-+0J&B!#\#&B;g63 u!"1,/.&!*$'03&B;,/ bï X+X,
,/.&-;/3C#. ,"H&BC#;>&?&#a¥"H;8!63 )C0J56_&?;!*,g,/.&E7#;>;>&B7,gc# ,>!#C#&
!*)2"-7;/;>&?) ,u&?c&?A+[,>K+>!5,>3+<=MK,/.&!5GH3$$îí¥56_&?;O¨;8!*)+<=&?;QOQ.&B#;>&?$£!*)"@$'!#\#&<=#;,/.&$'+,_&F7?3 &B) ,
0J56&B;Q"&?3 c&?;>MF,/K,/.& !#"fN[OQ.&`+/&*<¥!
,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;Q3 ),>.3+7?!*02!#73 ,XMF3A+Z7?!# &B" Ãª±Zò¬8ñ ú Å8¬
± ú ÅTÃ *N
hZ)TM#)&¥6..!+f;>3""&?)!Q$ ,/3 õ§+0J&?&("`L37?MH7&[7?!*)`3) ,/3 ,/3c#&B M)"H&B;>+,>!#)",/.&0;/3)730&[*<T3$K0J&B"!*)7?&
$F!5,878.3 )CNeh¡.T$F!*)¨Æ +¥&?C +e63 0;/H"H7?&Q$'!*GH3 $
$d0256_&?;¥6.&B)
+/03))3)C,/.&QL3A7MH7&7;8!*)\!*,!0!#;,>37õ
A!*;u+/0J&?&B"4¶°!*LJ#H,_ë ,/
¤ ;>&?c# ,/3#)K02&B;u$'3 )TH,>&(·N¥hL25c&#;[LJ&?56¡,/.!*,u;>*,>!*,/3#)!#+0J&?&("fa . $'!#)F &BC
$2+/7? &(+!#;/& &(+/+&@73&?) ,!5,_C#&?)&?;8!5,/3)Cg0J56_&?;(NYOQ.&0;>0J+/&*<¨,/.&L3A7MH7&#Æ +µ#C#&(!*;8+/µ`3A+,/3$'02&("!*)27&õ
$F!5,878.,/.&
;>3"&?;(Æ + &BC+,/E,/.&K;>3"H3)C7)"H3 ,/3#)++-,/.!*,,>.&?M1!*6_!MH++/03),>.&K7?;>!#)\4!5,,/.&K#0,/3$$
¼ ô ¼ ¾ ¥¿À ã ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿À
+/02&B&B"fN
´ì<u,>.&';/3A"H&B;`!*,,>&?$'0H,>+,>+,>!#;,`$'5cT3 )C6.3 &K,>.&'L37?MH7&

3A++.3W<ª,>&B"13 ) ,/3 ,>+µ*,/#02µ@C#&(!*;(af.&K#;+.&
63 )"13 ,`c&?;>M"3@7W,`,/C#&?,$'5cT3)CN´X+3 ,LJ&B7B!*+/&,>.&';/3A"H&B;3A+6&(!*\!Z2af3W,(Æ +LJ&B7B!*+/&,>.&K.3 C.
+,/&?0õÓ0;8!5,/3K*<¨,>.&`L3A7MH7&#Æ +78.!*3)E!#)"+0;>H78\#&?,>+3 )E,/.!*,Q,/#0C#&(!*;Q0;>&B+/&?) ,>+Q!
$'3+/$F!5,>78.LJ&,X6_&?&?)E,/.&
7)"H3 ,/3#)+¶V #,>+Q#<e3)&?;/,/3A!
,/'5c#&B;>7?#$'&(·u!*)"-,/.&B3 ;&?C +`¶=)&B&B"H3)CK,/F+/03 )4!*,ë õ§¤ éZí" <=#;Q$F!5GH3$$
0J56&B;
H,/0,8·Nâ)U,>.&*,/.&?;'.!*)2"fa+/&?&B7,/3)C1!1C#&(!*;
,/.!*,'3A+
,/T 56î63&?)!#L &E,/.&E;>3"&?;K,/C#&?,
$'5cT3 )CK3$K$'&("H3!*,/&B MaHLH, 3$'3W,Q,>.&,/#0+/02&B&B"F,>.&?M-63 fL2&!#L &,/F!*,,>!#3 )¨N¥hC!#3 )baT3A+_,/.&À!#78\'*<¥+0J&?&("
!*)K3)"H3A7?!5,>3 )#<26_&B!*\T)&(+/+Y3),>.&QL3A7MH73+,BÆ +¥&?C+EZa#3W,(Æ +¥LJ&B7B!*+/&_,/.&Q56&B;Y+/02&B&B"
;>!*,/3#<,>.&+&B &(7,/&("
C#&(!*;_7;>&B!5,>&B+!*)#,/.&B;[,XMT02&*<b$'3A+$F!5,878.@LJ&,X6_&?&?)-,/.&7)"H3 ,/3#)+¶=56 !#"·[!*)"',>.&;/3A"H&?;(Æ +[&?C+¶=+/3)C
0J56&B;3W<u+/03))3)C'<V!#+,/&B;,/.!#)¤ éZí#:·N2´ì,3A+Z$278.E,>.&+>!*$'&63 ,/.4&?&B7,/;>37g0256_&?;Z+/#;87&(+!*)"!"+B¸
,/.&?;>&@$+,LJ&-!*)%3$'02&("!*)7?&@$F!5,878.%<=#;g$F!5GH3$$Ñ+/MT+,/&B$ &@73&?)7?M#N´§)Uh] 7?3 ;873W,8+?ae,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+
0J&?;/<=#;>$ ,>.&+/!#$K&-$'!*,>78.3)C:<=)7,>3 )S!+g,>.&+/0;>H78\#&,8+g!*)2"D78.!#3 )9¶°µ*C&B!*;8+>µ·#)S!L3A7MH7&@,>:$F!5,878.
*,>.&?;>63A+&`$'3+/$F!5,878.&B"+;87&B+Q!#)" !#"+BN
´§$'02&("!*)27&$'!*,>78.3)C
,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+u!#;/&)*,_<=)"!*$'&?) ,>!# M@"H3 ©J&B;/&B) ,_<=;>#$î!#)TMK#,/.&B;_,XM 0J&`*<b,>;>!#)+õ
<=#;>$'&?;3)F7#)2+X,>;/7,/3#)'#;[!#00J&B!*;8!*)27&#Neh¢+$F!# H3$'02&("!*)7?&õì$F!5,>78.3 )C`,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;Y<=#;u!#"H3*õÓ<=;/&(÷&?)7?M
!*00 3A7?!*,/3#)+Q3A++/.56)E)-,>.&;>3 C.,3),/.&`<= 563 )CK0.*,>#C#;8!*0.b¸
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power source
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Instrument application: the "Potential Transformer"

power source
fuse fuse
precision
PT step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
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grounded for 0-5 A ammeter range

safety A
Instrument application: the "Current Transformer"

CT
13.8 kV load
fuse fuse
precision
PT step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
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600 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 600 A line current)
100 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 100 A line current)
1k : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 1000 A line current)
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power conductor current
CT

ground connection
(for safety) close switch BEFORE
disconnecting ammeter!

0-5 A meter movement range
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discharge terminal
"Tesla Coil"
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HIGH voltage!
HIGH frequency!

spark gap
high voltage
low frequency
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÷a`.9Ja38=3gve2m4->4*MT38[5=DM9>cGc2:i4[*Y j ´J}387!=?C%u;2SHS4N.9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[<9M38C<9C<9 J ú Y òJÒ Ã ÄiUR j
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C89u64^=?[52J\M2[54 j Ü{=w4357.4^m/4-[5[82[84-C52J.9Ja3<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N!357.4;C8938`![89p!>?4[54*9M352['[54->=?4-C'2JE357!4;G![8=J.M=G.>4q2m
u@9dJ!438=?M'C5935`![938=2JnjO7.4Jt9û@9354-[5=D9>cCF`VM7b9C#=[82J@=DCxM2u;G.>4354>?v@C5935`![9384-4 H ¶/357.93i=DCNS9>>c=3Ciu69dJ!435=DM
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1%2:]N=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4x=DCO357!4xu64-9CF`![84i2m.7!2::#4->>!9J^=?J.HS`.M352[2G!GV2aCF4*CM7.9J!d4-CO=J6M`.[5[84Ja3pavH!4L4->2G!=?J!d
9eL2>389d4=?J\9J\2G!Gc2C5=J.dbHS=?[54*MT35=?2J{jhAx7!4;9p!=?>?=3gv2m"9JE=?J.HS`.M352['352}d4-J!4[9384]357.=?C'2G!Gc2C5=?J!dbL2>389d4]=?C
HS=?[54*MT38>vEM2J!J!4*MT384-HE:<=357\357!4@M7.9J!d4q=Ju@9dJ.435=D M ¹.`SE=?J.CF=DHS4q357!46=?J.HS`.M352[h[84-C5`!>35=?J!dem/[82u§387!46M7.9J!d4
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L
load
ï
I
If L changes in inductance,
ZL will correspondingly
change, thus changing the
circuit current.
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C8935`.[8935=?2J:<=357@9hCg38[52J!d(u@9dJ!438=?M#.4->?Hqd4-J!4[9384-H]pv^M`![8[54-J3357.[52`!d7;9J!2357!4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!d.jAx7!4x[84-9M352[-« C
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saturable reactor
load
ï
I
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357.4+o~M2J38[52>M`![8[54-Ja3x=DC%9p!>4h382;4S4[53² X . R5X³ 2L4-[i357!4z(oM`![8[54-Ja3<H!4>?=L4[84-Hb352;357!4]>?29Hj
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[84-9M352[8Cf354JVHe382;[84d`!>D9354hz(oyGc2:#4-[i2J!>?v@=Jt2J!4HS=?[54*MT35=?2J{=?J}2J!4h7.9>mO2mn357.4z(oMvSM>?4N387!4u69dJ!435=DM
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load
ï
I
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= 8.333 A (maximum primary winding current)
120 V
1000 VA
á = 20.833 A (maximum secondary winding current)
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solid iron core
"eddy"
current
laminated iron core
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load
#1
, ,
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
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0P
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E
;I = 10 kW
;I = 83.33 A
120 V
(for each load resistor)
;I = Iload#1 + Iload#2 Ptotal = (10 kW) + (10 kW)

0P
total
Itotal = (83.33 A) + (83.33 A) total = 20 kW
Itotal = 166.67 A
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load
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load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
365 3 ML ON QP
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;I = VP
E
10 kW
I=
240 V
I = 41.67 A (for each load resistor)
Itotal = Iload#1 + Iload#2

0P total = (10 kW) + (10 kW)
;I total = (41.67 A) + (41.67 A) Ptotal = 20 kW
XW WZY =< <2<

Itotal = 83.33 A
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HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-Cl389Mw>?4<357.=?C#G![82p!>?4uBpv;CF35[8=J.d=?J!d357!4-=[iGc2:#4-[f>=?J!4*C"9>?2J.d7!=?d7@Gc2>?4-Cf2[f382:#4-[8C-N
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83.33 A
,
load +120 V
K240 V + #1 10 kW
- K240+ V
-
,
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-
83.33 A
kj hg i-
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83.33 A
,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
-
∠ 0o
"neutral"

#1
-
∠ 0o
K240+ V
0A
+
-
120 V
∠ 0o
,
load +120 V
#2 ∠ 0o
-
-
"hot"
83.33 A
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SR 7
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VE = (120 V ∠ 0 ) + (120 V ∠ 0 ) o o
VE = 240 V ∠ 0
total
o
total
;I = 0VP 0P = (10 kW) + (10 kW)

0P
total
E
;I = 10 kW total = 20 kW
120 V
;I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor)
BB M> B
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Step-down transformer with

center-tapped secondary winding
x+ +
-
120 V x+
2.4 kV + 240 V
- -
120 V
v-
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+
120 V
- ∠ 0o +
240 V
∠ 0o
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∠ 180o
+
"hot"
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Polar Rectangular
120 ∠ 0o 120 + j0 V
K
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240 ∠ 0o
K
- (-120 + j0) V
240 + j0 V
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7.9C<9qd22Ht`!J.H!4[Cg39J.HS=?J!d62mlC5=J!d>4G!7V9C54C5vSCg384u@C-j
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9[84'`.C54-H}G![8=?u69[5=?>?v@352@9M7.=4-L4p.9>D9JVM4pV43g:#4-4JCFvSCF354-u¯4 eM=4-J.Mv\ÁZ>2:ãM2J.HS`.M352[xM`![8[54-J3C8Âi9J.H
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9>?:x9vC^9H!H`!G9Cq:i4e357.=J!wK387!4vK:i2`!>DH=m%357.4v9[84b2`S3q2m%G!7.9C54b:<=357Q4-9M72357.4[*jrAx7!=DCqG![5=?J.M=G!>?4N
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¾ `!G.GV2aCF4387.93e:i4_7.9HQ3g:i2CF2`![M4-C62mz(o©L2>39d4M2J!J.4-MT384-Hy=?JC54[8=?4-Ch g`.CF3b>?=w4357!4\C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
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83.33 A ∠ 0o
,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
- ∠ 0o
"neutral"
#1
-
∠ 0o
K207.85+ V
∠ -30o
- 120 V
∠ 120o
,
load -120 V
#2 ∠ 120o
-
+ "hot" +
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> =B=} B ~> B{ B=}S-:> B{ > =B=}

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Etotal = (120 V ∠ 0o) - (120 V ∠ 120o)
Etotal = 207.85 V ∠ -30o
357`.C<357!4]Gc2:#4-[<CFvSCF354u¯L2>389d4h=?C(HS4-C5=dJ.9384-H}9C ¸ X> BU@ B

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Ineutral
-
Node
load
,
-
#2 120 V ∠ 120
o
+
"hot"
83.33 A ∠ 120o
-Iload#1 - Iload#2 - Ineutral = 0
- Ineutral = Iload#1 + Iload#2

;I = -Iload#1 - Iload#2
;I
neutral
neutral = - (83.33 A ∠ 0o) - (83.33 A ∠ 1200)
Ineutral = 83.33 A ∠ 240o or 83.33 A ∠ -120o

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9J.2357.4[">?29H@[84-C5=?CF352[":<=357b9357!=?[8H ¸ L2>3iC52`.[8M4%7.9L=J.d^9G!7V9C54'9J.d>?4(2m ¸ú _Ax7.93i:i9vN:i4'M2`!>DH
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83.33 A ∠ 0o
load 120 V

#1 10 kW
+ 120 V
∠ 0o
- 83.33 A ∠ 240o load #3 +
- + 208 V
120 V 120 V ∠ -30o
- ∠ 240o 10 kW -
120 V 120 V
+ ∠ 120o load 10 kW
#2
83.33 A ∠ 120o
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1 1
R1 1.44 Ω
+ 120 V
∠ 0o
- - + 3 3 R3
0 4
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+ 120 V R2 1.44 Ω
∠ 120o
2 2
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83.33 A ∠ 0o
"hot"
load 120 V
#1 10 kW
+ oV
120
∠0
- - + 83.33 A ∠ 240o load #3
120 Vo "hot" 120 V
- ∠ 240 10 kW
120 V 120 V
+ ∠ 120o
load 10 kW
"hot" #2
83.33 A ∠ 120o
àsîyÞ=è Û`å ÜXö»ÜãvÞkçvàéHÚbèCãýÛÛvÞók

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Three-phase alternator
m winding m winding
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m winding S m winding
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m winding N
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TIME
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phase sequence:
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TIME
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Ï .Ï¯ÍÐDomÍQPÌÑ.,xiÐSÎ`Ð*EJ,"Ñ F L Z ä9»>

Original 1-2-3 End result
phase rotation
1 2
(wires 1 and 2 swapped)
2 1
phase rotation = 2-1-3
3 3
1 1
(wires 2 and 3 swapped)
2 3
phase rotation = 1-3-2
3 2

1 3 (wires 1 and 3 swapped)

2 2 phase rotation = 3-2-1

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AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4
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Step #1 Step #2
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AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4
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+ -
I I
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Unidirectional motor
winding 2’s voltage waveform is 90 degrees

out of phase with winding 1’s voltage waveform
winding
2a
S
winding winding
1a 1b
winding
2b
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winding 2’s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1’s voltage waveform
1a 2a
1b 2b
|
C
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these two branch currents are
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1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
all "2" bulbs lit

all "1" bulbs lit 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
phase sequence: 1-2-1-2
væôç Ü]Ü'ûr¯Uã"Ú.ú ãvÜÞDÝ»à.Ûé]ÜHíôÜ2Ý¯ß2á.àUãvèCãoà.æô~æQÜHÚsÛvÞCçIÜXûfã"íãè=ç`à.çQÝ.ÜkÜFÞGè2÷ ìbçv®FíëÜ÷|æôócsö.Ý.è2Ú.íëçQãvæôÜösûyÛvçM÷CÞ=òcò4è2ÛvÞ2Ü?Ûãvíôíôæôß2Þ2íëàUãHÝsáãm÷Mãvãvãvà.ÞpÞcÜêæôãÜ]÷ à.ûrãä ÜS÷ ö.ösÚ.ÜHÚ.æôéoösæëà.ö»ç'ÝsçDsíôæôéHèCíëèCß=ÛæôàUÜGæëó=ã ì.á2è2ãKmà.Û Þ2ù Ü:Úsá*÷Ûýè2®HÝsÜ÷ó=ì è2ÜHç`Ýså ìGíôé]çÞ=è ÷ Ú. ä åæ÷SìkÜHÛö.ûyçÞ=Úsè æëæëkæôöêÞ6â«ú ö.æëè?íôíwÝãà×÷2ù òcíôÝ.ãvà.ÞCßMíãvçíôçvÞ2Ü'ösÝ»¯Uæë÷Ú.íôÝ ÜHûyùÝsÛíëÞ2é]ÝsÜFò ß ç
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ÞCû³~Úsü çIÞ6ã`â ã~âOæôÜ]Þ»'ã á. ç`èCÝsÜñbìkè2ãvòcàsÜHíëÝ.çvÜXÜãvè?à.çIÛãvÜÛÜSíôÝ.çvß?Ü]ãÞCç`ûºè2æôÛvíëÜXß=à=Üpão¯=ç`Ú»â`èCæôà.æëóGÜHÛvÞ=ÜXÚbããýà.ÞCÜÛûÜð.èCàsÛè=ÜXçIÜXãvà.â`ÛíëÜãvÜà çvÜHÜ]è=ãoéoç`àêÞCûºÞ2ãvö.à.ÚsÜHæëÛHösþ çýãvÞ?ö$ÜDçv'Ü ¯UÚ.ÜÝ»é]ÜHì|íôÝsçIãvÜHè=ì

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "1" bulbs lit

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "2" bulbs lit ´
Time

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "3" bulbs lit

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "1" bulbs lit
phase sequence = 1-2-3

bulbs appear to be "moving" from left to right
ãvÞcÛ íëûß=àUãà.ã mÜXü æëíôß2Þ6àUâ«ãvíôíëÝ.ò?ßpè2çIß2pÜ íô¯=Ý.ÚsÜ:ÜãvÝsà.éíÜç`íö.6ç æôíë®UÝ ù ä íô¶Ý.µGß?îrãçIà.ãvÛÜSíëÝ.çIßcpÜ ¯=Þ2ÚsûÜö.ÝsÚséÜæëösçvçà.èCÞ6Ûâ`ÛÝ»è2Ý.õáUß2ãÜFà.ì?ÜXíëÝUö.ãÚ.Þcæôösècç"éâ`íëÛoíëé]æôæ·æôÜ2èCþ ð.ð$ÜHè2ÛOãÞp÷2òcÞ å ÜH÷SûyÛvÞ=ò4æôÜ]ûrã
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2 3
all "1" bulbs lit 1 1
3 2
2 3
The bulbs appear to

all "2" bulbs lit 1 1 "move" in a clockwise
direction
3 2
2 3
all "3" bulbs lit 1 1
èÛ?Ü åé]íôÜHüÛoÛé]çvÞ6æôÜ:Ü:âíwíôûãvÝsàsãvçIà.ãvÜÜFÜSæôè2íëß=ðsì|à=àsÞCãoè2çQûºçvÜSè?è2ð.çIç~ð»Üpã¯=ÛÜFè2ÚsèCíëÛºÜß=ÝsãàUéÞãfÜ:ö$æôíôÞ2ÜÝ.û8Ü ÷Cãªòcà. ÜSÞã:å ö.çIíëÚ.à.ÝsæôÞ=ß=ösÚ.÷Xç`æì|íôíÝGç`éèÛÞ2Ü òcé]å æôÜHÞbÜSÛé çvè2ù ÜHç`â`ì ÝsíçvÞGÜýçIìbÚ.íëÛÛð.ÜHé]ÛãvíôçvíôÞ2ÜÝ?ãvàsö$èCÜHãýéHèCãvÚsà.çvÜÜ`è2ãvð.àsð$ÜÜHócèCèCÛoèCÛÜýÝ»é]èCÜXÛÛÞCè2û^Ý.òcß2ÜFÞCìMãvíôè2Þ2ÛvÝ Þ=Ú.â`Ýsíôæëì æ
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ð.öóàsè=å çIÞ=ÜXà.æwãoçvÜ`èC'Ü ö.ß=¯UæôÜ:Ú.íôÝ ÜçvÝ»ùÞ2íëé]Ú.Ý.Ü ÛoßDé]ÜFðsç"è6à.ÞCãvíãvûçfÜãvíÛà.ç`Ý?ÛèCÜâ`ÝsÜSíôè2æëìbæ»æëÞ=í Ü

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Three-phase AC motor
winding
winding
2a 3a
S
winding winding
1a 1b

winding N winding
3b 2b
A phase sequence of 1-2-3 will spin the magnet

in a clockwise direction. A phase sequence of
3-2-1 will spin the magnet in a counter-clockwise
òcÞCãú Þ2ÛoíëçãváFàkãvàsðsÜ"àsè2ÛÞCçvÜãoè6çvãà.íëÝ.íëûrßãç"ò?ÞCèCû8ß2æôÝsÜHçÜ]çQãvíãvéàs»è2Ü¹Ý æìD®'(uÝ.°uÜFºfé]ÜFâ"çvçÜ:èCß2ÛóÜ]ãOûyÞ=ãvÛºÛÚ.çIÜ:ÜHæwÛvû%ZÞ2ç~ããoè6èCãÛvíëãvÞ=íôÝ?Ý.ßÞCûòMãÚsà.çIÜ:ã*òcãÞè2ö$ß2Ü"Ý.ÜéãvÛvíÜF é è6sãÜHÜHìæôì öºóXú âfíwèAãó:à|Þ2çvû»íëÝséß2è2æôðsUÜ è2´ð.éàsíwãè2í å çvÜÜ

direction.
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120 V
∠ 0o
-
- +
120 V
120 V
- ∠ 240o
∠ 120o
+
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3-phase, 4-wire "Y" connection
"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
- "neutral"
120 V
∠ 240o
+
"line"
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3-phase, 3-wire "Y" connection
"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
- (no "neutral" wire)
120 V
∠ 240o
+
"line"
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j
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éö$]ÚsÜSÛvÜ'ÛK+Ü¯UÝUZÚsé]ãèCÞ=çQæ¹Ý.'Ü ãÝ.¯UÞcÜFÚséãvè2ãvà.æsÜFÜSìãÞDðsçvàsð.Þ2è2àsÚsçvè=ÛÜ éçIÜHÜ:å çXÞ2é]æëèCÚ.ãÝsÛè2Ûìß2ÜÜÝUæôÞ=ãvãíôçè2òcHìsÜHçSû8ç"èCãvãvæôà.àsâ"JÜ ÜèAK+óbç&ç¯UZé]ÚsàsÞ=è2è Ý.Ûvå Ý.ÜXÜcÜHÛé]æôÞUãvíëÝ.Þ2ÜFã`ÜìGÞCåçIûGÞ=Þ2Ú.µsæëãÛoþ è2é]ß2ÜýÜHÞ=çÛOß2æôÛÞ=ÜHè=èCìcãvÜHíôÛç"ãösàsè2èCæôè2ÝaÝsð.é]ÜFà»ì·è2á2çvÜãà.å Ü:Þ2æëæëíôãÝ.è2Ü ß2ÜHå çHÞ2á·æëãèCè2Ýsß2ì Üýæôâ`íëÝsíôæëÜ æ
j
»Ï Ï¦Î ¸ *+,-,/¼ïÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,±ÇÌJZ+¾½ C Ð Z+¿ FUÀ8 *ýÌýÎ F ÐZ:Ñ ä9t
For "Y" circuits:
Eline = 3 Ephase
Ü
vÛç ÜHÞ2çvÚ.ÜÛoÝ òDé]Þ6ÜSösâ"æôÞ=è2Ü ÛýÝså æëÜé]ÞUÛFÜMè2ámì|ãvãÞ|à.ÜÜeãvæôÜàsòc÷Ü²KXÜHß:Ý=÷×ãoÛç`Üé]Ü Þ=ãù .ÝÞ2ß2sæôÜ]Üß2ãIãvÚsãà.ÛÜÜHèCÛSÛ ãv"Þ2íôÞ2ûQø ÝÇãvÝ.àsíôÞ2ç?ÜGãvà.ÝsçvÜHè2ÞCÛòpãGéÜpãÞ2à.Ý.ÝsÜsè2ß=òpÞ2Ú.ÝsÜ&Ûoæëè6ó î ãv½ íôå Þ2õè2Ý|=æëííì±ç è Þ2ù ù ÝsÝ.ÜcÜÞ6â`é]ûyæôÞ2Ý&Þ=Ûkçvè2ÜMéçfÝsÞ2ãÝ.ÞCà.ãvÝ.ÜMíÜFé]é÷uÜcãÞíëÞ2Ý.ÜHûOßaæwãoãè.à.ãáà.Üc÷pÛð»ÜûyÞ2UÜÞ=´Ûýæôð.è2íëàsÛvãíëçè=ã~óçIß2Ü ÜHûyÞ2Þ2å òcÛSÞ2æëÜ]ÜFããè2è2Ûvéoß2íà éÜ
Iline = Iphase
â`íôÝsìbíôÝ.ß?íëÝêãvàsÜìbÛèAâ`íôÝ.ßcö$ÜæôÞ6âSþ j
3-phase, 3-wire ∆ connection
"line"
120 V ∠ 0o
+ -
"line"
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240o + - ∠ 120o
Üà.æôÞ=ÜHæôé]ìø ãvÛããvÞ2àsÝssÜç6Ûoò çIà»ãMÞ6ösß2â`è2æèCéíëÝ.ùÝ»ß&é]ÜGè2ÞÛvíëãpÚ.Þ=Ú.ÜcçvÝsÜãìeÜHÞ&òcãvãvçMà.à.ÜcÜ?è2çãðsÛvãvàsíèCà.è2Ý.Þ=çvß=Ú.ÜGæëß2ÜcèCàaÝ.â`ß=ãíëà.æëãvÜFÛvàaçSÜHÜ Ý.ÞCû"Þ2å ãvãvÞ2à.àsæëíôãÜHÝ.èCçvß&ß=ÜcÜGö.ãvà.çIÚbÞ=ÛãDÜÚ.ÜãvÛoà.é]å ÜHÜ?Þ2çíôæëÝUãæëíèCãvù Üß=Ü?ÛÜ?ÝsãçIè2à.Þ=æºíÚ.çDíëÛòcâ"éÜHð$Þ2çHÜHÚ.á8ì.æì×à.è2Þ6Ýsé]â"é]ÛÜ?ÜÜHåèCÞ2ÜãvûOÜkÛFá¹ãèeà.ãvÜGà.çIíà.â`çÞ=íôíÛIÝsçS&ã ìb´Ý.éíôÝ.Þ2íëÛoãß=é]ç:ÚsãvàsíwããFÞÜ á

"line"
éè=çIÜ j
j
ãvèCàsÝ»Üì|7 æëè2ÞÝ.ÛvÞ=QÜÞ=ð Ú.¯UÝsè=Ú.ì.ìêíì|é ãvù à»Ú.è6éoð ãýà.ãvÜHæôQÞ ÞUé ùÞ=ðÜÞCá»Ûû`Þ è2ã-Ýsà.ì íûçDé]ãÞ=íà.çÝsÜçIóãÜpÞe¯UìbÚ.ÚsÞ»ÜçvábTÜÝUãvãvà.áXæôÜHó?ÝíôÛoãéoà.ãvà.à.Üà.ÛÜHÜÞÛvÜS
â`â`Bçíôæëíôææôâºæ8ö$Þ=ö$ÜæwãoÜÝ.èCÝ.ß=ÞGÞÜ éíëål ÛoÞ=é]èAæwÚsâ4ãoæôèCèCß=ãvãvÞÜXíôÝ.è çIßGåÜHè2Üké]íëÚ.æíëèCÛûýÛö.ÜãvæôàsÝUÜ:ãÜGãvÞGãvàsðsãÛvèCÚsÜHÛvÜçIãvà&íôå Ý.éÞ=ß?Ú.æwãoÛvâ`èCÛß=ÜíëãvÝUÜHà çããè2è2à.ÛvÛvÜSÞ=Þ=Ú.Ú.ãvÝsÝsÞ=ðìì
j
â`íôÝsìbíôÝ.ßGèCÝsìêð.ÛÞ2ß=ÛvÜFçvçvíëÝsßMé]Þ=Ú.ÝUãvÜH2Û Zé]æôÞbé ù â`íçvÜ2áUÞ2Ú.Û áâ l Ü]ñbð.ÛÜHççIíôÞ2ÝêæëÞÞ ù çfçvÞ2òcÜ]ãà.íëÝsßpæôí ù ÜXãvàsíôçHþ j
(120 V ∠ 0o) + (120 V ∠ 240o) + (120 V ∠ 120o)
Does it all equal 0?
åíôÝ|ÜHÛvéíëíëûysÝÛoóé]ìbãÚ.ÜHà.æÜHè6Üfì·ãûÿíëáUè2Ýsíëé]ûßpãmâOéãvÚ.Ü:à»Ûvè6è2Ûãmì.ÜÝUìpãà.ãoãçOÜHà.çvíÜHÜfç"çvãvãvÜýà.ÞcãÛà.Þ=Üð»ÛvÜ ÜHÜHå Ü ÝêÞ2å æëÚ.ãÜHè2ð|éß2ããÞ2Ü`à.Û-çIÜXÞ=¯UæëÚ.ÚsÞÛoè2Þ2é]ÝUð ÜHãvçºíëè6ãvéHíôã`ÜHèCçºÞ=ÝcÝ.ãö$Þ2Ü-Üß=~Ü]Úsé]ãvÞ=ÝsàsÝ.éÜãÝ.ÛFíëÜHÞ=á2é]Ý|ããvà.ÜFð$ÜìDó?Þ2ãíôÝUìbÞ2ãýÞDß=Ü]èCè=ãvÝsì.àsì|ì?ÜÛºéÚ.íôè2ðGÝGæôéãvèXÚ.ÞæôæëèCÞHãvÜÞ2Ü ÛðcÞ å â`^Þ=æwøíëãoãvèCà.Ý.ß2Þ=Þ2ÜXÚbãvà.ãQè2ÜHéÛÛOÛvÜHÞUçvâfÚ.çvèAçQæëãvóãvíôÝ.àsãÞßÜ

Yes!
j
ö.ÛÜHè ù þ
ä 4 ° C0¸ ÌÍÎ0,-*ÏiÍ:ÐDoºÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,ÇÌ CECGF * C6HF ÎºÑ
120 V ∠ 0o
+ -
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240o ∠ 120o
+ -
Ü'¯UÚsèCãvíôÞ2Ý|æëÞÞ ù çfæôàí ù Ü:ãvàsãvÜ&à.íçHÛvíôþ ß2àUãcâ`íëÝsì.íëÝ.ßî2® ä °¹âäã ® ä °uºõpèCÝsìð.ÛÞ2ß=ÛvÜFçvçvíëÝsßeé]Þ=Ú.ÝUãvÜÛ&Zé]æôÞé ù â`íçIÜ=áºÞ2Ú.Û²áâ l

U o
ã C
è v
Û v
ã ô
í .
Ý
ß `
â ë
í v
ã
E should equal 0 V
break
(120 V ∠ 120o) + (120 ∠ 0o) + (120 V ∠ 240o) + Ebreak = 0

å
0 + Ebreak = 0
æ
.
Ú
Û :
Ü
Ü .
Ý =
Þ .
Ú 2
ß
à U
á
ã .
à
Ü
Û
Ü `
â ô
í ô
æ ·
æ »
ö ÜHÛvÞ å Þ=æwãoèCß2Ü:è2éÛvÞUçvçQãvà.ÜXö.ÛÜHè ù á2ãÜæôæëíôÝ.ßcÚsçOãvàsèCã`Ý.ÞpéÚ.ÛÛvÜHÝ=ãfâ`íôæëæéíëÛoé]Ú.æè6ãÜ
Ü E =0
â`íëãvà.Ý íôÝ|è å ãvíôà.Ý.ÜXßpãÜHÛvçIíãèCèCÝ.ösß=æëÚ.íçIæàsèCÜHÛfìêæëÞãvÞ=àsðêèCãÞ2ûè â`½ íôÝsZé]ìbÞ=íôÝ.Ý.Ý.ß=ÜFçféâ`ãvÜFàsìêÜÝ|ãvà.ãvÛàsÜèCÜãhð.é]à»Þ=è2Ý.çvÝ.Ü ÜHåé]ãvÞ2íôæëÞ2ãÝ|è2ß2íôÜXçýçIòcÞ=Ú.è=ÛìbéÜSÜXé]â`Þ=òpíëæôæðsÝ.æëÜÞ2ãvãfÜ ösÚ.ÛvÝ íëãçvÜæëû^ãvÞ?è?é]Ûíôçvð
break
ìb« Ú.ÜHÜ:éHèCãÚsÞcçvÜýéíëÜHÛoé]è=ÚséoàGæôèCãvðsíôè2Ý.íëßpÛOéÞCÚ.ûÛæôíëÛvÝ.ÜHÜXÝ=ãoé]çÞ=áÝsâ"ìbÜÚsãé]Ú.ãvÞ=ÛÛÝkçQãíôÞpç"é]íëãÞ=çfÝ.ðsÝ.ÛÜHè=é]éãvãvÜFíìGéè2ìbæ¹íôÛvÚsÜFçIéÜSãvæôè=ó?ç"è2èpéÛvçvÞUÞ2çvÚ.çmÛoé]èMÜ:çIÞCíôÝ.ûß=ð»æëÜÞ6â"â`ÜíëÛ"Ýsì.íëÝ|íëÝ.ãßMà.íëÛvÝ|ÜHÜUè ´ð.½ àsè=é]çIíôÜ:Ûoé]é]Ú.íôÛíëãHéáUÚ.ãvíwãoàsç Ü j
æôè6íëãÝ.Ü è|å Ý.Þ2Þbæëãìbè2Ücß2ö$ÜcÜ]â`ã~â"íôæëÜæOÜö»ÝÜêã~'Üâ"¯UÞêÚsèCâ`æmíôÝsãvÞ&ìbíôÝ.ãà.ß=ÜGçHáð.ãàsà.è=ÜcçIÜ æëíôÝ.å ÜGÞ2æëéãÚ.è2ß2ÛvÛÜ Ü¢ÝUãX> â`Þ2Ý íëæôå æºÜHö$ÛçvÜcÜæôãvó2à.á*Ü ö»å ÜFÜFééè2ãÚsÞ2çIÛSÜ?çIÜFÚsè2ò éoàaÞCæôûOíëÝ.ãvÜêà.Üpé]Þ2ã~â"Ý»ìbÞ Ús~éÞ2ãíôÞ2Ý.ÛDíëÝsèCß|ãIãoðsè2àséoà.è2ÜFçvÜç
j
é]ÚsÛvÛÜÝUãç ºü Þ2ãçIÚ.Ûð.ÛíôçvíôÝ.ß2æôó2áUãvàsÜSÛvÜFçIÚ.æëãvíôÝ.ßcÜ'¯UÚsèCãvíôÞ2ÝsçOûyÞ=Ûè ½ é]Þ=Ý.sß=Ú.ÛèCãvíôÞ2Ý|èCÛÜ:è=ç"ûyÞ2æôæëÞ6âýçHþ

j
For ∆ ("delta") circuits:

æ
Eline = Ephase
Ü Ü
l ' Üã ç`çIÜHÜXà.Þ6â¨ãà.IíôçýâOÞ=Û ù ç"íëÝ&è2ÝêÜñbè2òcð.æëÜSéíëÛoé]Ú.íëãHþ
Iline = 3 phase
120 V ∠ 0o 10 kW
+ -
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240 o
∠ 120o 10 kW 10 kW
+ -
ãvàsÜú é]Ú.íëÛãvÛvà×ÜHÝUÜHãfè=éoíôÝàÜHæôÞ=è=è=éoàkì ð.ÛvÜFàsçIè=íçIç~ãoÜXèCÞ2Ýsû*éÜcãà.ÛvíôÜFçé]é]Üíôí Ûå éíëÚ.Ýsíwßçã`â`® ä íôæë° æ8ö»å Þ=Üæwão(uçXµ ûyµ ÛvµpÞ=ò èCòcíëãðsçSçHþÛÜHçvð$ÜHéãí å Ü?ð.àsè=çIÜcâ`íôÝsìbíôÝ.ßeè6ãSãà.ÜGçvÞ2Ú.Ûoé]Ü=á
j
»Ï Ï¦Î ¸ *+,-,/¼ïÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,±ÇÌJZ+¾½ C Ð Z+¿ FUÀ8 *ýÌýÎ F ÐZ:Ñ ä 4®
è
P
I=
E
Ü 10 kW
I=
120 V
Ü
I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor and source winding)
Iline = 3 Iphase
Ü
Iline = 3 (83.33 A)
Ü
Iline = 144.34 A
òcâ"Ü Þ2 Ûå ÜÜcÞ»ãá=æëàsÞUãèCà.ç~ãpÝÜ:èCÜHãvæôè2à.æºéoÜpãvàkà.æôíëæëÜGÝ.íôÝ.Ü?è=ÜSì éé]åÚ.Ú.èCÛvÛÝUÛÛÜãÜÝUè2ÝUãoß2ãOçÜFçXíôíôÝGÝÞCãû"ãà.à.ãvíôÜà.çOÛãK+Üà.ÜZÛvhé]ÜHð.Þ2UÜ à»Ýs´è2ð.Ý.çvàsÜHÜ?é]è=ãvçIð»ÜHÜÞ6ìð»â"çIÞ6Üóbâ"ÛSçIÜãvà.ÛfÜHÜHò çIÛvóbÜ=â"çIá8ãvß=ÜpÜHíò²å æëÞÜÞíôÝ ç"ù ãvÜHÜ'à.ì¯UÜcÚsèCè2ûÿã:æsè=éãÜFÞTãèCÛã® æëàsíô9 Üè69 Û ãM5µ âO9 7 Ü?èCÝ.òcÜMàsè ðsòpå çHÜ?íôábß2çIàUçIÚ.ÚsãSö»éoâ"ç~àaãoÞ2èCß=ÝsÝUÛvìbãvÜFíÜHè6èCÛãvæôÜHæëíëó Ûû
Vj
j
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vÞç ó
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ð$ÛÜHÞ=çvçð»çIÜFíôö.éãvæôÜ í å Â õ ÜýçvíôÞ2Ý±ÚsÛè éÜ`½ ð.Zàsé]è2Þ=çvÝ.Ü`Ý.â`ÜFéíôãvÝsÜFìbì±íôÝ.é]ßsíôá=ÛéãvÚ.à.íwÜã «ð.àsú è=çIÜíëãvàå Þ2ÜFæëãè2èCéoß=à±Ü`æôâ`Þ=íëè2æôìÇæsö$ð.Üà»éè2Þ2çvÝsÜ&çIãÜè2æôÜÝ=òcãmÛÜÜÝUßUãkèCìbÛoìbíôÛvæôÜFÜHéçç^ãæëÞCó±û·é]Þ2Þ=ð$Ý.ÜÝ.ÝcÜHûÿé]è2ãvíëÜFæôÚ.ìÇÛÜHè=çºé]ÛíôÝ?Þ=çãvçcàsèÜ

j
j
æôÞ=è2ìêÜæôÜòcÜHÝ=ãoç j
Þ2Þ2ÝsÛýÜ:éA Ú.Þ2ÜÛû8ÛÛvãàsÜHà.Ý=è2ÜXãpðsÂ ç^â`ãvíëÝsàsì.Üíëß2Ý.ÛßUÜHçfèCãvíëÝ ÜFç~èãOè=½ ì ´å éèCÞ2ÝUÝ.ãÝ.è2ÜFß2éÜýãÜHÞ2ì?û·ãvãà.à.Ü ÛÜ½ ÜU´´ð.éàsÞ2è=Ý.çIÝ.ÜXÜFéçvãÞ2ÜHÚ.ìGÛoé]çvÜÞ2Ú.ãvÞpÛoé]ûÿÜèCíôíôæ·çOÞ2íwãoð$çmÜûÿÝ|è2Ú.â`æëãOíëãvà.ãÞ2Þ=æôÚbÜãÛoèCèÝs

¹éÜHÜ é]oãvíôÝ.ãfßMíçQæôÞ=ð$è=Þ=ì ççIåíôö.Þ2æôæëÜýãè2ûyß2Þ=ÜÛ j
ä4ä C0¸ ÌÍÎ0,-*ÏiÍ:ÐDoºÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,ÇÌ CECGF * C6HF ÎºÑ
120 V ∠ 0o
ì
+ - 120 V
+
winding
failed open! ì∠120 V
120o
120 V 120 V
-
êline
Even with the winding failure in the source,
voltage will still be 120 V and load phase
voltage will still be 120 V. The only difference
ëwill be extra current in the remaining functioning
ó source windings.
û û û û
íîÎï ðñ nò ïuðó2î ¯ô îð ò îTï Jõ ó&ï ôö ò îQ÷ øyðù.øyðú ;õ øñyøyðúÒïuûÛî'ð ï ö8õ ½ ü ò ï ððî ò3ý 'î ù#ó&ï ôö ò îQøþó5øyð òö î õ ó&î'ù
ûí õ 2ó î òUôö ö î'ð ý øð ý íî ö îÿ õ øyðøyðú²÷ øyðù.øyðúuó-j+>/ï ÿ8û õö î ý íøyó ;õô ñ ýý ïuñî ö õ ð ò îI÷ ø ý í
õ K+¶ò ï ððî òUý î'ù¢ó.ó ý îÿ
ó ô.
î ö øyðú õ ðÎï û³îð¢ó&ï ôöqò î6÷ øyðù.øyðú þ
208 V
+ +
ì∠ 0Vo
120
- ì∠120 V
120o
- 104 V 104 V
winding
failed open!
ú
ï ö øyú øyð õ ñªñyøyðîuï ñ ý õ úuî °u( j
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' $I4-&D <( 7:+3+G9<#"'><CW#"(&+)m ½A9<A"'>"' #:= S
Ø 2
2 E
P = true power P=I R P=
R
Measured in units of Watts
iQ = reactive power kQ = I2X kQ = E2

É
X
Measured in units of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR)
jS = apparent power S = I2Z S=

E2
S = IE
¸
Z
Measured in units of Volt-Amps (VA)
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| #;')#['>2 +>/A D /1+3. {
I=2A
120 V · ¶
¶ no R 60 Ω
60 Hz reactance
}P = true power = I2R = 240 W

kQ = reactive power = I2X = 0 VAR
S = apparent power = I2Z = 240 VA
| ,('>2 +3/1 D /1+3. {
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ÁÁ ã b AÓ
¹
I = 1.989 A
no
120 V resistance È 160 mH
¶ L
60 Hz
XL = 60.319 Ω
}P = true power = I2R = 0 W
kQ = reactive power = I2X = 238.73 VAR
S = apparent power = I2Z = 238.73 VA
| #;')#['>2 L ,('>2 +3/1 DG{
¹ Load
I = 1.410 A
È
Lload 160 mH
É
XL = 60.319 Ω
120 V
¶
60 Hz
· ¶
Rload 60 Ω
}P = true power = I2R = 119.365 W

kQ = reactive power = I2X = 119.998 VAR
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The "Power Triangle"
Apparent power (S)

measured in VA
Reactive power (Q)
measured in VAR
Impedance
phase angle
True power (P)

measured in Watts
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2!+39 # l / $ +),#; y $S4 + (?'3(*9'> {
True power
Power factor = ª
Apparent power
119.365 W
Power factor =
169.256 VA
Power factor = 0.705
«cos 45.152o = 0.705

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r
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< ' $S4-&D ,<( 4 ,# ,C,+ % ½A9<,+ F /1 N+ ,#;N(?+3/1# F "/S "/T:= Õ
T'3<( ¬A</! ! 709<<(?/1" (? &D =% ,(?"'32 U4 /! ')# ´´ ¿ÚÕ ¿¿1? ¯ ü\5|¤70'3 D 9<(?"'32 = F &&D /
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T'3<( '3#S(* 4 ,(*'V/,M'>+3+o D '> (?"+3. '> 4 +3+ +M'> #"/,9( 7:/ l ¬T/!MX2,/,+>,C = F +3+69<# <
4 /! l /1 $ 9+) '3( #;"# l / $ 2,/,+>,C D ,(?,<( 1{
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²Q = °E2
±X
. . . solving for X . . .
±X = °E2
²Q ±X
C = ´2πfC
1
±X = ³(120 V)2
. . . solving for C . . .
119.998 VAR
µC =
±X = 120.002 Ω ´2πfX
1
C
µC =
´2π(60 Hz)(120.002
1
Ω)
µC = 22.105 µF
å & # 9<# /,9< D&D (* 4 ,(*'V/, 2!+39 / l b,b¶ m

ç , D # & ! 44@ <#6"/U/19N(?'3(?9'> {
¹ Load
Itotal = 994.716 mA
¹ ¹
¸995.257
IC = Iload = 1.41 A
¹mA È 160 mH
Lload
120 V ·C XL = 60.319 Ω
¶
60 Hz º22 µF
· ¶
Rload 60 Ω
ÁÁ1d §dÀxJ¨$ÀUÑ_¨_NcHÊMË©5DÂB×DÀMcM b Ó¿
¸
Ztotal = ZC // (ZL -- ZR)
¸
Ztotal = (120.57 Ω ∠ -90o) // (60.319 Ω ∠ 90o -- 60 Ω ∠ 0o)
¸
Ztotal = 120.64 - j573.58m Ω or 120.64 Ω ∠ 0.2724o
}P = true power = I2R = 119.365 W

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True power
Power factor = ª
Apparent power
119.365 W
Power factor =
119.366 VA
Power factor = 0.9999887
Impedance (polar) angle = 0.272o

«cos 0.272o = 0.9999887
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b Þ@µ À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂB×DÀMcM
,(<( 3' #M'3 D 9@("'32 '><"9 07 ')( ')#N+ $ /1#;J+36L.#6M'>+3+zo = F@4 +3+ +BFðròÚð1 ë ð2ì ')#M
'3# &&DED "U / (?/1" (? 4 /T/, 4 /! l , (/,ÄÕ
PX [À ¢ª$¨£?mªR f*¡ C¢Á£@ª$¨HX¢¤mP¢¢ J$¨"£08¥
&&D ')# #6"/W(?/1" (? l /1 4 /A/1 4 /! l 1(/,M'3Y ²¾4 /! N#;.#; &$eF .,/,9 4 /,o<,o+3.W/1Q
L2 +39y9.W/ l ¬T/!M'3CI +3/1 D # y,(? '3 D 9@(,<( '> ".# /U9<# %l /,M.,/19N(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,@# ÕP»O/19
$ L.Yo Sl /,""9< S </,9C / L2 '3<#["9 $I A(*+3+ &D 6ò<t
B* ê0ð10ët î ë * /^ +3+O.,/19Z ! <
4 /! l 1(/,P')#M7:8T9 $ o Po [ * 8µ% D´ = F , D 44 A 4 /! M7: '3( (*,o â<C19 ED oT.¬T'3C
Y21/,+> $S D '3CY'3m2,/1+V#, D $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CoT. X $I$S D '3CY'3X $I4 #=0ÕZqm+ ## l L21/,o+
(?'3(?9 $ #;@( #.,/19 $ L. L2 "/¼9<# ,¾/1#(?'3+>+3/1#(?/ 4@ /¼(*/ $S4 21/,+>C D (?9 A L2 ?l /1 $ # F
$S 1#;9'3C 4< ,# # ' l J'3YÂÃaÄÅÃ[Ã;Æ5, D (*+)(?9<+3"'3C 4 /! l ,(?"/1MoA.W (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# # ' l >Õ
º/A#[P+3'>¬ +3. F .1/,9IM'>+3+ L2 1(*( #"#\/5 !" $S l /1 $S ,#"9'><CJ"9 M4 /! F /1# D '3C%.,/19(*,
(?/ $S4 CA'3<#;J(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,/ l 44 A 4 /! 7 l / $ $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CW"/,,+_21/,+>C D "/+x(?9 A
$S 1#;9 *$S 1#0= ÕHç<"/ $ 2!,+>9 #B/ l "9 , D 44 A 4 /! F .,/,9W(& D $ '3 1("'32 M4 /! B, D
4 /! l 1(/,Ä Õ"å E # D /S, y $S4 + %4 "/1o+ *$ /S# * /!s '3# 6/,¬# {
wattmeter ammeter
P A
240 V
Load
RMS
¶
60 Hz
Ç
Wattmeter reading = 1.5 kW
Ammeter reading = 9.615 A RMS
ç\'>#; F &&D "/ (*,+3(*9+)! 44 A 4 /! S'3f¬üxDÕO (*, D / ')#UoT. $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C +>/A D
2,/1+VC oT.W+3/1 D (*9" A {
S = IE
S = (9.615 A)(240 V)
S = 2.308 kVA
J #R (& # &,F b Õ Ûµ1¯¬üxÈ'3# $ 9<( +)C Zâ@C,9 , ´ ÕÉe¬A F '3( +3+3#R9<# ! W4 /!
l ,(?"/15'3Y '3#%(*'>(?9'>%'3#5 4 /T/,S7:#"9o<#;,1'3,+>+3.+ #"#J ´ =:ÕÊN/! F â@C,9 4 /! l 1(/,8/ l
'3#M+3/1 D oT. D '>2T' D '><CS "9 %4 /! MoT.U 44 , 1 4 /! {
ÁÁ1d ËdmBJDÀMcHÊ ÀxJ¨5DÂBÐ×DÀMcM ÀM JNÀMcHÊ*%Ë b Þ ´
P
Power factor =
S
1.5 kW
Power factor = º2.308 kVA
Power factor = 0.65

Ì
J#"'3Ce )' #%2!+39 Il /, 4 /! l 1(/, F (*, D L 4 /! 8"'3,C,+ ,F , DYl / $ D $ '3 <
,(?"'32 84 /! M/ l '3#N+>/A DG{
Apparent power
Í2.308 kVA (S)
Reactive power (Q)
???
True power (P)

1.5 kW
n_/ D $ '> 9<¬T/!M70 1('>2 J4 !/ =P"'3,C,+ ½A9<,1'V[. F 9<# < BK .1 C1/, ,Sn < /, *$
¥o@,(¬T6, D # F ¥SC,'32 + C, / l . 4 / T9<# 7: 44 , 1 4 /! =N, D + C / l DL ,( A
#"' D 70"9 %4 /! = {
Reactive power = (Apparent power)2 - (True power)2
kQ = 1.754 kVAR
q l '3#+>/A D ')#, + (?"'3( $ /,"/1 F /, $ /1#;IT.h/ '> D 9<#["')+ ² +3/1 DQF '>M'3+3+ L2 Y+)C1C,'3C
70'3 D 9@("'32 = 4 /! l ,(?"/, F ')( $S <#_ !x +3+ L2 "/%(?/1" (? l /,x'>PM'V SrðFòÇð, ëat / l 4<4 "/ 4 '3
#"'> ,F M'3 &D '> 4 +3+ + Õ¼ÊN/!Î S ¬T/!È < $ /,9AU/ l ,('>2 4 /! 7 ´ Õ,Þ@»¬üxJ|J= F (*,
(*,+3(*9+)! #;'3 / l (& 4 1(?'>"/, &&DED /W(?/19A ,(?6'># ?® (# {
bÞb À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂB×DÀMcM
²Q = °E2
±X
. . . solving for X . . .
±X = °E2
²Q ±X
C = ´2πfC
1
±X = ³(240)2
. . . solving for C . . .
1.754 kVAR
±X = 32.845 Ω µC =
´2πfX
1
C
µC =
´2π(60 Hz)(32.845
1
Ω)
µC = 80.761 µF
|M/19 D '3C8 ')#B,<#" \/ ® "/R¯µ ¶ ç F (& 4 +),( !B#"'3 / l (* 4 ,(*'V/,x'3 (*'>(?9'>B D (&+)(?9+)!
< #;9+># {
wattmeter ammeter
ª
P A
º240 V
·C Load
RMS 80 µF
¶
60 Hz
Ne¯µ ¶ ç (* 4 ,(?'>"/1BM'3+>+ L2 (* 4 ,(?'>"'32 ,(?@( / l ÛÛÇÕ ´ Þ3Ü F C,'32T'><CI(?9 A/ l Þ Õ b Û,¯R $S4 # F
D (?/1" # 4 /, D '3C^ ,('>2 4 /! %/ l´ Õ Þ@ÛÞW¬ü\5|Ï7 l /,% < (& 4 1(?'>"/1Ut@ì<uwv*=0ÕWT'>@( (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
(?9<" AQ')# ´ ¯µá\/19z/ l4 ,# xl "/ $ < +3/1 D #G'3 D 9@("'32 (?/,A"'3o9'>/1%"/J(*9" A D L F (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
,(?"'32 84 /! MM'3+3+ D '> (?"+3.^#"9o1( l "/ $ < +>/A D # ,(?"'32 84 /! F #;9<+V'>CS'3 {
Inductive kVAR - Capacitive kVAR = Total kVAR
1.754 kVAR - 1.737 kVAR = 16.519 VAR

n ')#M(?/1" (?"'3/, F / l (?/19# ,F M'3+>+z/J( ,C < $ ,/ 9AM/ l "9 %4 /! N(*/,<#"9 $S&D oT.U < >+ /A DGF o 9
'>JM'>+3+Q #"9+>N'>YU#"9o<#;,1'3,+Q &D 9<(?"'3/,/ l 4<4 A 4 /! F , D / l /+z(*9" A D LM l "/ $ <
b »µPüP/1+VJ#"/,9<( ,{
ÁÁ1d ËdmBJDÀMcHÊ ÀxJ¨5DÂBÐ×DÀMcM ÀM JNÀMcHÊ*%Ë b Þ@Û
Power triangle for uncorrected (original) circuit
Apparent power (S)

2.308 kVA Reactive power (Q)
1.754 kVAR
(inductive)
True power (P)

1.5 kW
1.737 kVAR
(capacitive)
Power triangle after adding capacitor
Apparent power (S) Reactive power (Q)

16.519 VAR
True power (P)
n 4 4 A 4 /! 5(&Yo l /,9 DYl "/ $ "9 , D Ð ,(?"'32 R4 /! J2!+39 # F 9<#"'><CW <
1.5 kW
#; D DWl /1 $ / l KO.A 1C /, ^n /1 &$e{
ª
Apparent power = (Reactive power)2 + (True power)2
Apparent power = 1.50009 kVA

n ')#PC,'32 #P(?/1" (? &D4 /! l ,(/,P/ l 7;ÑÕÉ!¬T ÑÕÉÒ,Ò1ÓJ¬üx5= F /,OÒÇÕ Ó1Ó,Ó1ÓÔ F , D 8 f"/,,+<(?9 A
/ l 7[ÑÕ ,Ò,Ò1Ò,Ó5¬üx b Ô1ÒUüP/,+>#= F /,ÃÓÇÕ b 5 $S4 # F #;9<o<#[A"')+<' $S4 /!2 &$I Ax/!2 x 9<(*/, ( &D 2L,+>9 / l
ÓÚÕ ÓÑLR $I4 #*ÕPn ')# +>/! 6/,+G(?9 A M'3+3+"<#"+3 "/S+ ## < !M+3/1## #6'>^ (*'>(?9'>MM'>'3C F$S ,'3C
C, #".#[ *$Î* (?' <(*.Z70+ ## 4 /! 6 ,#; ED =:Õ
b !Þ Ô Ö"ÖJJ8cxB×,×1dX5RØB×RÖMcM
Ù ÚÜÛÝßÞYàÐá âã
ä å æ ç æ è éëê ì å éè å í éç î
ïZýUð*ï ñÁò óô õxöø÷ õ\÷NùPúÁûRüýþûRöÿö ÷ õx÷NùPú

¼ + (?"/ $S ( ')(*,+ $S $ /!2 *$S A#B(?/ $S '>[/o<,#"'3(5,C &$S A# { /1# o<1# ED /, f$ /!2
$S A D #"'3C,<# F D /A# e <C,'3 * ED # 4@ (?'â@(*,+>+3. l /,U 9<# ÕXn < o<1#;')( 4@ $ A a$ C, $S
$ /!2 &$I A y 4 +3/, &D '> $S ( 4 R/ l '3#o@/T/,¬hM'3+>+/6/,¬(*/, ("+3.' lND '3 ("+3.(?/,
( ED /U+> <"'3C(*9" A F o (&9<# RD '3 ('>/1/ l *ED + 8$ /!2 *$S A M'>+3+Q( <C M'> e 1( ,+ l
(?.(*+ / l Õ-K $ , A a$ C1 $S $ /!2 *$S A# F +>'3¬ R4- $ A a$ ,C, $ //,# F D 2T')( #
/A# 5$ /,"'3/, D*4- D #/1W 54 /,+)'>[.I/ l < 44 +3' ED 2,/1+VC 70/1 F .,/19(*,W '><¬U/ l '>6'3W $ #/ l <
D '3 ('>/1^/ l (?9 A0= Õ
D’Arsonval electromechanical meter movement
50
0 100
"needle"
magnet magnet
wire coil
AC through this movement will cause

the needle to flutter back and forth
uselessly.
qR/1 D Q/59<# #;[.A+ B$S $ /!2 &$I A\#"9<( ,#z < J#"/,T2!+ D #"'3C, F ,+V <!'><CJ(?9 A
$ @9 #[6o I"
'>A"/ n ')#'3# $ /1#; 1#;'3+3.I1(*(?/ $S4 +>')# &D /,9C 9<# / lzD 2T'3( #(*+3+ &D t 1 ¦
#L D '3/ D # 9@# ED '3 y $S4 + (*'>(?9<'V D&$ /1<#;"!"'3C (* !"'3/,^/ l\ $ /,')( l 9 <(?' # l / $
D '3#;"/1; &D 7:/,% (' &D =5#;'3 6L2 ¾'> /19C,/,'3C^'>A"/ +)o-/,! D ,'>+x/!2 /!, D . D '3/ D #
6/,¬S1#O . D / FE 9<#; *$S&$ o . ,( 1(6+>'3¬ /1 L.2!+32 Jl /, + (?"/,<#B"/</! { ,(?"'3C
b
b ÖJJ8cxB×<dXRÖ!Y5cx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"*c+*
, # , (*/, D 9@("/- l /M- /1 %4 /1+ , "- '>[. , D , ^'3<#"9+ , "/- l /- , </ < - /.8D<D +>. /19C QF , -0-/! , D '> , (
D '3/ D #;. $ o@/1+ 4 /1'>A#1231 4 ¦5
7608:9<;=9-0>@?6A6A9B@B7?C-09D560?FEG@E l 9HF9ID560-AEGJKEMLN- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@L#?608?F6 ,O EG:9P>@?FQ836
9?y7;=9D6 <-0- , G:Q9IB?CG , o:-0?RB7Q9S l ETK-UB7?CEVB:9 O L#?CHCH O 9-0W9(6AE O 6A99-J 608:-AET:Q8X608:9J>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36<?CG ,
DEG O 6 , G36<B7?C-A9ID560?FEG608:-AET:Q8KET76 , HCHY;=E-A6A?CEG O E l 608:9R DZVDHF9 {
"Rectified" AC meter movement
50
0 100
"needle"
magnet magnet
wire coil
- +
will
Meter movement needle
always be driven in
the proper direction.
AC Bridge
source rectifier
<GKE6A8K9- O 60- , 6A9QZ l E- , ;:- , D560?CD , H\ >96A9->@EMW9>@9G36? O 60E-09B79 O ?CQG[6A8:9>EMW9>@9G36(L#?608:ET76(6A8K9
C? G:8:9-09G36(;\EH , -A?F6%Z O 9G O ?F6A?CW3?F6%Z]E l 6A8K9 6%ZV;\9 O nP8K? O >@9 , G OU, WE?CB:?FG:Q@608:9JT O 9E l ;\9-A> , G:9G36> , QG:96 O
^/-0E,o , o:HCZJ608:9 O ?C>@;:HF9 O 6PB79 O ?CQG? O 6AEJT O 9 , G:EG:> , QG:960?>9B_?C-AEG`W , G:9U6AE>@EMW9#608:9GK99B:HF9 , Q , ?CG O 6 O ;:-0?CG:Q
6A9G O ?FEGaSK608:9bW , GK9Ro\9?FGKQ , 6A6A- , D6A9BX60EML , -0B ,Ò 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZXDE?CHcE l L#?F-09b9GK9-0Q?39BeoVZd6A8:9I e T , G36A?F6%Z60E
o=9f>9 ,O T:-09B
×Kg>×gmRÖih äjYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* l
Iron-vane electromechanical meter movement
50
0 100
"needle"
wire coil
iron vane
O >@9G360?FEG:9Bo\9 l E-09m?CGb608:? O o\EVE,¬nSo608:9P9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CD , 6p60- , D560?FEGo=96%Lm99GJ6%LqE(>@96 , HV;:H , 6A9 OO 9; , - , 609B
oVZ , G , ?C-/Q , ;_D , GUo=9UT O 9IB6AEbQ9G:9- , 6A9 , G:99B7HC9 >@EMW3?CG:Q l E-0D9#;:-AE;\E-p60?FEG , H:6AEf608:9<WEH6 , Q9Mo\96%Lq99G@6A8K9
;:H , 609 O Pn 8:? O LmE-¬ O T O 6 ,O Lm9HCH l E-N ,O ?F6UB7EV9 O l E-< S:E- O 8:ET:HRB^q OA, ZS T O 6 ,O ;=E3E-AHCZÕPnP8:9 l E-D9 O
?CG3WEHCW9IB , -09PW9-AZ O > , HCHrS>TKD8 O > , HCHC9-6A8 , G6A8:9#> , QG:960?CD , 6p6A- , D6A?CEGIo\96%Lq99G , G9G:9-AQ?>9BDE?FH , GKB , G
?C-AEGW , G:9S , GKB ,O/O TKD8@6A8:9 O 95¥ 9HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 6A?RD*(¥ >@96A9- >@EMW9>@9G36 O 609GKB60ERo=9 l - , Q?CHC9 , GKB9 ,O ?CHCZB7? O 6AT:-o\9IB
oVZs;:8VZ O ?RD , H)>@EMW9>@9G36 ft T76S l E- O E>98:?CQ8 WEH6 , Q9 , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S=6A8:99HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 60?CDJ>@EMW9>@9G6(? O
, GX9HC9Q , G36P6A9ID8:G:EHCEQZ
nP8:9 , 608:E7B7h
9 | , Zn)To=9Nu |xn<v>@9G60?FEG:9Be?FGw6A8K9x >@9609-0?FGKQ!D8 , ;76A9-X? O ?CB:9 , HCHCZ O T:?F6A9IB l E-
@> 9 ,O T:-0?CG:Q WEHF6 , Q9 O S39 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ@? l 608:9y9HC9D560-AEGo=9 , >z? O#O Lq9;76 O ?RB79 6AE O ?RB79 , D-0E O0O 608:9 O D-A99GÈ l 6A8K9
6AT<o\9L#8:?CHF96A8:9>@9 ,O T:-09BY WEHF6 , Q9JB7-0?CW9 O 6A8:9Io=9 , >{T:; , GKBB7EML#G |Q- , ;K8:?CD , H)-A9;:-A9 O 9G36 , 60?FEG]E l
6A8K98 L , W9 O 8 , ;=9 , GKB`G:E6 T O 6 , >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36qE l > , QGK?60TKB79yD , Gd9 ,O ?CHFZSo=98 , B`L#?F6A8 O TKD8 , B79WV?RD9
}<EMLm9W9-IS |xn% O 8 , W9#6A8:9(B7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l Lq9?FQ836S O ?39S O ?FQG:?F\D , G6q;\EMLm9- DEG O T:>@;760?FEGaS , GKB l - , Q?FHC?6%Z
0u o=9?CG:Q~> , B79E l 9W , DT , 609BQH ,OAO vyLmE-¬3?CG:Q , Q , ?CG O 6b6A8K9> ~ E-b608:9 O 9-09 ,O EG O S)9HF9ID56A-0E>@9ID8 , G:?RD , HB
>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O#O 6A?CHFHa8 , W9 , ;KH , D9f?CGd;:- , D6A?RD , HYT OA, Q9
?F6A8 O E>@9E l 608:9 , B7W , G6 , Q9 Oy, GKBxB7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l 608:9 O 9@>@96A9-b>@EMW9>9G36609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 O 8 , WV?CG:Q

o=99G~B7? O DT OAO 9B , HC-09 , B:ZS7608:9-09b? OU, GKE6A8K9- l , D56AE-D-ATKD? , HFHCZ?C>@;\E-p6 , G36 l E-#6A8:9B79 O ?CQG:9- , GKB]T O 9-<E l
>@9609-0?FG:Q_?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O 6AEUo=9 , L , -A9(E l% nP8:? O ? O 6A8:9f? OAO T:9fE l |<ZX>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O Lm9 , HC-A9 , B7Z¬3GKEMLfS
>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O@, -A9]E l 609GD ,O 6_?CG ,xO D , HF9]E l ;=EMLm9-@9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9SPD , HCHC9B(]uÈVE6 9 , G
T , -09Iv l E-U6A8:9 OA, ¬ 9fE l >@9 , G:?CG:Q l T:H&DE>; , -0? O EG O L#?F6A8[ , G\B]L#?608sE6A8K9-5 L , W9 l E-0> O E l W , -AZV?CG:Q
O 8 , ;=9 <Ê EG:9#E l 6A8:9U>96A9-+>EMW9>@9G36+609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 OO E l , - B7? O DT O0O 9IB?CG:8:9-A9G36AHCZb>@9 ,O T:-09m6A8:9J|UW , HFTK9
E l , Gf z T , G360?6%Z s96A9->@EMW9>@9G36 O -09HCZV?FG:QxEG!6A8K9X>@E6A?CEGNE l , >@9D8 , G:?RD , HPG:99B7HC9u:¥-A9ID56A?FK9IB¥
U - O EGVW , HSK?C-AEG W , G:9S , GKB]9HF9ID56A-0E O 6 , 6A?RDv , HFHc6A9G\BX6AE`>@9D8 , G:?RD , HFHCZ , W9- , Q96A8K9J?CG O 6 , G36 , G:9ET O W , HCT:9 O
?CG60E , GxEMW9- , HFH , W9- , Q9bW , HFT:9 l E-y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> Pn 8K? Of, W9- , Q9W , HCT:9_? O G:E6fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0?FHCZ]6A8:9 OA, >9 ,O
<| Y S , H608:ET:Q8`> , GVZ6A?C>9 O ?F6P? O >? O 6 , ¬ 9G ,O O TKD8 < W9- , Q9 , GKBWU| @ W , HCT:9 O - , 6A9 , Q , ?FG O 6 9 , D8_E6A8:9-
,O#O TKD8 l E-P608:9 O 9y6A8:-099fDE>@>@EGXL , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;=9 O {
l¯ ÖJJ(jxB×KgXRÖ!Yjx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"j+*
RMS = 0.707 (Peak)

AVG = 0.637 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = Peak
ª
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

ª
AVG = 0.5 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)
V?CGKD59 |< O 99> O 60ERo=9#6A8:95¬V?FGKB@E l >9 ,O T:-09>@9G36/>@E O 6/;\9E;:HC9 , -A9#?CG36A9-09 O 6A9IB@?FG_E1o76 , ?FGK?FG:QfL#?F6A8 , G
C? G O 60-ATK>9G36S , GKB`9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H:>@96A9-m>@EMW9>9G36 O G , 60T:- , HFHCZ@B79HC?FW9-y1M ? 12 >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36 O - , 6A8:9-
6A8 , GW|<YSL#8 , 6 , -09N >96A9-qB79 O ?CQG:9- O 6AEbB7EV 8:9 , 6SE l DETK- O 9,Õxn ZV;:?RD , HFHCZb608:9 ,OAO T:>@;76A?CEG@? O > , B:9
6A8 , 6y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;\960Eeo=9_>@9 ,O T:-09B? O QE?CG:Qd6AEo\9 O ?CG:9su0oVZ l , -y608:9_>@E O 6bDE>@>@EGcSa9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ
l E-m;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O vS , GKB@608:9G6A8:9(>@96A9-P>EMW9>@9G36 O D , HF9? Om, HF6A9-A9IBUoVZ6A8:9 , ;:;K-AE;:-A? , 609<>JTKH60?F;:HC?RD , 60?FEG
l , D6AE- E- O ?CG:9<L , W9 O Lm9 O 99P6A8 , 6|<Z? O 9 T , H760ERÒ Ò 60?F>@9 O 6A8:9U;\9 , ¬JW , HFT:9#L#8K?FHC9J<W9- , Q9m? O Ò 3
6A?C>@9 O 608:9_;\9 , ¬nS O EXLm9@D , GB7?CWV?CB79@EG:9J\QT:-09 oVZs608:9@E608:9-y60EXE1o76 , ?FG , G , W9- , Q9 6AE |UXDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE-#E l Ñ ÑEÒ,Ó {
0.707
0.637 = 1.1099
qGNE6A8K9-_LmE-B O S/6A8:9s>@9609-_>@EMW9>@9G36_L#?FHCMH o\9[D , HC>? oK- , 6A9B6AE?CGKB7?RD , 6A9 , ;:;K-ALE y7?C> , 6A9HF¾Z Ñ Ñ1Ñ60?F>@9 O
8:?CQ8:9-f6A8 , G?F6JLqET:HRB~E-0B:?FG , -A?CHCZ!uG , 6ATK- , HFHCZ:v(?FGKB:?CD , 6A9L#?608G:E O ;=9D? , H , DDE>@>E7B , 6A?CEG O q6>JT O 6 o=9
O 6A-09 O0O 9IBb608 , 6/608:? O ¥D8:9 , 6 ¥EG:HCZbLqE"- ¬ O Lm9HCH:L#8:9G608:9<>@9609-/? O T O 9B60Ef>9 ,O T:-09m;KT:-A9 O ?CG:9#L , W9 O ETK-0D9 O
Ê<E6A96A8 , 6 l E- 60-A? , GKQHC9<L , W9 O S608:9(- , 6A?CRE o\96%Lq99e
G |< , GKWB UW9- , Q9<? O GKE6 608:9 OA, >9 ,O l E- O ?CG:9(L , W9 O {
0.577
0.5 = 1.154
?F6A8 O T , -09dL , W9 O S 6A8: 9 |U , GK G >@96A9-dD , HC3? o:- , 6A9IB60E
B <W9- , Q9XW , HFT:9 O`, -09]?CB:9G36A?RD , H Õ~Us
D, DT:- , 609HCZ[-09 ,
B |<Z xWEHF6 , Q9@E-bDT:-0-A9G6bEG , ;:T:-09 O ?CG:9_L , W9@L#?CHFH 4 tM
Q?CW9@6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-fW , HCT:9`L#8:?CHC9
?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQ@6A8:9b> , QG:?F6ATKB:9bE l , GVZ36A8:?CG:Q_E6A8:9-#6A8 , G , ;\9- l 9ID56 O ?CG:9bL , W9 nP8:? O ?FG\DHCTKB79 O 6A-0? , G:QHC9fL , W9 O S
O T , -09JL , W9 O SnE- , GV Z ¬V?CGKBE l B7? O 6AE-A6A9IB O ?FGK9L , W9 ?F6A8x8 , -0>@EG:?RD O o=9DE>@?FG:Q , Gx9W9- ;K-A9 O 9G6;:8:9
G:E>9G:EG?FG`H , -0QN9 ;\EMLm9- O Z O 609> O S608:? O > , 6A6A9-qE l , DDT:- , 6AN9 |U _>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36 ? O G:E O > , HCHK> , 6p6A9-
×Kg>×gmRÖih äjYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* lÓ
nP8:9 ,O 6AT7609J-09 , B:9-UL#?CHCH&GKE6A96A8 , 56 qU8 , W9bE>@?6A6A9B[6A8:9 |xnÐ¥>@EMW9>@9G36¥ l -0E>608:9I|U UW9- , Q9
7B ? O DT O0O ?CEG nP8:? O ? O o\9ID , T O 9 , |\nL#?608J?F6 O ;:- , D6A?RD , HFHCZyLq9?FQ860HF9 OAO 9HC9D6A-0EGRo=9 , >¥>@EMW9>@9G36¥UB7? O ;:H , Z O
6A8K9`^9 , ¬uE-b^9 , ¬ 60E ^9 , ¬d? l ZETxL#? O 8\vE l , G L , W9 l E-0>{- , 6A8:9-y6A8 , GhUW9- , Q9E-R|< 36A?CHCHrS ,
O ?F>@?CH , -(;K-A1E o:HF9> , -0? O 9 O { 8:EML|B7E]ZET~B:96A9-A>@?CG:96A8:9U|<ZW , HFT:9@E l , L , W9 l E-A> l -0E>?F6 EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O o=96%Lm99G_^9 , ¬ , GKBS|<Z@EG:HCZJ8KEHRB O EfHCEG:Q ,O 6A8K9<L , W9 l E-A> l , HFH O G:9 , 60HFZ?FG360E , ¬VG:EML#G_D , 609QE-0Z
E l O 8 , ;=9!u O ?CG:9SP6A-0? , G:QHC9S , GKB O T , -A9 , -09]6A8:9~EG:HCZ!*9 y , >@;:HC9 O L#?F6A8w^9 , ¬ |< <W9- , Q9XDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O Q?FW9G8K9-0,9 Õv
. G:9 , G O Lm9-y? O 60E[B79 O ?CQG[608:9_>@9609-f>@EMW9>9G36 , -AET:GKB[6A8:9_W9-0Z[B79KGK?60?FEG~E l |<Z { 6A8:9_9 ® 9ID560?FW9
8:9 , 6A?CG:QXW , HCT:9JE l , h G WEH6 , Q9 DT:-A-09G36 ,O ?F6f;\EMLm9- OU, -A9 O ? O 6A?CW9bHCE , B VT:;:;=E O 96A8 , 6608:I9 O ET:-0D9
6A^ E o\9>@9 ,O T:-09B]? O DEGKG:9D6A9B , D-0E O0O<, -09 O ? O 60E-UE l ¬VG:EML#GsW , HCT:9S , G\B]6A8:98:9 , 6ET76A;KT76E l 6A8 , 6(-09 O ? O 6AE-
? O >@9 ,O T:-09B!L#?608 , B:9WV?CD9sHF3? ¬9 , 608:9-0>@EVDET:;KHF9 nP8:? O LqET:HCB!;:-0EMWV?CB79 , l , ->E-A9sB7?C-09D56_>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36>@9 , G O E l |<Z ]6A8 , G , G3ZsDEGVW9- O ?FEG l , D560E-(DETKHCBYS l E-U?F6(L#?CHFHLmE- ¬L#?F6Ah 8 JÊM»L , W9 l E-A> O 8 , ;=9
L#8 , 6 O E39W9- {
sensitive
meter
movement
AC voltage to
be measured
thermocouple bonded
with resistive heating
element
8:?CHF9[6A8:9xB79WV?RD9 O 8:EML#G , o=EMW9s? OO E>@9L#8 , 6D-0TKB79 , GKBLmET:HRB O T ® 9- l -0E>T:G:? TK9[9G:Q?FGK99-0?CG:Q
;:-0E,o:HC9> O E l ?F6 O EML#GaS7608:9JDEGKD9;76<?CHFHCT O 6A- , 6A9IBX? O W9-0Z O ET:G\B nP8:9f-09 O ? O 60E-<DEGVW9-A6 O 608:9 WEH6 , Q9yE-
DTK-A-09G36 T , G360?6%Zx?FG360E , 6A8:9-A> , Hu8K9 , 65v T , G60?6%ZS)9 ® 9ID560?FW9HCZ O T , -0?FGKQ]6A8:9`W , HFT:9 O ?CG-A9 , H 60?F>@9 nP8K9
O Z O 6A9 > O > ,O0O LmE-¬ O 60E , W9- , Q9P6A8:9 O 9yW , HCT:9 O oVZ@6A8K9;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9E l 6A8K9-0> , Hn?FG:9-p60? , S , GKB`6A8:9G608:9>@96A9-
DO , HC9U?F6 O 9H l ? O D , HF3? o:- , 6A9IB@6AEQ?CW9 , Gd?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGô ,O 9BEG_608:9 O T , -A9 -0EVE6 E l 6A8K9U608:9-0> , Hn>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 {
;=9- l 9D5N6 |#EVE6 s9 , G T , -09<?FG\B7?CD , 60?FEG , HCHn?FGdEG:9yB79W3?RD91ÕPqG l , D56S7EG:9(> , E-m?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6P> , GVT l , D56ATK-A9-
8 ,O ?F>@;:HC9>@9G609BX608:? O 6A9ID8:G:? TK9f?FG36AE_?F6 O 8:?CQ8 9GKBXHC?FGK9bE l 8 , G\B78:9HRB]9HC9D6A-0EG:?RDy>JTKH60?F>@9609- O l E-5¥M6A-0T:9
|< ¥_D , ; , o:?CHF?F6%Z
, HC3? o:- , 6A?CG:SQ WEH60>@96A9- O#, GKB , >@>@96A9- O l E-<B7? ® 9-A9G6 l T:HCH O D , HF9y- , G:Q9 O E l E;=9- , 60?FEG? O >JTKD8X6A8K9
O0, 9 ,O L#?F6A8 ?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O { O 9-0?F9 O ¥>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- ¥d-09 O ? O 60E- O(, -A9@T O 9B~60EsQ?CW9@WEH60>96A9-f>EMW9>@9G36 O
@
>
8:?CQ8:9-<- , G:Q9S , GKB]; , - , HCHC9QH ¥ O 8VT:G36 ¥@-09 O ? O 6AE- O#, -A9fT O 9IBX6AE , HCHCEML , >>@96A9->@EMW9>@9G6 O 6AE`>@9 ,O T:-A9bDT:-
-09G36 O o=9ZEGKBd608:9?C-<G , 6AT:- , HY- , G:Q9 }UEMLq9W9-S7Lm9 , -09fG:E6<HC?F>@?F6A9IBX6AE@6A8K9 O 9f6A9ID8:G:? TK9 O<,O Lq9fLm9-09fL#?608
5 { o\9ID , T O 9Lq9@D , Gs6AEXT O 9J60- , G O l E-A>@9- O L#?60h 8 Sn>@9609-y- , G:Q9 O D , G o=99HC9D560-AE> , QGK96A?RD , HFHCZX- , 6A8:9-
6A8 , Gs-09 O ? O 6A?CW9HFe Z ¥ O 6A9;K;\9IB]T:<; ¥_E5- ¥ O 6A9;:;=9BsB7EML#GaS ¥ O E>@960?F>@9 O l , N- o=9ZEGKB]L#8 , 6U-09 O ? O 6AE- O LqET:HCBX8 , W9
;:- , D6A?RD , HCHCZ , HCHCEMLq9IB l E- Ê609G36A? , H nc- , G O l E-0>@9- O u^ n% O v , G\B T:-A-09G36 n)- , G O l E-0>9- O u n% O v , -A9_;K-A9
D? O ?FEG?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36@B79WV?RD9 O > , GVT l , D6AT:-09Bx60E;:-0E7B7TKD9`W9-AZx;:-09D? O 9`- , 6A?CE O E l 6A- , G O l E-0> , 60?FEh G o=96%Lm99G
;:-0?F> , -AZ , GKB O 9IDEGKB , -0ZfL#?CGKB7?CG:Q O nP8K9Z@D , G , HCHCEML O > , HFHS O ?C>;KHFN9 >@96A9-/>@EMW9>9G36 O 6AEf?CGKB7?RD , 6A9<*9 y
6A-09>@9HFZ@8:?CQ8_WEHF6 , Q9 O/, GKB`DT:-A-09G36 O ?FGd;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O L#?608 , DDT:- , DZ , GKB_DE>;KHF96A9U9HF9ID560-A?RD , HK? O EH , 6A?CEG
u O E>@96A8:?CG:Q@>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?F9- , G\B O 8VT:G36#-A9 O ? O 60E- O DETKHCBdG:9W9-<B7EVv {
l¯1Ò ÖJJ(jxB×KgXRÖ!Yjx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"j+*
0-5 A AC movement range

A
precision
CT step-up
ratio

power source
fuse fuse
precision
step-down
PT
ratio
t 9D , T O 9qEK608:9 O ?39 , GKBJ9 7;\9G O 9PE=?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G366A- , G O E-0>@9- O So608:9Z , -A9PG:E6+T O 9IBb60E O D , HC96 >@96A9- O
0-120 V AC movement range
E- , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E6A8:9-P6A8 , Gs8:?CQ8]WEH6 , Q9 , G\Bd8K?FQ8]DT:-0-A9G6 / E- O D , HC?FGKQ , >@?CHFHC? , >@;sE-#>@?CD-AE , >@;
>@EMW9>9G36q60E , - , G:Q9UE6ÑIl,ÒbWEH6 O E-<¡ , >@; O S3GKE-0> , Hn;:-A9ID? O ?CEGd-A9 O ? O 6AE- O u>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- O#, GKB O 8VT:G36 O v , -09
T O 9BYS T O 6 ,O L#?608s
¢ £¤d¥£¦¨§
¢ ÊH , -0>? 9Bu vb>@96A9->@EMW9>9G36 O >T O 6T O 9dB79WV?CD9 O D , HCHC9B ©ª « ¦b60E¬=9 , ¬:HC9`6AE~?FG\B7?CD , 609^
T , G36A?F6A?C9 O
¢ HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , Hn>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36 O S:L#8:96A8:9-<9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:960?CD(E-U9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CDS:G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`;K-AE
W3?RB79s608:9N1 «® 12 « W , HCT:9E , >9 ,O T:-09 B T , G36A?F6%Z °¯ 8:9 O 9?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O > , Z¬=9- , GKQ9B!60E
?FGKB:?CD , 6A9y±< `W , HCT:9SV¬:T76#EG:HFZ@?Fc608:9 O 8 , ;\9(Ea608:%9 L , W9E-A>²? O ;:-09D? O 9HCSZ ¬VG:EML#G`¬=9E-098 , GKGB Õ
¢ VE D , HFHC9B
®5³K« (]>@9609- O T O 9sB7? ® 9-A9G36609D8:GKEHCEQZx60Ex;K-AEMWV?RB79d?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CEG O -09;:-09 O 9G360?FG:Q~6A8K9
, D560T , Ha±U xu- , 6A8K9-m6A8 , G O ¬9Lm9B , W9- , Q9<E-#;=9 , ¬:vmE , G L , W9E-A>
ïyÚð´ µùP÷<¶·÷Jü]¸P¹ ûRüý»ºs¼ûú\÷ ö ÷Nûú·ùP÷Jöø÷JüIõ
½ G_?C>@;\E-p6 , G36/9HC9D6A-0?CD , H T , G36A?F6%ZJL#?F6A8_G:Ef9 TK?FW , HC9G36/?CG` D?F-DT:?F6 O ? O)¾ ®A«¿³K«4=ÀÁM& -A9 T:9GKDZJ>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36P? O W9-AZ?C>;=E-A6 , G36m?CG> , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E , HF6A9-0G , 6A?CG:QDT:-A-09G36IS9 O ;=9D? , HFHCZ@?FG ½ ;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O
B79 O ?CQG:9IB@6AE-ATKG`9 D?C9G360HFZ , 6mEG:9U-A9 T:9GKDZ , GKB_EG:9<-09 T:9GKDZ@EG:HFZ )Â c6A8:9 ½ ? O ¬=9?CG:QJQ9G:9- , 6A9B@¬VZ
, G_9HF9ID560-AE>9ID8 , GK?CD , H , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S6A8:9#-09 T:9GKDZL#?FHCH=¬\9UB:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H76AEy608:9 O 8 , 6 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9
> , D8:?CG:9S , GKB-A9 T:9GKDZDET:HRB_¬=9<>@9 ,O T:-09B O ?F>@;:HCZ¬3Z>@9 ,O T:-0?CG:Qy6A8:9 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9 O 8 , 6 &Â Y-09 T:9GKDZ
G:99B O 6AE]¬=9@>9 ,O T:-09B , 6 O E>@9@B7? O 6 , GKD9-0E>{608:9 , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S=6A8KET:Q8aSYE608:9-y>@9 , G O Eq>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
L#?CHFHa¬=9fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0Z
. G:9 O ?F>@;:HC9y¬:T76UD-0TKB79f>@96A8:E7BXE)-A9 TK9GKDZ`>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36#?CGd;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O T:6A?CHF?CÃ9 O 6A8:9f;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9
EP>@9D8 , G:?RD , H -A9 O EG , GKD9 W9-AZs;:8VZ O ?CD , H/E¬7Ä%9D6b;\E OAO 9 O0O ?CG:QX6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-A6%Z[E#9H ,O 6A?RD?F6%Z!u O ;K-A?CG:Q?CG:9 OAO v
×Kg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $IÖ<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ<Ñ
8 ,OU, Gs?CG:8:9-A9G36U-09 T:9G\DZ , 6UL#8:?RD8[?F6L#?CHFH);:-099-U6AEdW3?C¬:- , 609 <¯ 8:9f60T:G:?CG:QÈ-AÎX? O, Q-A9 , 6<9 , >@;:HF9JE
6A8K? OÏ&O 6A-0?CÎ9P?6qEGKD9 , GKB?F6 L#?FHCH\DEG36A?CGVT:9m6AEbWV?C¬:- , 6A9 , 6 , 6AEGK9 O ;=9D?=Dm6AEf?F6 O HC9GKQ6A8 Ð EG:Q9-&6ATKG:?FGKQfE-0Î O
8 , W9HCEMLq9-P-A9 O EG , G36P-A9 T:9GKD?F9 OÏ 608:9?C-P6AEG:9 O L#?CHCHY¬\9fHCEMLq9-PEGX6A8:9f>T O ?CD , H O D , HC96A8 , G O 8:E-p609-mE-0Î O
Â > , Q?FG:9 , -AEML°Eq;:-0EQ-A9 OAO ?CW9HCZ O ?CÃ9BX60T:G:?CG:QXE-0Î O(, -A- , GKQ9B O ?RB79 ¬VZ O ?CB:9 ¯ 8K9Z , -A9 , HCH+>@ET:G36A9IB
EG , DE>>@EG!¬ ,O 9S , GKB608 , 6`¬ ,O 9d? O WV?F¬K- , 6A9B , 6_608:9X-A9 TK9GKDZE(6A8:9]>@9 ,O TK-A9IB ½ WEHF6 , Q9uE-
DTK-A-09G36vU¬VZs>@9 , G O E , G~9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:96 (Ñ 8K?CD8:9W9-U60T:G:?CG:QXE-0Îs? O DHCE O 9 O 6?CGx-A9 O EG , G36<-09 T:9GKDZ]60E
6A8K9-09 T:9GKDZ_Ec608 , 6#WV?F¬K- , 6A?CEGL#?CHCHn6A9G\B`60E O 8 , Î9<608:9y>@E O 6fuE-m6A8K9(HCET\B79 O 6v +Â c6A8K9E-AÎ OÒ 6A?CG:9 O Lm9-09
K?C> O Zs9G:ET:Q8aSYLm9DET:HRB O 996A8:9@-09H , 60?FW9J>@E60?FEGEq9 , D8~¬VZ]6A8:9HF9G:Q608~E/6A8K9¬KHFT:-yLm9LmETKHCB O 99 ,O
Lm9f?FG O ;=9D5609B]9 , D8]EG:9y-0E> , G]9G\B WV?C9LÓ;\9- O ;=9D560?FW9 qÑ 9HFHSK> , Î9 , DEHFHC9D6A?CEG]E+ÔM60T:G:?CG:Q@E-0Î O ÔET:6
E ,Ò 6A-0?C;sE O 8K996>96 , H)DT:6?CG , ; , 6A6A9-AG , Î3?CG]6AE , - , Î9S , GKB]ZETs8 , W9y6A8:9` ©Õ® 1M
©4 2 ®A«« -09 T:9GKDZ
>@9609- Ï
to AC voltage
sheet metal reeds
shaken by magnetic
field from the coil
¯ 8:9T O 9-E+6A8:? O >@96A9-WV?C9L O 6A8:99G\B O E , HCH)6A8:E O 9T:G:9 T , H&HF9G:Q608[-A99B O(,O 6A8K9Z , -09JDEHCHF9ID56A?CW9HFZ
O 8 , Î9G , 6q6A8:9U-A9 TK9GKDZE=608:9 , ;:;:HC?F9IB ½ WEH6 , Q9P60Ef6A8K9DE?FH ¯ 8:9UEG:9UDHCE O 9 O 6 ?CG`-09 O EG , G6+-09 T:9GKDZ
6AE608:9 , ;:;KHF?C9B ½ L#?FHCHYWV?F¬:- , 609(6A8:9f>@E O 6SKHFEVEÎV?CG:Q O E>96A8:?CG:Q@HC?FÎ9y6A8:? OÏ
Frequency Meter
52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
120 Volts AC
ÖU?C¬:- , 60?FG:Qs-099IBx>96A9- O ScE¬3WV?CET O HCZS , -A9@G:E6J;:-09D? O ?FEG~?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O S&¬:T76b608:9Z , -09@W9-0Z O ?C>;KHF9 , GKB
6A8K9-09E-09(9 ,O Z6AE@> , GVT7 , D56ATK-A9U6AE@¬\9y-0T:QQ9B ¯ 8:9Z , -09E6A9GdETKGKBEG O > , HCH=9G:Q?CG:9 B7-0?CW9GQ9GK9- , 6AE-
O 96 O E-f608:9`;:T:-0;=E O 9_E O 96p6A?CG:Q[9G:Q?CG:9 O ;\99B O E]6A8 , 6f6A8:9`-A9 TK9GKDZ? OJO E>@9L#8 , 6bDHCE O 9@6AE Òu¡Ò]?CG
lÍ3l ÖUÊUË(jÇ Æ×KgÊRÖ![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$J×Ö&"%Æ%Ö(')"j+*
TK-AE;\9ovq}U9-A6AÃ
Ñ 8:?CHF9_-099IB 6%Z3;=9@>@96A9- Of, -A9@?C>@;:-A9ID? O 9SY6A8K9?C-bE;=9- , 60?FEG , H;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9_? O G:E6 `Â GxHF?C9TEm>@9D8 , G:?RD , H
-09 O EG , GKD9S\Lm9> , Z O T:¬ O 6A?F6AT76099HF9ID560-A?RD , H)-09 O EG , GKD9 , GKB~B79 O ?FQG , -A9 TK9GKDZX>@96A9-yT O ?CG:Q , G[?CGKB7TKD6AE-
, G\BbD , ; , D?60E-a?CGf6A8K9/E-0>ØE , 6 , G:ÎyD?C-DT:?F6mu; , - , HCHF9H?CGKB7TKD6AE- , G\BbD , ; , D?60E-5v &. G:9 E-c¬=E608DE>@;\EG:9G36 O
, -09<> , B:9 , BMÄ%T O 6 , ¬:HC9S , GKB , >@96A9-m? O ;:H , D9B_?CG`608:9yD?C-0DT:?6q6AE?FGKB:?CD , 6A9(> , 7?C>JT:> , >@;:HC?F6ATKB79EcWEHF6 , Q9
, D-AE OAO 608:9]6%LqEDE>@;\EG:9G36 O ¯ 8:9 , BoÄ%T O 6A>@9G36`ÎVG:E¬)u O v , -09XD , HC?F¬:- , 609B6AE O 8:EMLÙ-09 O EG , G36-09 T:9GKDZ
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96p60?FG:Q\S , G\B[608:9@-A9 T:9GKDZs? O -09 , B[-0E>{608:9> , 609-y6A8K9@B:9WV?CD9@8 ,O ¬=99G , BoÄ%T O 6A9B~E-
> , 7?C>JT:>Ú?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGXEGX608:9f>@96A9- O0O 9G60? , HFHCZS3608:? O ? O#, 60T:G , ¬:HF9y\H609-UD?F-DT:?F6<L#8:?RD8d? O<, BoÄ%T O 6A9B , GKB
6A8K9G-A9 , B~?FG , > , GKG:9- O ?F>@?CH , -y6AE , ¬:-0?RB7Q9_D?C-DT:?F6uL#8:?RD8>JT O 6b¬=9_¬ , H , GKD9BE- , ÔG3TKHFHRÔ]DEG\B7?60?FEG
, G\B`608:9Gs-09 , BKv
Resonant Frequency Meter
Sensitive AC
meter movement
variable capacitor with

adjustment knob calibrated
in Hertz.
¯ 8:? O 609D8:GK? T:9? Om, ;=E;:TKH , - EGK9<E- , > , 6A9TK- - , B7?CEbE;=9- , 60E- O uE- , 6qHC9 ,O 6m?6mL ,O ¬=9E-09<608:9 , B7W9G36
E m?FGK9 7;\9G O ?FW9B7?CQ?F6 , H-A9 T:9GKDZs?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 O D , HFHC9B À0ª³74
«®Û vSY9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ[¬=9D , T O 9?6bB7EV9 O G Ò 6f-A9 TK?F-09
B7?C-A9ID56 DEG:G:9ID560?FEG60Ey6A8:9D?C-0DT:?6 Ü EfHFEG:Q ,O 608:9<?CGKB7TKD6AE- , GKB\ÝME-+D , ; , D?60E-/D , G@?FG3609-D9;:6/9G:ET:Q8 O 60- , Z
K9HCBu> , QGK96A?RDfE-U9HC9D6A-0?CDSK-09 O ;\9ID560?FW9HCZ7vP-AE>Ú608:9JD?F-DT:?F6TKGKB79-U6A9 O 66AEdD , T O 9y6A8K9J>@9609-6AE`?CGKB7?RD , 6A9S
?F6<L#?FHCHaLmE-0Î
Â Gy-09 T:9G\DZ ,O ?CGbE608:9-Y6%ZV;=9 O E79HC9D6A-0?CD , H>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36S6A8:9/>@E O 6 , DDT:- , 6A9+>@9 , G O EV>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
-, 09]T O T , HCHFZ6A8:E O 9sL#8K9-09 , GT:G:ÎVG:EML#G T , G360?6%Z!? O DE>@; , -A9IB , Q , ?FG O 6 , ÎVG:EML#G Û
1 4n 1 ®A SP608:9[¬ ,O ?RD
?CG O 60-ATK>9G36B7E?FG:QG:E608:?FGKQ>@E-09@6A8 , G?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQL#8:9G6A8:96%LqE T , G36A?F6A?C9 O, -09`9 T , H/6AE~9 , D8E6A8K9-
¯ 8:? O ? O 608:9<¬ ,O ?RD#;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9U¬=98:?CGKB@608:9 u Ñ 8:9 , 6 O 60EG:9ov¬:-0?CB7Q9UD?C-DT:?F6 , G\B_?6m? Oq,bO ET:GKB@>@96A-0EHCEQ?RD , H
;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9 , ;K;:HF?C9B6A8K-AET:Q8:ET76U608:9 O D?F9GKD9 O JÂ qLm98 , W9 , DD9 OAO 6AE , G , DDT:- , 609b-09 T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -Bu ,
O ET:-D9/E ½ WEH6 , Q9/8:EHRB7?CG:QUW9-0Z;K-A9ID? O 9HFZ6AE ,UO ?FGKQHC9+-A9 T:9GKDZ:v5So6A8K9GJ>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36)E , GVZyT:G:ÎVG:EML#G
-09 T:9G\DZ`¬VZDE>@; , -0? O EG O 8:ET:HRBX¬\9f-09H , 60?FW9HCZ_9 ,O Z
E-<608 , 6(-A9 T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BaS\Lm9b60T:-AGET:- , 6p609G36A?CEG~¬ , DÎd6AE6A8:96ATKG:?FGKQÈ-0ÎnSnE- , 6HC9 ,O 6 , >@E-09
>@E7B79-0G]W , -A? , 60?FEG]E?6D , HCHF9IBX6A8:9 ¿³ 1 ®
Þ À®5ÁoÛ
1Mß kT , -p60Ãf? OU, G , 60T:- , HCHFZÈ7DDT:-0-A?CG:Q@>@?FGK9- , Ha;=E O0O 9 OAO ?CG:Q
, W9-0Z]?FG36A9-A9 O 60?FGKQ;:-0E;=9-A6%ZsD , HCHC9BXà ©« Þ ªI« ß «À
®5©À©
ÁM ^ ?F9ÃEV9HC9D6A-0?CDf> , 6A9-0? , H O ;:-0E7B7TKD9 , WEHF6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O
6A8K9?C-/HF9G:Q608_L#8:9G_;K83Z O ?CD , HCHFZ O 60-A9 OAO 9BYS , GKBL#?CHFH\;:8VZ O ?RD , HFHCZJB79E-0>ÌL#8:9G , G@9 V6A9-AG , H:WEHF6 , Q9P? O/, ;:;:HC?F9IB
, D-AE OAO 608:9?C-#HF9G:Q608 O /¯ 8:? O B:9E-0> , 60?FEGd? O W9-AZSVW9-0Z O HF?CQ836#?CGX>@E O 6<D ,O 9 O S7¬KT76<?6UB:E39 O 9 7? O 6
kT , -p60Ã_-AE7DÎ? O 9H ,O 60?CDsu O ;K-A?CG:QZ:vyL#?F6A8K?FG608 , 6 O > , HCH - , GKQ9_E#¬=9GKB:?FG:QL#8:?CD8 , G9 V6A9-AG , H WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB[;:-0E7B7TKD9SnL#8:?RD8>@9 , G O 6A8 , 6(?F6fL#?FHCH8 , W9 , >@9D8 , G:?RD , H)-09 O EG , G36<-A9 T:9GKDZsE ?F6 O EML#GxD , ; , ¬:HC9
Eq¬\9?FG:QX> , G:?F9 O 6A9IB ,O(, G[9HC9D6A-0?CD , HWEH6 , Q9 O ?CQG , H (Â G~E608:9-yLmE-B O S=?F , D8K?F;~E T , -p60Ã? OyO 60-ATKDÎnSn?F6
L#?CHFHÔ-0?FGKQÔ@L#?F6A8[?F6 O EML#GsT:G:? T:9b-09 T:9GKDZ]B79609-0>@?FG:9IB]¬VZd608:9JHC9GKQ6A8E6A8:9D8:?C;aS , GKB]608 , 6(-A9 O EG , G36
E O D?CHCH , 6A?CEG_L#?CHFHn;:-0E7B7TKD9 , G`9 T:?FW , HF9G6mWEH6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O >T:HF6A?C;:HF9(;=E?CG6 O EY6A8:9 T , -A6AÃ(D8:?C;`L#8:?RD8dD , G`¬=9
6 , ;:;=9B_?CG36AEb¬VZL#?F-09 O : 79B6AEb6A8:9 O T:-A , D9<En608:9D8:?C; &Â G`-09D?C;:-0E7D , HK> , G:G:9-S6A8:9 T , -A6AÃUD8:?C;_L#?CHFH\6A9GKB
×Kg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $IÖ<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ
6AE@WV?C¬:- , 6A9(>@E O 6PL#8K9G]?6#? O Ô9 7D?609B:Ô¬VZ , G , ;K;:HF?C9B ½ WEHF6 , Q9 , 6#;:-09D? O 9HCZ_6A8:9y-0?FQ836m-09 T:9GKDZSIÄ%T O 6
HC?FÎ9608:9f-099B O EG , W3?C¬:- , 60?FG:Q -099IB@-09 T:9G\DZ`>@9609-
8:?C; O E T , -A6AÃP-0E7DÎbD , G@¬=9#;:-09D? O 9HCZbDT76+E- B79 O ?C-A9IBJ-09 O EG , G36)-09 T:9GKD?C9 O S , G\Bb608 , 6 D8:?C;@>@ET:G36A9IB
9O DTK-A9HFZ`?CG O ?CB:9 , ;:-0E609D6A?CW9 O 8K9HCHYL#?608XL#?C-09 O 9 V609GKB7?CG:Q@E-<DEGKG:9D6A?CEGd6AE , GX9 V6A9-AG , HY9HC9D6A-0?CDyD?F-DT:?F6
Ñ 8:9G`; , DÎ , Q9B ,O O TKD8aS6A8:9-A9 O T:HF6A?CG:QJB:9WV?CD9<? OqO ?F>@;:HCZ@D , HCHC9B , À®5ÁoÛ
1ßKuE- O E>@960?F>@9 O Ôá
1Mß Ô3v5S , GKB@?F6 O
O D8:9> , 60?CD O ZV>J¬=EHYHCE3EÎ O HF?CÎ9(6A8K? OÏ
crystal or xtal
HC9D6A-0?CD , HCHFZS608 , 6 T , -A6AÃ(D8:?F;d? O 9 TK?FW , HC9G36q6AE ,JO 9-0?F9 O Ð -A9 O EG , G36qD?F-DTK?6 ¯ 8K9(B7?C9HC9D6A-0?CDU;:-0E;=9-
6A?C9 O E T , -A6AÃJDEG36A-0?F¬KT76A9 , G , B:B7?F6A?CEG , H&D , ; , D?F6A?CW9b9HF9>9G36U6AE6A8:99 T:?CW , HC9G36(D?F-DTK?6IS , GKBs?CGs6A8K99GKB
?F6<HFEVEÎ O#O E>@9608:?CG:Q@HF?CÎ9(6A8K? OÏ
Crystal equivalent circuit
âC
capacitance C
â characteristics
caused by wire of the quartz
connections
across quartz
ãL
¯ 8:9ÔD , ; , D?6 , GKD9Ô , GKBeÔ?CGKB7TKD6 , G\D9Ô O 8:EML#G?CG O 9-0?F9 O`, -09[>@9-09HCZ!9HF9ID560-A?RD , H<9 T:?CW , HC9G36 O Ef6A8K9
T , -A6AÃ Ò O >@9D8 , G:?CD , H\-A9 O EG , GKD9<;:-0E;=9-A6A?C9 OÏ 608:9Z_B7EG:E6m9 7? O 6 ,O B7? O D-09609UDE>@;\EG:9G36 O L#?F6A8:?CG`608:9D-AZ O
6 , H /¯ 8K9(D , ; , D?F6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#Gd?FGX; , - , HFHC9HnB7T:9(6AE6A8K9fL#?F-09(DEG:GK9D560?FEG OP, D-AE OAO 6A8:9fB7?C9HC9D6A-0?CD@u?CG O T:H , 6A?CG:QVv
T , -A6AÃU¬\E7B7Z@? O -09 , HS , GKB_?F6q8 ,O , G_9än9D56mEG@608:9U-09 O EG , G36/-A9 O ;=EG O 9#EY608:9UL#8KEHC9 O Z O 6A9> ½ TKHFHYB7? O DT O
O ?FEG[EGD-AZ O 6 , H)B7ZVG , >?RD O ? O G:E6G:9ID9 OAO0, -0Z8:9-A9Sn¬:T76L#8 , 6yG:99IB O 60E¬=9JT:G\B79- O 60EVEVB , ¬=ET76yD-0Z O 6 , H O ? O
6A8K? O -A9 O EG , G36<D?C-0DT:?F6U9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9 , GKB]8:EMLÓ?F6D , GX¬=9b9 V;KHFE?609B]L#?F6A8:?CG , G]E O D?CHCH , 6AE-<D?F-DTK?6<60E , D8:?C9W9
, GXET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 , Q9(L#?608 ,O 6 , ¬:HC9S7ÎVG:EML#Gd-A9 TK9GKDZ
-0Z O 6 , H O S ,O -A9 O EG , G36&9HC9>@9G36 O So6%ZV;:?RD , HCHCZ(8 , W9 >TKD8J8K?FQ8:9-Ôak(Ôu ¿³ 1Mß ©
Á v&W , HCT:9 O 6A8 , GJ6 , G:ÎfD?F-DT:?F6 O
¬:T:?CHF6d-0E>å?CGKB7TKD6AE- OX, GKBwD , ; , D?F6AE- O S#;:-0?FG\D?C; , HCHFZB7TK9[6AE!6A8K9~-09H , 60?FW9 , ¬ O 9G\D9E O 60- , ZN-09 O ? O 6 , GKD9S
> , ÎV?CG:Qy6A8:9?F- -A9 O EG , G36-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O W9-AZB79KGK?609 , GKB;:-09D? O 9 t 9D , T O 9m6A8:9<-09 O EG , G36-A9 TK9GKDZJ? O/O EHF9HFZ
B79;\9GKB79G36 EG@6A8:9U;:8VZ O ?RD , H7;K-AE;\9-p60?F9 O E T , -A6AÃbu , W9-AZ O 6 , ¬:HC9 O TK¬ O 6 , GKD9S>9ID8 , GK?CD , HCHFZ:v5S6A8:9U-A9 O EG , G36
lÍæ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$J×²ç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
-09 T:9G\DZW , -A? , 60?FEGEMW9-P6A?C>@9fL#?608 , T , -p60ÃbD-0Z O 6 , HY? O W9-0ZSKW9-0Z_HCEML ¯ 8:? O ? O 8:EML ¿³ 1 ®
ÞJé ª « é «4
L , 60D8K9 O E¬76 , ?FGs608:9?C-U8K?FQ8 , DDT:- , DZ Ï ¬VZd>@9 , G O E , G[9HF9ID56A-0EGK?CDyE O D?FHCH , 6AE- O 6 , ¬:?CHC?FÃ9B]¬VZX6A8:9-A9 O EG , G36
, D6A?CEGXE , T , -A6AÃfD-0Z O 6 , H
E- H , ¬=E- , 60E-0Z , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S608:ETKQ8aS39W9G`Q-A9 , 6A9-+-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , ¬:?CHF?F6%Z@> , Z¬=9B79 O ?C-09B +¯ E , D8:?C9W9
6A8K? O S 608:9sD-0Z O 6 , HP?FG T:9 O 6A?CEGN> , Z¬\9];:H , D9B!?FG , 6A9>@;=9- , 60T:-A9 O 6 , ¬:?FHC?CÃ9B!9GVWV?C-AEG:>@9G36]uT O T , HCHFZ , G
EMW9G\v5SV608VT O 9HC?F>@?CG , 60?FGKQ@-A9 TK9GKDZ`9-0-AE- O B7T:9y60E@6A8:9-A> , HY9 7; , G O ?CEG , GKBXDEG36A- , D560?FEGE)608:9 T , -A6AÃ
E-`608:9~TKH60?F> , 609?CG , -A9 TK9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BN608:ET:Q8aS<G:E6A8:?CG:QNB7? O DEMW9-09B!6A8VT O , - O T:-A; ,O0O 9 O 6A8K9
, DDT:- , DZ_E ,O ?CG:QHC9y-A9 O EG , 60?FG:Q , 60E> +¯ 8:? O ? O 608:9f;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9fEc608:9 O E D , HCHF9IB~1
ª é ©ÀÀ ß ªÀê S\L#8:?RD8dT O 9 O
, G , 60E>Em>@9-DT:-0ZuE-fD9 O ?FT:>`v O T O ;=9G\B79B~?FG , W , DT:TK>XSY9 :D?F6A9B~¬VZsET76 O ?RB799G:9-AQZ]6AEX-A9 O EG , 609 , 6
?F6 O EML#G`T:G:? T:9<-09 T:9GKDZ +¯ 8:9-09 O T:HF6A?CG:Qb-09 T:9GKDZ@? O B:96A9ID5609B ,Oq, - , B7?CE L , W9 O ?CQG , H , GKB_608 , 6mE-0> O
6A8K9b¬ ,O ? O E-#608:9b>@E O 6 , DDTK- , 6A9fDHCE7DÎ O Î3GKEML#Gd60E_8VT:> , G:?F6%Z Pë , 6A?CEG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O H , ¬=E- , 6AE-A?C9 OP, -AET:GKB
6A8K9bLqE-AHRBX> , ?CG6 , ?CG , 9L°E)608:9 O 9b8VZV;\9- , DDT:- , 609yDHFE7DÎ O S , G\Bd¬K-AE , B:D ,O 6#-A9 TK9GKDZ O ?FQG , H O ¬ ,O 9IBdEG
6A8KE O 9 , 6AE> OÒ WV?F¬K- , 6A?CEG O E- O D?F9G60? O 6 Of, GKB~6A9ID8:G:?RD? , G O 60E]6AT:G:9_?CG , GKB~T O 9@E-y-09 T:9GKDZD , HC?F¬K- , 6A?CEG
;:T:-0;=E O 9 O
ë EMLLm9sQ96_60E6A8K9[;:- , D560?CD , H<; , -A6 Ï EGKD9sLm9[8 , W9 , Ûª³7®AÀ« E , DDTK- , 6A9X-A9 T:9GKDZSP8:EML{B7ELm9
DE>@; , -09#6A8 , 6 , Q , ?FG O 6 , GT:G:ÎVG:EML#G@-09 T:9G\DZ6AEJE¬76 , ?FG , >@9 ,O T:-09>@9G365 . GK9UL , ZJ? O 60EJT O 9 , ± ¯ ,O
, -A9 T:9GKDZ DE>@; , -0? O EGB79WV?RD9 q , 6A8KEVB:9y± , Z ¯ TK¬\9 O 6%ZV;:?CD , HCHFZ_8 , W9y>@9 , G O E&B:9K9ID56A?CG:Q@608:9f9HC9D6A-0EG
¬=9 , >|?FG608:9P8:E-0?FÃEG36 , H ,O Lm9HCH ,O 608:9#W9-p60?CD , H , 7? O )Â =>@96 , H:;KH , 6A9 O+, -A9PT O 9BJ6AEf9HF9ID560-AE O 6 , 6A?RD , HFHCZbB79K9D6
6A8K9`9HC9D6A-0EG O Sc608:9-09_L#?CHFHq¬\9 , ; , ?C-bE#;:H , 609 O 60Es6A8K9`HF96 , G\B-A?CQ836bEP608:9`¬=9 , > ,O Lq9HFH ,Ob, ; , ?F-JE
;:H , 609 O#, ¬=EMW9 , GKB¬=9HCEML608:9f¬=9 , >
CRT with horizontal and vertical deflection plates
horizontal
deflection
electron "gun" plates view-
(vacuum) screen
electrons
electrons
vertical
deflection light
plates
Â Lq9 , HFHCEMLeEG:9 ½ O ?CQG , Hn6AE`B79K9D6<6A8:9f¬=9 , >ÚTK; , GKB]B7EML#GuDEG:G:9ID56#608 , 6 ½ WEH6 , Q9 O ET:-D9(60E
6A8K9yÔW9-p60?CD , HRÔbB79\9D560?FEG;:H , 609 O v , GKB , G:E6A8:9- ½ O ?CQG , H\60EB:9K9ID56P6A8:9(¬=9 , >ìHF96 , GKB`-0?CQ836(uT O ?CG:Q6A8K9
E608:9-q; , ?C- EcB79\9D560?FEG`;:H , 609 O v5S3; , 6A6A9-0G O L#?FHCH\¬=9(;:-AE7B7T\D9B@EG_6A8K9 O D-099G_En6A8:9 ± ¯ ?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CW9UEY6A8K9
® 1
©ª Eq608:9 O 9@6%LmE ½ -09 T:9GKD?C9 O ¯ 8:9 O 9_; , 6p609-0G Ob, -09_D , HFHC9Bí ©RÛÛ 1î ª³VÛU 2 ³7®A«Û , G\B , -A9 , DE>@>@EG
>@9 , G O E+DE>; , - , 6A?CW9U-A9 T:9GKDZ>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36m?CG]9HC9D560-AEG:?RD O
Â P6A8:9`6%LqE]-09 T:9GKD?C9 O, -09@6A8:9 O0, >@9S)Lm9`L#?CHFHqE¬76 , ?CG ,sO ?C>@;:HF9`KQT:-09_EG608:9 O D-099GEm6A8:9 ± ¯ S
6A8K9 O 8 , ;\9@E 6A8 , 6fKQT:-A9¬=9?CG:Q[B79;=9G\B79G36bT:;=EG~6A8:9_;K8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6b¬=96%Lm99G~6A8K9@6%LqE ½ O ?CQG , H O }U9-09
? O#,O0, >@;:HC?CG:Q@E Ð ? O0O0, Ä%ET O \QT:-09 O E-P6%LmE O ?CG:9 L , W9 O ?CQG , H O E)9 T , Hn-A9 T:9GKDZS O 8:EML#G ,O 6A8:9ZLmET:HRB
, ;K;\9 , -ÈG!608:9s , D9sE , GE O D?FHCHCE O DE;=9u , G ½ WEH6 , Q9 >9 ,O T:-0?FG:Qx?CG O 60-ATK>9G36`T O ?CG:Q , ± ¯ ,O ?F6 O
Ô>@EMW9>@9G360Ô3v _¯ 8:9@K- O 6b;:?CD6AT:-09@? O Em6A8:9 Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O \QT:-09E-0>9IB¬VZ6%LqE ½ WEHF6 , Q9 O ;=9-A9D6AHCZ?CG
;:8 ,O 9yL#?F6A8]9 , D8dE6A8:9- Ï
èKg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $ç<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ3¡
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 0 degrees phase shift
Â U608:9X6%LqE ½ WEHF6 , Q9 O, -09XG:E6_?CGN;K8 ,O 9dL#?F6A8N9 , D8!E6A8:9-S ,xO 6A- , ?CQ836@HF?CG:9]L#?CHFH#G:E6_¬\9XE-0>@9B
± , 6A8:9-SY608:9 Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-09L#?FHCH6 , Î9@EG6A8:9 , ;K;\9 , - , GKD9E , G~EMW , HSY¬\9IDE>@?CG:Q];\9-p9ID560HFZD?F-DTKH , -(?F
6A8K9f;:8 ,O 9 O 8K?6<? O 9 , D56AHCZðñòU¬\96%Lq99GX6A8:9y6%LmE O ?CQG , H O S , G\Bd?F&6A8:9?F- , >;KHF?F6ATKB:9 O<, -A9y9 T , H Ï
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 90 or 270 degrees phase shift
?FG , HCHFZS?FY6A8:9#6%LmE ½Uô O ?CQG , H O/, -09#B7?F-09D6AHCZE;:;=E O ?FG:QfEG:9 , GKE6A8K9-/?CG`;:8 ,O 9bupõÍñò O 8:?65v5S3Lq9UL#?FHCHK9GKB
T:;]L#?F6A8 , HF?CG:9 , Q , ?CGaSVEG:HCZ`608:? O 6A?C>@9f?6<L#?CHFHc¬\9fE-A?C9G36A9IB`?CGX6A8:9fE;:;\E O ?F6A9fB7?C-09D560?FEG Ï
lÍ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$J×²ç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 180 degrees phase shift
Ñ 8:9GLm9 , -A9J , D9IBsL#?F6A8 O ?CQG , Hc-09 T:9GKD?C9 O 6A8 , 6 , -09JG:E6608:9 OA, >9S Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O \QT:-09 O Q96 T:?F6A9 ,
¬:?F6>@E-09`DE>@;:HF9 ô EG O ?RB79-f6A8:9EHCHFEML#?CG:Qs9 , >@;:HF9 Ob, G\Bx6A8:9?F-Q?CW9GW9-A6A?RD , HÝo8KE-0?FÃEG36 , H)-09 T:9GKDZ
- , 6A?CE OÏ
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is twice that of vertical
¯ 8:9b>@E-A9JDE>@;:HC9 d6A8:9- , 6A?CE`¬\96%Lq99Gs8:E-A?CÃEG36 , H , GKB]W9-A6A?RD , Ha-A9 TK9GKD?F9 O SK6A8:9>E-A9DE>@;:HC9 X6A8K9

Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9 ô EG O ?CB:9-m6A8:9(EHFHCEML#?FGKQ?CHCHFT O 6A- , 60?FEGE , Ï õ(-A9 TK9GKDZ_- , 6A?CE¬=96%Lm99GX8KE-0?FÃEG36 , H , GKB
W9-p60?CD , H Ï
èKg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $ç<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
P# , KG B , Ï lJ-A9 T:9GKDZ`- , 6A?CE]u8:E-A?CÃEG6 , H)÷ S7W9-p60?CD , H)÷Ìlv Ï

Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is three times that of vertical
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Â GdD ,O 9 O L#8:9-096A8:9-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O Ea608:9(6%LqE ½Uô O ?FQG , H Oq, -A9G:E6P9 , D56AHCZ ,JO ?C>;KHF9y- , 6A?CEJEc9 , D8E6A8:9-
Lissajous figure: Horizontal/Vertical frequency ratio is 3:2
u¬KT76@DHFE O 9ov5S&6A8K9 Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O KQT:-09`L#?CHFH , ;:;\9 , -J6AE~Ô>@EMW9S Ô O HFEML#HCZxD8 , G:Q?FG:QsE-A?C9G36 , 6A?CEG ,O 608:9d;K8 ,O 9
, GKQHC9¬=96%Lm99G`6A8K96%LmEL , W9E-0> O -0EHCH O ¬=96%Lm99GXñ3ò , GKB[õIÍñò &Â )6A8:9(6%LmEJ-09 T:9GKD?C9 OP, -A9(HFE7DÎ9B_?CG , G
9 , D56U?CG36A9Q9-- , 6A?CE`¬\96%Lq99Gs9 , D8sE608:9-IS\6A8:9 Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9JL#?FHCH)¬=9 O 6 , ¬:HC9JEG]608:9JWV?C9L O D-099GsE+6A8K9
ô ± ¯y
¯ 8:9;:8VZ O ?RD O E Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-09 O HC?F>@?F6 O 608:9?C-fT O 9T:HCG:9 O0Of,Oy, -A9 T:9GKDZ3øDE>@; , -0? O EG]6A9D8KG:? T:960E
D ,O 9 O L#8:9-09y6A8K9y-A9 TK9GKDZ- , 6A?CE O#, -A9 O ?F>@;:HC9f?CG609Q9-#W , HCT:9 O u%õ Ï õScõ Ï l7Saõ Ï SKl Ï S Ï æ\S7960D v qù 9 O ;:?F6A9f608:? O
HC?F>@?F6 , 60?FEGaS Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9 Ob, -09 , ;=E;:TKH , -b>@9 , G O EP-09 T:9GKDZDE>; , -0? O EGxL#8:9-09W9- , G , DD9 O0O ?C¬:HC9
-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , GKB , -Bxu O ?FQG , HYQ9G:9- , 6AE-5v+9 7? O 6 O
¢ £¤d¥£¦¨§
¢ Ü E>@9P-09 T:9G\DZb>@9609- O LmE-0ÎbEG6A8K9<;:-0?FGKD?F;KHF9#En>@9ID8 , G:?RD , H7-A9 O EG , G\D9SM?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CG:Qf-09 T:9GKDZb¬VZ
-A9H , 6A?CW9(E O D?CHFH , 60?FEG , >@EG:Q ,O 96<E)T:GK? T:9HFZ6AT:G:9IB]Ô-099B O Ô O 8 , Î9G , 6P6A8:9f>@9 ,O TK-A9IB`-09 T:9GKDZ
¢ . 6A8:9-y-A9 TK9GKDZ>@9609- O T O 9_9HC9D560-A?RD@-09 O EG , G6bD?F-DT:?F6 O u Ð ô 6 , G:ÎxD?C-0DT:?6 O S&T O T , HCHCZ7v60Es?FG\B7?CD , 609
-A9 TK9GKDZ . G:9E-(¬\E6A8DE>;=EGK9G36 O ? O > , B79J60Ed¬=9 , BoÄ%T O 6 , ¬:HC9SYL#?F6A8 , G , DDT:- , 6A9HFZsD , HF?C¬:- , 609B
lÍÍ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$J×²ç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
, BoÄ%T O 6A>@9G6(ÎVG:E¬aS , GKB ,O 9G O ?F6A?CW9J>@96A9-(? O -09 , BXE-(> , 7?F>T:>ÚWEHF6 , Q9bE-DTK-A-09G36 , 6U6A8K9;=E?CG36
E)-09 O EG , GKD9
¢ -09 T:9G\DZD , G¬\9X>@9 ,O T:-09B?FG , DE>@; , - , 60?FW9@ ,O 8:?CEGaS ,O ? O 6A8:9]D ,O 9dL#8:9GT O ?CG:Q , ô ± ¯ 60E
Q9GK9- , 6A9]í ©RÛÛ 1î ªM³VÛf 2 ³7®A«Û5 ±#99-A9GKD9d-A9 T:9GKDZ O ?CQG , H O D , G¬=9]> , B79XL#?608 , 8:?FQ8!B79Q-099dE
, DDT:- , DZX¬VZ[E O D?CHCH , 6AE-yD?C-DT:?F6 O T O ?FGKQ T , -p60ÃD-AZ O 6 , H Oy,O -09 O EG , G6yB79WV?RD9 O E-yT:HF6A- , ;:-A9ID? O ?CEGcS
, 6AE>@?CDfDHFE7DÎ O ?CQG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O u¬ ,O 9IB]EGX6A8K9b-A9 O EG , G36P-09 T:9G\D?C9 O E?CGKB7?CWV?CB:T , H , 6AE> O vPD , Gs¬=9
T O 9IB
yú ´_û0ü ýwþÿ
&·
ÊMLm9-#>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6?FG ½Uô D?F-DTK?6 O D , G[¬=9 T:?F6A9 , ¬:?6(>@E-09JDE>;KHF9 X608 , GL#?608 ù ô D?F-DTK?6 O E-6A8K9
O ?F>@;:HC9-09 ,O EG@6A8 , 6#;:8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6m> , Î9 O DE>@;:HF?RD , 6A9 O 608:9y> , 6p609-m¬\9ZEG\B`>JTKH60?F;:HCZV?FGKQWEHF6 , Q9<¬VZ`DT:-0-09G36
KQT:-A9 O E¬76 , ?FG:9IBL#?F6A8>@9609- O |Ñ 8 , 6]? O G:99B79IB? Od, G?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 , ¬:HC9[60E!B796A9-A>@?CG:9[608:9;:-0E7B7TKD6
u>T:HF6A?C;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG\vcE ©4KÛ
1 4
1 4=«ªM³VÛ WEHF6 , Q9 , GKBJDT:-0-A9G36 c E-A6AT:G , 6A9HFZS608:9qDE>@>@EGb9HF9ID560-AE7B7ZVG , >E>@96A9-
>@EMW9>9G36PL#?F6A8]?F6 O<O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZ , GKBd>EMWV?CG:Q_DE?FHaB7EV9 O#, \G:9PÄ%E¬]E)6A8:? O
¯ 8:-099(;:8 ,O 9y;=EMLq9-m>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36PD , GX¬\9 , DDE>@;:HF? O 8:9BT O ?CG:Q6%LmEB7ZVG , >@E>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O L#?608
, >@>EG O 8 , 6JHF?CG:ÎV?CG:Q]6A8:9@6%LmE]>@EMW3?CG:QsDE?FH O 60EQ96A8:9- O E]608 , 6 ,sO ?CG:QHC9@;\E?FG36A9-b-09Q? O 6A9- O ;\EMLm9-fEG

D
E
, >@96A9-_>@EMW9>@9G6 O D , HC9 N¯ 8:? O SmE¬VWV?FET O HFZS/> , Î9 O E- , - , 6A8:9-9 7;\9G O ?CW9 , G\B!DE>@;:HC9 >@EMW9>@9G36
>@9D8 , G:? O >]S7¬:T76<?F6<? O<, LqE-AÎ , ¬KHF9 O EHFT:6A?CEG
½ G_?CG:Q9G:?CET O >96A8:E7B_EaB79-0?FWV?CG:Q , G_9HF9ID560-AEG:?CD<;\EMLm9-/>@96A9-uEGK9#6A8 , 6qQ9G:9- , 6A9 O+, G_9HC9D6A-0?CD O ?CQG , H
-09;:-09 O 9G36A?CG:Q(;\EMLm9-?CGJ608:9 O Z O 6A9>i- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@>9-A9HFZf>@EMW9 , ;=E?CG609-5v&? O ¬ ,O 9BEGb608:9<} , HFH79ä=9ID56 ¯ 8K9
} , HFH+9ä=9ID56f? O(, GT:GVT O T , H&9ä=9ID56fK- O 6(G:E6A?RD9IB[¬VZ } } , HCH?FGNõÍ ðKS=L#8K9-09¬VZ , WEHF6 , Q9J? O Q9G:9- , 609B
, HCEGKQJ608:9fL#?CB76A8sE , DT:-0-A9G36pøD , -0-0Z3?CG:QDEG\B7TKD560E-P9 7;=E O 9B6AE , ;=9-0;\9GKB7?RDT:H , -#> , QG:960?CD(\9HRB Ï
voltage
The "Hall Effect"
current N
current
¯ 8:9#WEHF6 , Q9PQ9GK9- , 6A9IB , D-0E O0O 6A8:9<L#?RBV608_E=6A8:9# , 6S3-09D56 , G:QT:H , -+DEGKB7TKD6AE-+? O B:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H
6AE¬\E6A86A8:9> , QG:?F6AT\B79UEY6A8:9yDT:-0-09G36/6A8K-AET:Q8_?F6 , GKB@608:9 O 6A-09G:Q6A8ÈY6A8:9> , QGK96A?RD#\9HRB , 608:9> , 60?ø
èKg :gËÇ ÆÓ[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍð
D , HFHCZS?6q? O/, ;K-AE7B7TKD6Uu>T:H60?F;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG\vEn6A8:9 O 9P6%LmEfW , -0? , ¬:HF9 O &¯ 8:9 , >@ET:G36/EYÔ} , HFHKÖ+EHF6 , Q9Ô(;:-0E7B7TKD9IB
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96fE#DEGKB7?F6A?CEG Oy, H O E]B:9;=9GKB O EGx6A8:96%ZV;\9_Eq> , 609-0? , H+T O 9BE-y6A8K9 , 6S)-A9ID56 , G:QT:H , -
DEGKB7TKD6AE- mÂ 6U8 ,O ¬\99G]ET:GKBX6A8 , 6 O ;=9D? , HCHCZ;:-09; , -A9IB]Ô O 9>@?CDEGKB:TKD560E-ÔJ> , 609-0? , H O ;:-AE7B7T\D9 , Q-A9 , 6A9-
} , HFHcWEHF6 , Q96A8 , GXB:E_>96 , H O S , GKB O E>@E7B79-AGs} , HFH ä=9ID56UB79WV?CD9 O#, -09y> , B79yE&6A8K9 O 9
Â 6q> , Î9 OqO 9G O 9#6A8:9G`608 , 6m?aLm9ULm9-09#6AE¬:T:?CHCB , B79W3?RD9UT O ?CG:Q , } , HFHFø9än9D56 O 9G O E-/L#8:9-A9U6A8:9(DT:-0-09G36
6A8K-AET:Q86A8:9_DEGKB7TKD6AE-(L ,O ;:T O 8:9IB¬VZ ½Uô WEHF6 , Q9J-AE> , G~9 V6A9-AG , H+D?C-0DT:?6 , GKBs608:9@> , QG:96A?RDK9HRB
L ,OmO 96mT:;d¬VZ , ; , ?F-mE-mL#?C-A9yDE?FH O 9G:9-0Q?CÃ9IB_¬VZ@6A8:9yDTK-A-09G36PEa608:9 ½Uô ;\EMLm9-PD?C-0DT:?F6S36A8:9f} , HCH=WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB¬\9X?CGB7?C-A9ID56;K-AE;\E-p60?FEG~60E[608:9>T:H60?F;KHF9XEUD?F-DT:?F6DT:-0-A9G6 , GKBWEHF6 , Q9 } , W3?CG:Q[GKE> ,O0O 60E
>@EMW9suTKG:HF?CÎ9 , G9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H+>@EMW9>@9G36vSa6A8K? O B:9WV?CD9_? O, ¬:HC96AE[;K-AEMWV?RB79 ©4:Û
1 4
1 4n«0ª³VÛ ;=EMLq9-
>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6 Ï
A Hall effect power sensor
voltage
Rmultiplier
AC Load
power
source
ë E6#EG:HCZ`L#?CHFHn608:9fET760;:T76<WEHF6Q9Ec608:9b}HFHY9ä=9ID56UB79W3?RD9y¬=9y6A8:909;09 O 9G36M6A?CEGdE&?FG O 6G36GK9ET O

;=EMLq9M6 GVZ;=E?CG36q?CG@6A?C>@9SV¬:T76m?6PL#?FHCH!H O Eb¬=9 ù ô O ?FQG"H$# ¯ 8K? O ? O ¬\9ID%T O 9U6A8:9(}HFH\WEHF6Q9#;=EH&'0?6%Z
? O B79;\9GKB79G6yT:;=EG Õª'(*) 6A8:9;=EH&'0?6%ZXE+608:9J>+QG:960?CD,K9HRB-GKB]608:9B7?.09D560?FEG[E DTA9G6U6A80ET:Q8s6A8K9
DEGKB7TKD6A/E 0 Â n¬=E608_DTA9G36 B7?109D6A?CEG2GKB>+QG:960?CD3,\9HRB;=EH&'0?F6%ZA9W9 O 9 O54 O ?F6/LmET:HRB9W9+8"HFøDZ7DHC9
E&6A8K9 ½Uô ;=EMLq9 4 608:9fET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 Q9(;\E.H 6A?F6%Z_L#?FHCH O 6 oZ_608:9 O >@69 0
Â cWEHF6 Q9 GKBDT 709G36P?FG6A8:9y;=EMLq9 mD1? DTK?86 '09ðñòUET76PEc;K"8 O 99u J;=EMLm%9 q: D5606E PE)Ã%9 0EKSV>@9 G:?CG:Q
ª; A<9 H&;\EMLm%9 (B79HC?CW%9 09BX60E`608:9HC/E BKv5S\6A8K9 H60%9 0"G M609b;\<9 Î O E } HFH+B79WV?CD9D"T 709G36 GKBs+> QG:960?CD ,K9HRB
L#?CHFH7G:9W9 DE?CGKD?RB79PL#?F6A89 D8E608:%9 Ï L#8:9GEG:9m? O 6?F6 O ;=9 ÎnSo6A8:9#E6A8:9 &L#?CHCH7¬\9PÃ9 A!E 0 ½ 66A8KE O 9m;=E?CG36 O ?CG
6A?C>@9S6A8:9} HCHKET76A;KT76 WEH6 Q9mL#?CHCHKHC?FÎ9L#? O 9#¬=9<Ã9 AE\S¬=9?CG:Qf608:9<; 0E7B7TKD56Uu>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?CD M60?FEG\v+EnDT 709G36 GKB
+> QG:960?CD ,\9HRB O 6 A9G:Q60=8 0 t 96%Lq99G@608:E O 9<;=E?CG6 O ?CG_6A?C>@9S6A8:9(} HFH=ET760;:T76mWEHF6 Q9PL#?CHF!H >KTKD6A"T 6A9U<9 ?3"T HCHFZ
¬=96%Lm99G;=E O ?60?FW@9 GKBxG:9/Q 6A?CW9S)Q9G:%9 M60?FG: Q ?FQ"G H/D6E A9 ;=EGKB:?FG:QX60E]6A8:9_?CG 6 G36 G:9ET ¬ /E A;:6A?CEG
G\AB 09HC9 O 9(E;=EMLq9 q608 0ET:Q8d608:
9 09 D6A?CW9(HFBE CB O 0 ¯ 8K9fG:96 ù O ô ET760;:T76<WEH6 Q9O L#?CHFHc¬\9fÃ%9 0EKO S7?CGKOB7?R%D M60?FGKQ
Ã9 AE76 0T:9f;=EMLq9 P?FGX6A8K9bD.? 0DT:?<6 0
½ GVZ;:"8 O 9 O 8K?6_¬=96%Lm99G!WEH6 QA 9 GKBDT A9G6?FG6A8:9X;=EMLq9 D1? DT:?F6HC9 O0O 6A"8 G!ðñò@L#?CHFH 09 O T:HF6?CG
lðñ çEDUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èFKgÊbçHG[ÇjÇqÆ8IKJJ×²çLI%ÆyçNMOIjP
`} HCHcET:6A;:T76(WEH6Q9y608"M6E O D?CHFH&M609 O ¬=96%Lm99Gs;\E O ?F6A?CW9QGKB]G:9Q/6A?CW9S\¬:T76 O ;=9GKB O >@E609f6A?C>@9b;=E O ?60?FW9
6A8!G@G:9QBM60?FW960 ô EG O 9?3T:9G360HFZf608:9%09#L#?CHFH:¬=9(G:96 ù ô ET760;:T76/WEHF6Q960 ô EGKB7?F6A?CEGK9BJ6A80ET:Q8+HCEMLPø;" O0O
,KHF6A9 /D.? 0DT:?6ISM6A8K? O G:96 ù ô WEH6Q9PD%GJ¬=9 O 9;"'M609BbRAE>Ø6A8:9 ½Uô >?F 79BL#?608?F6S6A8:93,KG!H7ET:6A;:T76 O ?CQG"H
09Q? O 6A%9 09BEG O 9G O ?60?FW9 ù ô >96A9#>EMW9>@9G36<0
S * TA9G!1? T_? O T O 9T:8H TAE"8 oWU9 ~>@V9 T0%9 2TAWE T0'E THF?CÃ9];=EMLq9 @T O Q9XEMW9~;\9A?CE7BET0?F>@9XYTA8K9%TA8"G
?CG O TBG TG:9ET O HF/Z 0 ¯ 8:9EZT T0;:ZT T E O TKD@8 y>@V9 T0%9 m%D G_¬=9 O V9 T ?CG_T:G:?1T O E=[ET:HC9 O SE/TAE6TH:9G:9AQZDEG O T:>@9BYS
O ?FGKD9yà Yª \ «® ? O _>@9 O T 09fE+Lm6E 0Î¬=9?CG:QB7EG:9yà «® T:GK]? TTA?C>/9 0 S S\>@6E 09bDE>@>@EGKHFZS TA8K9JET TA;:ZT T(EE TA8K9
>@V9 T0%9 <%D G]¬\9 O V9 T#?CGXTKG:]? T O E Ñ YT^TAø}UET O 0
s9ID"8 G:?R%D HP><9 G O /E @><9 O T 0?FG:Q Ñ YT7Tpø}<E"T O '09]T O "T HCHFZD9BG TA9 A9IH B 6AET:GK_B TA8:9sDEGKD9Z; T_EN TA8K9
>@'E T06E Ï ¬KT:?FHR` B G ½Uô >6E TA/E TA"8 'T O ;:?CG O 'T'TA9@E O ;=99IBx; AE;\/E ^T0?FE"G LH T0A E T08:9`?CG O TBG TG:9ET O ;=EMLq9
?C G D.? DT:1? TZS T08:9G]"8 oW9 T0"8 YT#>@'E T06E T0T AG G]ÔE7B7E>@V9 TA9 0Ô T%Z3HC9fDET:BG TA?CG:Q@>9ID"8 GK? > TAE_Î99 ; QAT:GKG:?FGKQ
TA6E THaE9G:9 AQZDEG O T:>@9CB 0 ¯ 8:9bÔ>@'E T06E ÔT O 9IBX?FUG TA8K9 O 9b>@O V9 TA9 O "8 O 20'E T06E #+> B7O9fEE T08:?CaG HCT:>@?FGVT:>
B7? O ÎnS7L#1? TAU 8 TA8K
9 A6E TYT0?FGKQ+> QG:%9 TA?RD ,\9HRBd9 O T¬:HC? O 8:9IB¬VZ O V9 T O EDE?FH O 9G:9 AQ?FÃ9B¬3ZdHF?CG:9fWE1H TQ9 GKBXHFBE B
D"T 709BG T O E T0"8 YT8T08:
9 A6E T'TA?CE"G H O ;=99BdEL TA8K9bB7? O Î`? O B79;\9GKB79BG T<EGd¬='E T08XWE1H TQ9 GKB]D"T 709BG T0
úy´_ûKb ýwþÿ ¶·cdn¹e
&·
Â TT O^f<g T7h¬ fji8k T7l-m.67n f ½Uôpo h i3f q7rZqKT f%s q8Tl"YTyÔ o h itf ?Bu"'m k TKr7Ô i 6q'vXuvl f ' g øwhyxVh/v"x f o Tz{6q k&gZf
Rh s o h i3f P:6xVT7h/0 ½ m s hBqKT6m1m=m.h/ g q i3f f hET7l f Ô6m k v f 60Ô|Y' k.f TKr6z s2f 'v k vn2T7l!YT8T7l f r gZk.g vh6T gZk qKTh67T
T7l f q^l" o f h! Tl f |/h6m1T'n f q k v f8i }| f zYh/yx%'u!q f vh/v7ø~q k vu"q^h k.g 'mZxVu f vBTqLTh>"h i_k vT7l f x k xVu k T<0 ¯ l k q k qvh6T
T7u f 'vr s h6 f 0 Ð h/ g q3xVh6vBT7h/m1m fg ¬ r_'Ô v"h6vm k v f 'Ô f m f xT7h/v k xxVh s o h6v f vBTq3' f ¬ f x%h s2k vn s h6 f o f |Y'm f vBT
vs!¬ h6T7llh 6v v u"qKT7r/z 6v vn2T7l"'T8T7l |6h6m1T6n q36v xVu vBTq vT7l o h q7rZqKT qq v"n
T7k l f q f m.h/ g qs2'f f gUk xl k kg vl!' s s2h/v f k x%q kÏ i l"'Tq^lh/fum g ¬ f v f k x f zOxVg m f 'vq f k v f ø i k }| f f |6h/m]T'i3n f f q6v g f%sXxVu f vBf%Tf<qgZk' f
¬ f xVh s2k vnQl k n6lm.r gZk q^T7h/^T fg z i l k xl k q f ?Bu k |Y6m f v/TtT7hQT7l f o f q f v"x f h5 6v k vZ,"v k T f q f k.f qth=l k n/l7ørR f ?Bu f v"xVr
q k v f
i }| f qt'T s um1T k o m f q8h5 Tl f R uv g s2f vBT6m o h i3f m k v f R f ?/u f v"x%r60
x qq | l"6 h6v xq v-6v ½Upô o h q7rZqKT x%'vhY| l 'T3T6v"qpR h6 qz"x'u"q x vn/m1rAl n/l
v f uZT7'm6f x%h6v k g f u"xTh65s x%u7k f vBTk q k vTl f%f ø o l"i3/fq f q7rZqKT f%f%s s q%zYx% f YT fEf f m f f xT7h s 6n6v f T sk x+f 'Ô vh k q f Ô k f
vf T7l f fR fh/gZ ks h kgZk h
f%h6s2uT k o q7quZk T<h6z/v"6qv T7l!xY'Tjvx%6¬ v k vBT f xVAu f m1Tf2T7h i8o k TlWv o q h f v!vBq Tk 0T k Ñ| f2Tf l m f oxVT77hh6¬ v m k x f qL?Bm u Î k o s2T7l f vBq TzOo m.f<6g n6u"u x f2vn f m o f hxT7 k x q7s rh'q^T Th6q%lz h/vq fn o v h itfq
'v g T f xlv k gx k 'v!q8 f f8?BgZu k1k fNi }rZqtT7h k o f x k k q f m.r gZk f T f xVT'v gUf%s s2f /k qû"f f fT7l f f q f x%h6v k gk T k h/v"i3q%0 f fs f k ff
'ª \ «U® P"³ ß *© (Á qTl n v 6mCT n | vThA o q vBT6v ½Uô o h q7rq^T qUR h R 7h l!'Aø
hs 6v k x8xVh/vBT f vBT<0 ½ Ô k o h i3ff ?Bf u"6f m k TKr7Ô f ss f T f k k qyf h6v f Tl"f YTyf n k f| f qq7h s2f R h6 s ithf l"6 s fh/s]v k Ò x x%h6fvBfT g f v/s T k v gZk sx%'T k h6v=0
½ q o m }r`R h6T xlv x 'vUT7h T v o h ?/u!'m TKr vUT7l q^rZq^T Tlh6uTq^h o l qKT xYT
?f Bu k o s2k1f s vBT f
k q2i T7hx%h s o 6 f f |6h/k m]Tk 'n f f ggZf k vf n/s2qk ¬ f f T i3f%fitvf T i h6k xxVuk YT f f|/k h6m1T s2f f%T fsq i8sk f 6q7u k vnWTkl f k q s2fg f
q7rq^T fs |6h/m]T'n fÏ h6v fQs2f T f y¬ fk vn'vx6Ô }| f 'n k vn3jÔ TKr o f h uv k T q7u"xl-/qN6v f m f xVT7h s2f xl!'v k x%6m s hY| f ø
s2± f vBT s2¬ f T f + Tl"'Yv Tg /Ô T7}l | f h'6Tnl f v#n¬ aÔ f%TKk vr n@o _YÔ T7T u f øq@± ' Ü QÔ x%'TKm r ¬ o f 'hT L u"v q7khWT T7 l"qû!'xT@lT7l/qAlq7xk n6'l7m ~ø q ?Bu"v 'm k TKx%r YTgZk n |6k Th/'m]mTq`s2± f T f Ü 0z
Õ ofÛs« _fs ª ; f (R):« MÛ0Û5³ éUà (f ©ª ; k (R)'((*)K« fXQ_s2f Mª f ß (~%3«bÕf «© ; k é « MÛ5f<³7g ®A« J©RÛÛ5© ; ³VÛªMf:© k / ß 0 Â C f Tl fk |6gZh6k m1T6n f f8k qt6vr/Tl k vn
¬ uZTq k v f%i }| f wø q7l" o fg z6Tl f }| f 'n k v"n s2f T f i8k m.m ; Yª ( f n k qKT f 3T7l f o 7h o f 8|}6m1u f z i l f f 6qtT7l f T7u f ø± Ü
s2TKrsf T ¬ f T 6m i }vrZq T7l i8k m.T m$z!h f nB' T g m f q%q7z{q Thl i }h/| f q q7l" Tol f 0 o ¯ h l f u?Bm u"f 'hm E TKr T7lu qsz5'a¬ v l f T7 l fk q8n/Tl Yk q T Ï T7l Tf qn/l" 6f YT f h/8v TlxQfjxVh/gZv/k q T o 'vBATø 0
k½ o h f itffq7rq^T f i T7lWs2n6f hfh ?Bu"'f2m TKi r o h f
f q7lh6ui3m f n v k 'T k ?Bu"6g mL|/h6m1f T6n f f k vn/q¬ s T k vT7l f T h
i3f fsi8k g k i3f g f f ff f f gZk f itff f i
s2f T ½ f v"q%h'zT7Tl h Oi8?Bk Tu"l 6k mvUTT'l T f | 'T f<g6q7f u7 h63T7h/vBmT5f h6 v"o x h f hLOT7?Bl u"f 6m T i TKr h q5k v!T7qKl T7u h/s2qx f v/m1m.Th/q%q0 xVh o T q^T x%h6vv xTE'vhBq7x m.m.h/qxVh o
f k k fys2f fs2f i3f k k f k f f Ï f k f
ô ± ¯ T7hTl f ½Uô |/h6m1T6n f 'v g h"¬ q f | f Tl f q7l" o f hC T7l fi }| f 0 ½ vr/Tl k vnjh6T7l f yT7l!'vx%m f 'v@q k v fi }| f
èF" ËÇ ÆÈM)Ê=I%<ÉHG[ÇqÊPEM&Æ<ÇG[ÇtJQ ðKõ
xVh/um g ¬ f 'v k v gZk x%YT k h/vAhOT7h/u:¬m fÏ
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Ü T m.m9z ?Bu"'vBT T'T | 6v"'m.rZq q ,"v T z{vu x'm=,!n6u q qv x q7q'r6z"T7l qvhq7u:¬"q^T T7uZT Rh/
'v k v"q^k T7u ks2f vBT
q o k f x k ,k x%f'm.m.r gf q k kn/v 9fgZg f Rh6k T7f l"'T o s2u"f o k h/q f 0 Ü u"xf lW'kv k v"f q^T7fu s2f vBT k qNf x%f'm.km fg _à ª'\ «®_k ¿³"f ß ©*(Á
This is a moderately ugly "sine" wave. Definite harmonic content here!
é «V(«® 'v g_k q+q7h s2f T k.sf q¬ f T^T f `Îvh i v k v f m f xT7h/v k xAx k xVm f q26q2m1h i øR f ?Bu f v!xVr Û à «À%(r®5³ é ; ß Á Þ «® 0
Ñ l"'T8T7l k q k v!qKT7u s2f v/T g h f q k q o hY| k.gf n6 o l k x'm{ f o f q f vBT'T k h6v@h/vU ô ± ¯ h/ gZk n k T'm gZk q o m.}rAq7x% ff v
hT7l f ½Uô |6h/m]T'n fÒ qR f ?Bu f v"xVrÔ/q o f xVT7u s 0 ÔW[/u"qKT@/q+ o k q s q o m k Tq+x¬ f s h i l k T f m k n6lBT k vBTh k Tq
xVh/v"q^T k T7u f v/TxVh/m1h/xVh s o h/v f vBTq l"h is u"xla fg z{h/6vn f z"r f m1m.h i zn6 f%f v5z!'v g ¬m.u fQk q k vXTl"YTm k n/l/TzT7l f
q o xT7u 'v"6m1rVÃ q o m Tq øR ?Bu v"x%rq n/v"'m vBT7h Tqx%h6v"q^T k T7u f vBT#R f ?Bu f v"x k1f q%z!'v ggZk q o m.}rZq3T7l f
f q7f um]T k vUs T7l f R h/ s f hE k l k q^T7h6s2n/k fs]g Ï f f k k k
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Total distortion = 43.7 %
Power Quality Meter
/xl2vBu ¬ 3h6v+Tl l"h6 Ãh6vBT6m"q7x'm hCT7l q T 3 o q vBTqtl"6 h/v xhCT7l Ruv vBT6m=R ø
B? u f v!xVr60"h6 s ½ s2f f k x'v f o h i3f k tq7rZqKT f%s qz6Tf l f ÔKõÔ
k s2f o f f f q f v/fTqf ñf <Ã Tl f õ<qKs T3l"'k s h6v k x'f zBh6 ¾ g ³ ; s2/ f é « ; (w ß f z
T7l f Ô6¡Ô(Rh6õÍñ
UÃ T7l f ¡' g l"' s h6v k xVz'T7l f Ô¡Ô(Rh63¡ññ
UÃ T7l f ¡}T7l+l!' s h/v k xz'v g q^hh/v=0 ¯ l f ¬m&6xÎ
f xT'vn/m f q f o f q f v/TT7l f f m&YT k | fs 'n6v k Tu gZf qth f 6xlAh=Tl f q f l"' s h6v k xx%h s o h/v f vBTq k vTl fNsf 6q7u fg
ðB çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJ×²çLI%ÆyçNMOI%P
½Uô |6h/m]T'n f 0 ¢½ o u" f z@ñ <Ãq k v fji }| f
i h6u"m g q7lh i h6vm.r2T6m1m&¬m&6xÎX¬"'hY| f T7l f Ô:õÔ i8k T7l-vh¬m&6xÎ
¬"6q8q7lh i8k vn+YT'm.mChY| f 3T7l f h6T7l f PR f ?Bu f v"x%r s ' 0Î f q3h/vTl f qx%'m f z7¬ f x'u"q f o u f q k v f
i }| f l"6q v"h
l"6 s h6v k xxVh/vBT f vBT<0
£Eh 8?Bu"'m TKr T qq7u"xla6qT7l q n6lBTU¬ ¬ T7T T7hA/q ªYM«®(ª « T qz\¬ x'u"q Tl r
' f8gZf qi3k n6f v f<g Th k gZk q s2o m.f }rf h/vm.rT7l"h/q f R fk ?Bu s2f kv"x k1f qÎf vh fi vf T7hf¬ f f f n f f<v g f YT fg ¬rT7l f ; o h i3sf f yf q7rZqKT f%s f 0 Â v2f T7l f%f f ø
o l"/q ½UôWo h Lq7rZqKT q o h v"6vBTcRh6Em&'n o h E oo m x%YT h/v"qz | v7øwvu ¬ l"' h6v x%q5T v
T7h@¬ f f x%6v"x f m f<itg f h/uZTz6f%v s g q^h2h/fvg m1rs2l"k' s h6v k x%q f k qKf T k v"n i3k f vXq k n6v k k,!x'vBk T s2f 6f q7uf f ' fs Tl f f fh g gg øwvBsu s ¬ k f fg f 0 g
T qm Î Tl q 6 | rAu!q Rum vXTl l!'v qh Apq Î m1m T xlv x 'v5=z ¬ x'u"q ä vBTTKr o qh
vh/vm k v f f 'f 8m.h/k g f q3T f f v g f T7h+f n f vf f YT fNf gk ä f k f vBTf q o f xTg7u s Ô6q k n/v"k YTfug f 0q f Ô i l k k xk lXx%'vXf x%m1u f fjTl gZf k Tf 7h/f :u ¬m f q7lhf h'T f
T7hT7l f q^h/ux f hT7l f o h ¬m f%s 0 ¯ l f q f-sf T f q i h/A Î!¬Br| f 7r?Bu k x Îm.rq s o m k vnT7l f ½Uô |6h6m1T6n f 'T
s 'x%v7r h o gZk hä x f qf q^vBh/T o qh k vB6Tm1q m'xVm.h h6v"no uT7Tl fNOi T7}h | fo Rh6A Rs h6 q^l"v ou f z gZ k n x%k6T mk Ã k h6v"u"nQ Tlh/6q f v"'o m.h rZk q vBTq q3Th l k 7v Rh6o Û s( YªT k³7h6®5v5©«z®6v :¥ g ®7 u!q Û k vªMn2® é
s2h6qk Ô ¥ Ôjf 'm.n6h6 T7l s Lh6vsTlh/q f 'T o h f v/Tqs Thj's2 | f k 'Tl"' h6k.f v mx R ?Bu k v! xVr fN¤ 6n6v T7¤ u q0 ¯ l o ; 7hZ¾ x qq
¤E¤ k s fg k k f s k f f s k gf f f
k'qQv!'v"m.h'rT q sqth/u"vXxlHuq vm k ÎufAm&YTi l!YxT2T7x%l u f TÜ |/£ h6Â m1ôT6 n o h68h6n/xVu s vBT T f m.m&q}| WRxVh6h s o 0 uZT f T7h g h i l f v o f p Rh/ s2k vnWWh/u k1f
k k.s fg k k f f i f s
úy´_û¦ § ¨ ªydV«X¬j ¸dV+¸<·XdL
©
½ q q Tl ù ô 6q7u vBT3x xVu Tq%zBT7l x xVu T x%h6vZ,!n6uYT h/vÎvh vA6q3 Õ®5©:%3« x%'v¬ | 7r
u"q f Ri3uf m i }iri8T7h k sf 6q7u sf f uv:Îvf%h s2i fv2|Y'm.ku f qkh= f q k fq^T6k v"x f 0k ¯ l k q k qyT7u fk i8k T7l ½Ui ô /q itf m1m$z'v g2i3f x%6f v@ ofo m1r
T7l f | f r@q s2f o k v"x k o m f T7hTl f 6xxVuYT fNs2f 6q7u fs2f vBT3hLu"v:Îvh i v k.s o f<g 'v!x f q0
¯ h | z'T7l ¬ n x xVu T h60 ÎZqy6qt o h{T høwx%h o h/v vBTy|/h6m1T'n | qtxVh6v"v xVT /xVh/qq
T7l f q7 s2f f q7k1fh6i u"x f f|/h6m1Tk.6g n f f z i8k k T7lXk i ; ³ ßß® «%( «À%(ª® ks2f T f i s hY| f%s s2f vBTf xVh/vv f xT f<g f¬ gZf k T itk&gZff f vUT7l fs f Th fgk v gZk xYT f
2xVh/v gZk T k h6vh Ô¬"6m.6v"x f ÔQ'PT Ã f h2|6h6m1Tq Ï
R1 R3
null
R2 R4
½ vrh6v h Tl Rh/u q qKTh6q v-T7l ¬hY| ¬" n x%'v¬ T7l q q^T7h6hyuv:Îvh vX|Y6m1u zC'v Tq
|Y'm.u f x%6v]¬ f fjgf T f f s2k v fg f ¬rUk 2'T k k hhOf Tl f h6T7l f f 8T7k&gl f%f f z i l k xf la' f f Ô6f x%6k m k ¬YT fg z Ôjh/ ii lhBq f f f q k q^T6gXv"x k f q
' f Îvh i vT7hj o f x k q fgZf n6 f%f 0 Ñ l f v+T7l f ¬ k&g n f8k q k v@y¬"6m.6v"x f<g xVh6v gZk T k h/v Ã f h
|6h6m1T6n f 6q k v gk xYT f<g
¬r+T7l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6 s2f T f zZTl f 'T k h i h60ÎZq3h6uZT8Th¬ f T7l k q Ï
èF"¯ÊbçH°mÆIK±×#Ç°çLI%ÆfçNM5I%P ð/¡
In a condition of balance:
²R ²R
1
²R = ²R 3
S v hT7l |Y6v/T'n q8hyu"q vn¬ n x xVu TTh 6q7u q q^T6v"x q8Tl"YTNT7l |6h/m]T'n hT7l
o h itf f q^h/ux f+f k q g k f m f |Y'vBf T0U£y6kxT k x'm.m1rk.q g o f f Î kk vn!z=k T7l f l s2k n6f l f
T7f l f f qûk o"o m1rWf|6kh/m]T'n f zCTl f f@f /q k.f f k T k qThf
2 4
gZq f v"T fq xVT T | QxVh/T v gZk T m.kUm h6v@¬ h0 k1½s ¬"n/' m&'Yv"T x f @¬ q^f u T oi3o f%m.f r_v@|6T7h/l m]f T'Rnh6u3m f q k q2q^T7Th/hq T7i8l k T7lo hBT7lq7q f ¬ vum m1TKm rgZfhT f xv"T7h/xVz/'q v g T7lu"q6q7T7ul fNs h6vB fT
o f f x kk q kk h/fXv=0 k i8h i3k f | f fzTl f fi8f k m1m)f ¬ f vh@Ruv g s2f vBf T6mf f g h6 k v/T7fh g u!x fg k /k qk 2 f q7uk m]Thfy2f<m gHf q7q s2f f h6n/f s2f Yf T f
o h itf q7u oo m1rA|6h6m1T6n f uvm k Î f h'T7l f TKr o f q8h E f q k q^T6v"x fNs2f 6q7u f%s2f vBTqxl f%s2f q0
Â o 'v!x ¬" n q h60 ÎjTl q z/h/vm1rTl ¬"6m.6v"x ?Bu"'T h6v q T7l À0ª é<ànß « á?/u!'vBT T qzB/q ¬h'Tl
s 'n/vs k Tu f<gZg f 'v f g o k&l!g 6q f f i /xVh/qqTf l f xVs2h f s o h6v f vBTqf hT7l f fT i f h gZk | k k&gZf k q i8s k u"q^T_¬ fXf ?Bu"'m k vh/k k.gf f Rh62T7l f
vum.m gZf T f xVT7h6 Th k v gk xYT f ÔÃ f h"0 Ô ¯ l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6<zZh xVh6u"q f z s u!qK<T ¬ f gZf | k x f x% o ¬m f h gZf T f xT k v"n
| f 7rq s 'm.m ½Uô |/h6m1T'n f q0 ½ vq f v!q k T k | f h/qx k m.m1hBq7x%h o fAk q2h *T f v³u"q fg Rh62T7l k qz36m]Tlh6u"n6l| f rq f v"q k T k | f
fq7h6m f uxVT7x h s2R f x?Bl!u 'v v"k x%x%r 6m q s2f T Tf l vs 6hYu | f%s2h2f vB6TvqQn 'v 0 gf | f v`l f g o lh/v f q q s 'm.m3q o f Î f ql!}| f ¬ f%f vu"q fg`k T7l f
f f f k i8k k gZk f
General impedance bridge
Z1 Z3
null
Z2 Z4
Á box with a "Z" written

inside is the symbol for
h/Tl k qn f v f 6m/Rh6 s h
any nonspecific impedance.
½Uô ¬" k&g n f T7h~¬"'m&'v"x f zETl fAk.s o f<g 'v!x f YT k hBqjh f /xl¬'v"xl s u"qKT@¬ f
f ?Bu"6m Ï
Z1 Z
= 3
½ nB v=z T u"q^fT ¬ q^T7 qq T7l"'T
T7l o 'v"x ?/u!'vBT T q vT7l ¬!hY| ?/u!YT h6vNé ³VÛ( ¬ xVh ø
o m f CzO/x%k x%h6uk vBT sk vnXRh6ff ¬h'Tl f s f6g n6v k T7u gZf 'f+v k.g s o l"f</g q f 6f vn6m f 0 Â T k k.k fq
vk h6Tn/hf h gWf vh6fQuf n/l-Tl"kYT
Tl f+k.s o ffg 'v"s x f
Z2 Z4
s 'n/v k Tu gZf q

'm.h6v f ¬ f ¬!'m&'v"x fgCµLi8k Tlh6uT o l"6q f 'vn/m f q k vx¬"'m&'v!x f 6q i3f m.m9z=T7l f f+i8k m1myq^T k m.m/¬ f |/h6m1T6n f
ðæ çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJ×²çLI%ÆyçNMOI%P
6x%7hBq7qtTl f T f s2k v"'m&q hOT7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/'v g T7l f ¬" k&g n fi8k m1m5vh'T<¬ f ¬"'m&'v!x fg 0
¶3 n x xVu Tq8x'v]¬ xVh6v!qKT7u"xVT Th 6q7u ÄKu"q^T¬h6uT86vr | x |Y'm.u q z7¬ Tx o /x ø
T6v"x f z k&gk v g f u"xk T'v"xk f zZ f q k q^T6f v"x f zh6 f | f f<vdg Ô·Q0 s2Ô f ½ q86m fi }rZq k vX¬ k&g n fs2fgZ/f qû"k ffsf vBT f
x gZk f xVu k k Tf<qg zT7l f
f k uv:Îvh i kv
?Bu"'vBT k TKr k q'm i }rZq(Ô¬"6m.6v"x f<g ÔU'n/ k v!qKT
Îvh i vq^T'v g ' g zCh¬T k v f<g Rh s Ul k n6l7ø~?Bu"'m k TKr6z=x%6m k ¬YT fg
xVh s o h/v f vBT+T7l!YTAx'Nv ¬ f g ÄKu"q^T f<g³k v³|Y'm.u f uvBT k mTl f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x fXk v gZk x%'T f q`xVh6v gZk T k h/v³h
¬"6m.6v"x f 0 ù f o f v gZk v"nah6v`lh i Tl f ¬ k.g n f@k qjq f Tju o zLT7l f u"v:Îvh i vxVh s o h6v f vBT Ò q|Y'm.u f@s }r~¬ fUgZf T f Aø
s2kYv Tfl ggkY T f xVxT7'm.nm @r Rh/R7 h s um.T"l 0 f q f T^T k vnh CTl f x'm k ¬"'T fg qKT'v g 6 g z/h/ gZf k | f<g Rh s T7l"'T q^T6v g 6 g Tlh6un/l@
s ½ f%xVs h/u o k m hEq s o m ¬ n x x%u Tq8' q^l"h v¬ m.h zh6v Rh/ v u!xT6v"x 6v h6v Rh6x o /x T6v"x
f k.s f k.g f k k f i f i f k g f g f k fÏ
unknown
inductance
standard
Lx inductance
Ls
null
²R ²R
unknown
capacitance
âC âC standard
capacitance
s
x
null
²R ²R
Ü o m Ô6q7r T7 x'Rm Ô#¬ n qOqû"xl/q=Tl q 6 q^hv" ¬ x%'u!q Tl r l ¬ TEq^r T7r 7h6Aø
k.s 6n k.f s q k.s2f k m&' k TKsrZs2y¹Rf h s k m f ¹*T8T7h2k.g k f n/lBT0 ¯ l f T i f hf¬ k.g f n f x k xVs2u k fTg q8q^lf h i vUf ¬hYf | f f%'¸ f k ¬"6k m.6v"s2x f<s2g f ¬r@ g Rs2ÄKu"k qKT k v"n
T7l f x%'m k ¬'T f<g f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT ÐLº h/ ô º 0 ¯ l f r-' f d¬ k Tjq k1s o m k , fg ¹Rh s Tl f%k
f 'mFø$m k ¹ f x%h6uv:ø
T f o '7Tqz!6q o 6xT k x'mLq^r s2s2f T7 k x%'m)¬ k.g n f x k xVu k Tqh'¹*T f val"}| f @x%6m k ¬YT fg z!|}6 k ¬"m f f q k qKTh6 k v-q f k1f q
h6 o 66m1m f m i8k T7lAT7l f f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT3Th¬!'m&'v"x f h/uZTqKT}r2 f q k q^T6v"x fk vAT7l f uvKÎBv"h i vAxVh s o h/v f vBT0
èF"¯ÊbçH°mÆIK±×#Ç°çLI%ÆfçNM5I%P ðB»
¶3uZTz k vT7l f lr o h6T7l f T k x%6m i h/7m g h'¹ o f ^¹ f xTjx%h s o h/v f vBTq%zOT7l f q f q k.s o m f+¼ k&g n f x k xVu k Tq g h@ÄKu"q^T,"v f Th
k m1m.u"q^T7YT f Tl f
¼ 6q k xNx%h6v"x f o T<0
½ v fV¸ s o m f h'¹OQm k T^Tm ff%¸ TQxVh s o m f%¸k TKr@ g"gZfg T7h2xVh s o f v"qYT f ¹Rh/ f 'mFø i h6m g2f ä f xTq3x'v ¼!f ¹Rh6u"v g
kh6v+uT8T7l 6f vq7uhø~v:x%Î'vm.mh fg³v½Uq ¾:¿ ; q Õ%À x%¾ %o 6¿ xz i Th6l Ak ø$x lq u!qKq Tf h6qt x%ho ''m.v!m f Ym!T x%h6 v5o 0 6x½ k Tm1mOh6Ax%ø$ o f q6k x qKTT7h6h/qtqKTl"'}v | g 'q7g+h k1s o fg h66u"v"v/x T8f h6T7h ¹ ¼ vB'T m&'v"v"x 6f m
f q k q^T6v"x f z ¼f@i k TQm k f T f k.f 6mh6 f ?/k u k |Y'm f f vBkT :k vTl sQf ¼¹Rh6k s k h6¹ gZk1f m f xT k x2l k f 'T k vnXm.h/f qq f qs2 f i l s k xlT f v g kT7haf q o h k m
T7l f%k
h'T7l f i8k q f o f 7¹ f xVT7m.r- f /xT k | f v"'T7u f q0Á l k q k vBT f v"6mL f q k qKT'v"x fQs }r ¼f h'¹ k vBT f f qKTT7h s2f /qû" f z
'v g q^hTl f Ñ k.f v ¼ k&g n f 'T^T fs o TqT7h g hq^h ¼ r o 7hY| k&gZk vnX ¼ 'm&'v!x k vn k1s o fg 6v"x f T7l"'T k q7v Ò T Ô o u f Ô
f%k T7l f Ï
The Wien bridge
âC
²R
x
²R x
s
âC
s
null
²R R
¶ vn@Tl"YTNT7l 6 T hUqKT'v 6 xVh o h6v vBTqT7h ÄKu"qKT A q qKTh6N'v x% o 6x Th6 Tl q
¼ k.g n f%fk i8k m.m"TÎ f f m k fT7T7m ff s h6i f T k1s2f g T7h ¼g 'm&'v"s x f T7l!f 'v+Tl f h6¼!T7f l f g q itfÒf| gHf q f%f vAf q^khj¹:'<0LÁ g l f xVh sj¼k v k f<g+f ä f xVk T
h'¹Â º 'v g ô º k qTh'm1T f jTl fUs 6n6v k T7u gZf 6v g o l"/q f 'vn/m f uvBT k m3T7l fA¼ k&g n f 6xl k1f | f qQ-x%h6v gZk T k h6v_h'¹
¼Îv6m.h 6v"q%x z/f T70 l S v!o x6f 6Tm1l"m Ym T ¼ 6o m.6v"6x fNv"x k q3/h'x¹=l Tk.l f | f<T g z/h T7l f T q f T^T k v"v n/q3h'¹OYÂ T7º l 'v g YT ô xº 'm.xm1'r/vz6¼!v f Tf l g u"¹R7v:h Îs vh T7l vfk 8x% x%o 66m k.x ¼ T'Yv"T fx g
'v g ¼ f q k q^Tf 6v"x f
gZf f T f k1s s2k v ffg gUs fYTl f%s Yf T k xi 'm.m1r@gZf ¹R7f h s sk T7l f<f
g+¼ s 'm&'v"x f%fNs f ?Bu"k YT k h/v wÃ=g Ä Ý Ã{Å f ÷ Ã{Æ Ý Ãi Ç 0 k f
Â T q26qq7u vTl h o YT h/vh'¹Tl Ñ v n T7l"'TTl qKT'v 6 x% o 6x Th6jl!6qv n/m n m
vk /T f v"'k mL f q k q^Ts26fv"gx f k zh/N'f TNm f /f qKTNT7k l!YT f q k qKTf 'v"x fjk1f k q¼'m. k&fg g f r]Îvh i v-f q7hTl"Yg T k gTx'v ¼f k ¹:6xVT7h6 fgaf k vBT7khAk.T7¼ l ff
¼m Î6m.6v"m x fxTf 7?Bh/u"m1rB'T T k x%h6qv=z 0 Ñ l k. f v T7¼ l k&g vBn Tf q
7v"' 6f mu" q q f ¹RqûTmE'v!¹Rh6x gqf T f m&s2YT k v | k vm.rUnUlT7l n/f l=|Y0+'m.Á u l f qr-h'¹m6 Ô6m1hB'q7m&q7q7r7hAÔu"xq o /x6k qNT7h6¹R gZ?Bfu q k v"n6xVv!r q
k ff f k i f f fk f f k fk f k f k f f fg f f
s2x% f o T 6f x q%Tz h6¼qf x'' u"q f Tl f¼, 'm&'v"x f'v h6¹yT7u!l q^fu"6¼ m1m. rUk&g h'n ¹ fk ?Bqu"¹R6 fm5?B|Yu 'f m.uv"xV3r ø 'gZv f o f Tv l gZf TvBh To 0 TÑ lh@f vq u"q^q T7f<h/g-q8k va6 Tl k qN ¹:6q7l |Yk h/'v= z{ T7l m f
'v g 6k f g ÄKu"qKf
T fs gU¼ gZr f s2¸Zf f6g`v"q h'¹Lg T7l f q s2f Îvfh ¼ 0 f g f i f k fjs gZf k ¼ f
½ v k vBT f f qKT k vn`|Y6 k YT k h/vh/v³T7l k q+Tl f%s2fk q@¹Rh6uv g³k v³T7l f v f%¸ T ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T<z8u"q fg T7h o f x k q f m1r
s2f qû fk v g u"xT'v"x f q0
/

ð/ çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJ×²çLI%ÆyçNMOI%P
The Maxwell-Wien bridge
ãL
x
²R x ²R
null
âC
s
²R ²R s
Á l k q k vn f v k h6u"q ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T k q Îvh i vU6qT7l fQÈ á \ ¿ ßß]® ½A¾:¿ ; Õ%À ¾ % ¿ q7h s2f T k1s2f qqÎvh i v o m. k v"m1r@/q
T7l f2È á \ ¿ ßß ÕVÀ ¾ ¿ z{'v gUk q u"q fg T7h s2f /qû" f uv:Îvh i v k v g u"xVT'v!x f q k vUT f s q8h6¹Lx%6m k.¼ YT fg f q k qKT'v"x f
'v g x% o 6x k T'v"x f 0 ô 'm k.¼ 'T k h6v7øwn6 gf
k v g u"xTh6q6 fQs h/ fgZk1 x%um1TNTh s 6vBu¹:6xTu f T7l!'vx o /x k T7h/qh'¹
q k1s2k m.6 o f x k q k h6v5z6'v g q7hTl f u"q f h'¹CNq k.s o m f Ô/q^r s2s2f T7 k x%'mRÔ k v g u"xT'v"x f3¼ k&g n f k qvh6T6m i }rZq o /xT k x'm$0
¶ f x'u"q f Tl f o l"/q f q7l k ¹*Tq
h'¹ k v g u"xTh6q'v g x% o 6x k Th6q6 ffV¸ 6xVT7m.rah o"o hBq k T f2f /xl-h6T7l f z5Ux% o 6x k T k | f
k.6s q3o Tl fg rU'v"'x f x%l 'v ¼ 0 6m.6v"x f h/uZT'v k v g u"xVT k | f
k.s o fg 'v"x fk ¹LT7l f r' f m.hZx%'T fgAk vXh oo h/q k T f m f n/q h6¹E ¼ k&g n f z
f f ff
½ v"h'T7l f g |}6vBT'n f h6¹Ou"q k v"n22a ¸Zitf m1m ¼ k.g n f T7h s2f /qû fNk v g u"xT'v"x f 'T7l f tTl"'v2q^r s2s2f T k x%6m
k vv g u"u"xVxVTT7h6'v!qx 0f2a¼ 'k.n/g v n fjT k xqNT7, l f2m f qNm k.x%s26vk v"'T k h6vh'x%¹ us2m]TNf 6T7hUq7uq^ l fs2m f vBz{T 'f v 7h6 | g vau f T7q h s 'm.umOT7 u"6m h/kuv vBg Tu"h6x¹T'xVv"h6x u fQo m¼vf T n i3f%f Tv-T i vh
kxVh g m&q va n xf 'k v vBf T7g h u"x q^¼!u fgZqKTk]' vBT 'm 7h6q k1f vXg x 7TgX fvXxVf h/v T s h6v"q0 Ñ s TlXvh@q xVh/v k v ¼u"fxTi3h68f%f Th
f 6k xVT k i8k Tl ¼ k vUk&g T7l f f - ¸Zk itf m1m g ¼ k&f g n f zB¼ T7l k q o k h ¼ f m f%sÉk q k f m k.s2f k v!Yk T f<g 0 gZk k k f gAk g
h/ 6q q^Th o 'T h6v=z{Tl qKT'v ' x o /x T7h6 ô º 'v T7l q q^T7h/ v o ''m.m m Tl T Â º N'
s gZf |Y'f k k.¼ f m f z6v f g¼ h'k Tl s u"fq^T ¼!f g g ÄKu"g q^T fg T7h@k /xl k.f | fN¼ 6m.6g v"x f 0Ef hf itk f | f z/k T7l f
¼ k&g f n f i8x%k6v ¼k f
s gZf Th f
i h6q 0 q^Î T7h/k ¹E Tvl f o 'x%'o m.6m x m k Th6 T7lQk q8T7, l ¸Zfxg o v/h6x 7v T7øwh/|Y'zY 'k v ¼ m f h/ v 'v h6gA¹"Ts l h/ h'f T7l T7l!L'vXT h6hv f 0L f h q k qKTh6| s z vjgTf l |}6m.'k T^ T ¼ myf+xVh/'vZT,"m n/f u6q^'T8T T7h6l v f
fk k f i8k f k g f f f i i3f f k f f k
k TLv T 'Î m&f 'q v"s x h/v n f T7 'k 6n/m v ø~'Tv u g ø f 76v h6O o g l"ÄK6u"q q^T s20 f v/TLT7h6xl k1f | f¼ 'm&'v"x f zY6qOT7l f3gZk ä f f vBTL|Y6 k ¼ m f f q k qKTh6q k vBT f 6xVT
k ¼ Êv"m Î k Tl s o m& vk Ñ gZf v g n zf T7l 'm&'v!x h'¹LT7l a m.mø Ñ v n q v o v v/Th'¹q^h/ux
¹R f ?Bu f v!k xVr6f z/'v f gk v2q7k h s2f k1x%f /q f ¼ qLk&T7g l k qf ¼ k&g fn ¼ f x%6v ¼f f8s gZf f Th ¼ ¸Z'i3m&'f v"x f k k.vf T7l ¼ f ok&g f f
q f k v"x kf h6gZ¹ f s2f k1¸gZf<gf ¹R f ?/u f v"x k1f fq
¹Rh s Tl f ½Uô |6h/m]T'n f q7h6ux f zBT7l f m k1s2k T k vn2¹:6xVT7h6 ¼f%k vnT7l f
k v g u!xT7h/ Ò q qKT ¼k m k TKr@hY| f 8 i8k.gZf ¹R f ?Bu f v"xVr
'vn f 0
Á l ' h/ |Y' YT h6v!q r/h6v T7l q q n/v"qz uZTU-¹Ru"m1m qxVu"qq h/v q2vh'T ''vBT l 0
Ë f v f 'f mFø f o u" o fUh/sq f8k1s f o fg 6k v"x k fN¼ k.¼g nf f x k g xVu k Tfq3'fa fgZf s k 'vuZ¹:/¼xTu f<g+i l k xglk x%6v ¼k f q i8k k Txl fg@i k vBT7h s h6f<g f T7l"f 6f v
h6v f x%h6vZ,!n6uYT k h/v@¹Rh6 s ¸k.s u s > f%¸k.¼k m k TKr@h6¹Lu"q f 0
Ì_ÍÎÏAÐVÎÑÓÒ
èF"]ÔBÊbç_IKJP=ÆMOGÇJQ\ÊLI% J Æ<ÊJPZ±AMmçÇqÆP
Õ ðÖ
Ì ½U'ô T hN¼ h6 k.¹ g n f o x k x%6u v"k x Tq q i h6Y0TÎXl h6yvWT7T7l"l 6f v+q7 sq qKf2T'¼ v"/x q k x q o k v"m.m"x k o q7m fum1/T q v@ù bô Ô ¼ 6 k.m.g 6nv"f x x k Ôx%xVu h/k Tv q Ï T Tl"h6v@YTj6q ¼ v 'm&'xv"YxT fg
k k1s fg f f f k f i8k f k ¼ f<g gZk k k gk f<g
¼ r@T7l f vum.mø gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x f 0
Ì ëq7x%uh m.o m gZq f T ô f xVÂET7Á h/qq¹Rz6h/l ½Uô o l¼ h/ v k&g qn f q s o }m r , ¼f h6q Lf v"uq v"k T k | f+o m f ,m f xT7hz's2h/Lf 6xvl"rN6v h6k T7xl 'm s2f T | f x s x%hY |o f s2m f vBh6T¹"qz= h/n qx qKk T m.m1hAøø
f Ò f g f s k fg s k f<g f gZf k f ¼ f f k f
k6vx%nQx%u| f 67xVr2r q s q6Ym1#T m Ã½Uô h"|60 h/m]T'n f m f | f m&q0 Ð k Î f ù ô vum1m gZf T f xT7h/qz k Tqth/vm.r f ?Bu k fg o h k v/T h'¹5x'm k1¼ 'T k h6v
k f
Ì ½UrAô +¼ qK Tk.g 'nv f 6x k xVu k Tqo x''v v"¼!x f h6h'¹"¹Tq l f Ô6m&q7'r s2TKr so f T7 h6k vUx'TRm Ôl TKr q7o f8i l q f f 'v2Th uo :v h6Î vh i h6T^v T7h k.s o 3fh'g ¹L'T7v"l x f8k q ¼ 'n m&'0 v"xS f<g z
T7¼ l f r_x%6v g ¼f gAÔ'vk.s h/v"q^fr g s2s2f f T k x%6k.m9s2z Ôak u"q k vn o f ''m.m f m f k1s o s2ffg 6v"k&gZx f@f q T7h ¼ 'm&'¼ v!x f q s f k.f q k.s fo f¼ g 'k&g v"x f f qzth/
f | f vUx o /x k T6v"x f q ¼ 'm&'v"x k vnh6uT k v g u"xT'v"x f q0
Ì ½U½ ôëUù ¼ o k&gl"n6fq x 'k vx%n/u m k TqQh'u"¹*qKT T f vl"}o | f@h o s h6m1r f T7l!'T'xvl h/v f Th g ÄK'u"m&'q^Tv"s2x f 0 vBTzyq k v"x fA¼ h6T7l k.s o f<g 'v!x fs 6n6v k T7u gf
f fs ¼f f s f<g ¼ f
Ì qÜ h v"s2q fjT k.| s o TKf<r g o 'v!q x fj¼}r k&g n f u"x qk x%u k /TqQq6¹R f ?/u¹R f v"?/x%u r f v"x%r ø~6q q7f uv" q k T k | fvBT i l k m| f x h'Tq l f ¹Nq6m16m8 fxVh vh'oT<0Nh/v Á l vBf T2¹R|} 6f m1?Bu u f q2v"'x%3r ø
6f x%x%uk Yk T ff m1_r Îvf h i s v50 ¼f fg f f sf f%s2f gZf k f k s f f f
ú×_ûØ §©¨ d% 5LyÙXLNd þQÚL L«aÙÛ8
[/u"qKT/q gZf | k x f ql"}| fN¼!ff v s gZf Th sf 6q7u f x f 7T k v o lrq k x%'m=?Bu"6vBT k T k.f q8'v g f o f 'T T7l"'T k vZ¹Rh/ s 'T k h6v
kl"vA}| Tl f ¹Rh6 v s h6 ¹ ù ô T7l"f 'm T f xTh k T7x%l 6m=q qk n6v"6m.q T7T7llXf Ý s ô hZ0 xVh/u o m f qz"qKT k vUn/6un f q%z o o 7h ¼!f q%z f Tx'0Üz!q o f x k 6m gZf | k x f q
ÞwfT ¼k qf%f h'¹*T s f vgZv f f x f qq767g r2Th ¼f f s2¼ m ff i8Th k gf T f xT6v g T7'v"q s2k T T7l f o lrq k x%'m o h/q k T k h6vh'¹ sf xl"'v k x'm o 6^Tq
| k f m f xT k x%6mtq k n/v"'m&q0aÁ l k q k q f q o f x k 'm.m.rT7u f@k vT7l f , f m g qQh'¹'uT7h s 'T fgs /xl k v f T7hh6m xVh/vBT7h6m6v g
h ¼ h'T k x%q0Ýßq k.s o m f 'v gAf /q^r i }r2T7h g hQTl k q k q i8k T7lX o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f Ï
potentiometer shaft moved
by physical motion of an object
+ voltmeter indicates
V position of that object
h | <z o h6T v/T h T qyl"}| Tl h v2uv ?Bu o h m q0Eh6h6v z'T7l r m1rQh6v o lrZq x%6m"xVh/vBT6xVT
-
T¼f i3f%f i3vaf T7l f f Ô i8k o f f 0ÔAk s2'v f g f T7l f f q f k q^T'f%v!k x f i q^T7 k o z k i l fk xl s¼ f 'fv"s qT7l f rXqû:ä f f Tfl ff f ä f xTqh6¹ o lk rZq k x%6m i3f 6
hY| f T k1s2f 0`Ýq o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f q itf '<zOTl f%k o h o h67T k h6v"6mh6uT o uZT2| f q7u"qQq^l"'¹*T o h/q k T k h6v ¼f x%h s2f qm f qq
'v m qq x 7T v50Oàyh/u n6lBT8l"}| 'm. r o v"x T7l q ä xVT l v u!qKT vnTl |6h6m.u xVh6vBT7h/m
h6vg 6vf h6m g f gZk k h Ïi l f vs2k T i8k q^T k vnXf Tl f f Îvg h ¼ f%zO¸ r/h6f u k.fs2k n/fl/g TQl f k 6Jf Ô6f qxVYi Txl f k v"nÔUg}á q^h/uvk g qQxVh f s2k vnXs2h6uf Tjh'¹ T7l f
q o f Î f q0EÁ lh/q f vh k q f q8' f T7l f f q7um]Th6¹ o hh6 i8k o f xVh/v/T6xVT k vUT7l f |/h6m.u s2f xVh6vBT7h/m o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f <0
Ým&q7h"z{T7l q o lrZq x'mxVh/v/T6xVT T v o
'v qKT o xV YT qT7l o h/qq m TKrah6¹3'x vn q o '0Î vn
T¼f i3f%f vTl f k T i h-/k qT7l fAi8k o f ¼k q f s i3hYf%|f fg i80 k Ñ f k Tl s g h/q^T k o h6T f f v/T k hf s2f T ff Qx k xVk.u ¼k k Tqk zLT7l f xVuk f vBT k qQq^h-k m1h i
ðÍ çEDUÊUËNEâã²èF"ÊbçHGaâEâtã8IKJJ×²çLIKãyçNMOI%P
T7l!YT i8k o f j'x k vn k q
v f n/m k n k.¼ m f z ¼ uZT k T k q o h/qq k.¼k m k TKraTh ¼!f x%h6v"q k&gZf fg 0Þw¹3Tl f o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f k qTh
h o 'T v'v v| h6v vBT l xVh u"q^T m |Y o h/th/ g u!qKT k q o f q f v/T<zBT7l k q o h6T f v/T k 6m¹Rh6 'x k vn
T7¼f 'v!q^m&f YT f q f<kg+vBTk h@ o fh'T f vBk T k 'm{s¹Rh/f 'vi fVf¸ o f m.h/q k sjh6v=¼ # k.¼ f
Êq vnQÝ ô v"q^T h'¹ ù ô z ' m T7hxVh o m T m.r+}|6h q7m vnQx%h6vBT/xT T v o 6^Tq ¹ u"q
YYÀ ¾ k Õ ß ¿ ($À7 ; k ÛRäVåYÀ f é g ¿ À k v"q^T f g ith'f ¹C f o h6T¼ f fvBT k h sf s T f 0 f ù f f | k x f q k&s g gZk&f gZk¹Rh6Tl k q o u o ¼h/f q f i36f%f f x'm.m f<g kÐ Ö itù f Á Ò q%f z
i l k xlq^T'v g q¹Rh/tæ k v f ' Ï ' k ¼ m fçk ä f f vBT k 'm{è
'v"q^¹Rh6 s2f q%0LÁ l fgZf q k n6v@h6¹='v Ð Ö ù Á³m1hhÎqym k Î f T7l k q Ï
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
éAC output
éACê "excitation" êvoltage
voltage
S ¼ | k h/u"q^m.r6zBTl k q gZf | k x movable q (9À ; core ÛRäVå'À é À Tl"6q8+q vn6m o 'r v vn o h rA6v T v"6m
q7h6ux f h6¹CÝ ô |/h6m1T6n f z/'v g T i hjq f xVh/v g 67r ¿ i8Ïyk v k gZk vnBqtx%h6vk v f xf T fg2k1k s v@q f k.fi8qpk ø ¼ gZu"k xÎ k vn¹:it/f q^l f<k g@h/v=¼ 0OÞwT k q f%}¸ 'À f ¾ Õ ß ¿

f k
¼q f xVx%h/6v u"q 6f 7Tr l f xVv h/ fNvkn/q q¹R6 f f T7xVh h/vs v hY|xT f¼!f0T ¶ itff vvAn+T7'l f
6i8vk n v gZk vT7nBh2q%h0Eo"ÞwTo hBk q q ¾ ë/¿xlÀ ¿ ;h6T7( ¾l ß ¼f õx%Í6ñu"òq f h6uZh'T8¹5Th6l ¹ f
o l!i 6}q r2 T7l f T 'i v!h q
T7l!f YTyTg l f h/uZi8T o k ugZTk h'¹{T7l k q f gZf | k x ff i8k f<m1gm ¼!f T7f%l k f ¾ ë¿ À ¿ ;f<ì ¿g ¼f T i3f%f v2T7fl ff |6h6m1T6n f f h6u T o uZTth'¹{T7l f T i hq ff x%h6s2v g f 'r
i8 k q7v ugZm]Tjk v'n/T
q0 T7l Ñ l h/f uZv-T o TuZl Tf T xVh/ fkv"q
'm&x q f vBT f m1 m f<g 6v gahX¼ h'|6Th6l m1Tqi80+k v ÞwTgZk vqnBx%qN66m1m f h6ß uT o 'uZÀ T7T k vnUx%'T7u!l q f qT l s2f xVh/|6 h6m1Tq6n ¹R f z{T7l h f v fh'T ¹
f f f s2k i8k ¼!f+íf k fg ¾ ; ¿ ¼!f f f f Ò f%f<g s
s h'T Á k h/l v k Ý qô q^T7|6 h6k m1n6TlB6pTn øwm k h6v uZf T 0 o uZT rj6v Ð Ö ù Á v xYT qLT7l o h/q T h6v2h'¹!T7l hY|Y m xVh/ 0 7h|6h/m]Tq 'v!q
T7l!YT8T7l f f xVh6 fk q8x f fvBT f f<g 0yÁ ¼ l f ¹Ru7T7l f i k }grQk Tl f f xVh/ ff k q ¹Rk h sk x f vBT f f8o s hBq k T k h6¼ v=f zTl f f n6 Ãf 'f T f o f x f s2vBfT'n f
h'¹ v o uZT Ô x TYT h6v\Ô/t|6h/m]T'n m1m q vYT8Tl h6uT o uZT<0yÁ l o l"/q h6¹OTl h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f f m&YT k | f
T7hkTl f
fV¸ x k TfV'¸ T k k h6v|6k h/m]T'n fk v gZk x%fN'Ti8f k q i ¼l f k xl f%f gZk f xT k h6f vU¹Rh s x f vBT f f T7l f x%h6f fk q8h f ä{q f T<0
Á l o 'r` |Y'vBT'n h'¹6v Ð Ö ù ÁÕhY| o h'T vBT h T Q¹Rh6 o h/q T h/vHq v"q v"n qjTl q v"x
h'¹ o lrZfq k x%6mLk.s x%h6vBT/xT g ¼!f T itff f vT7l f2s hY| k vn'v g f q^TYT k h/v"'f r k o s2'7f Tqf 0jÁ l f x%h6 k fk g h f qf v"h'kTxVh/kv/T6xVTf Tl ¼ f2fi8k ff
i8 k o v h6gZT k vv/n/T qzh ¼ uZT8T q^m k.z"gvf h6q k vUq 'T7v l g h6uZTT l i8k o Tl hBk q7vUq jv"m TKh6r@v"x%h'h6¹v xVg u!'xTT k vvnjn+T7'u v¼'f 0yx'Á 0 lu"qz6Tl f Ð Ö ù Á g h f q3vh'TPÔ i3f 'Ôm k Î f
î ¸ f x k Tk YT s2k h6f v+f h6¹CT7l f Ð k Ö ù Á f f k qTKr f o k x'm.m1r]k.¼õIk ñ
k |6h/m]TqtÂf Ü k h6tm f q7qzZYT¹R f ?Bu f v"x k.f q6vn k vn
¹Rh s o h itf m k v f
T7hTl f l k n6l6u gZk h ñ]Î í 'v"n f 0 S v f o h'T f vBT k 'm gZk q g |Y'vBT'n f h6¹3Tl f Ð Ö ù Á k q k Tqj f q o h6v!q f T k1s2f z
i' l k xl q k q s h/z!q^T7T7l m.r gZ¹R f o ?Bf u v gZv!f xVv/r Th6vAu"q^T7T l f ¹R l f ?Bn/u l f v"xVT7r@hAh66¹Om1Tm.h l f Ý ô l"Y|6T h6| m1T6n |/f h6q^m1h/T6un x fø~q 0EÞwv"¹Eq | v"f n27r@x ?Bu xVuk xÎ@Tq f vq o h6h/uv"n/ql-f xVT rZk1s2x%m f qq
h'¹fjÝ gZô f Tk h fg gZf T f f s2k v f f |6f h/m]T'n s f m f | f ¼mtf 6qk T7l f f xVh/ f+k q siïhYi | fg 0f Á5f h k m.m1u"q^T7Yf T f f Tl fk o h'T k f vBT k k 'm o f h ¼ m f%s l f f f z
èF"]ÔBÊbç_IKJP=EãMOG-âJQ\ÊLI% JÕEã<ÊJPZ±AMmçEâtãP ðð
k.s hY6| n k v f vaT7l 'k vq f%¸ h/'uZn6Tn fluYv T fg qx q8f v"h''¹E T k h Ï 6q v o Ð Ö ù q Á xVh/o v h i30 f Á fl g¼ h/rjuZT
o uñ
T h'¹Eí T7|6l h/m]q T'Ð n Ö f ù q7h6Á ux h6f uz mi8kv T7lT T7l | f vxVh6m1hf hÎ¼!fm k v"Î n
s2q v f<gAk }| g x%6u"q Tl g f<xVgh/ h6k1us2m f f hYf| Tg l7h/un6f l"h6uZT Tq8'vn k h6¹ h6T h6iv ¹Rg h6 Ò T7f l f Ý ô q^h/uk x f
|6h/m]kT'f
n f i xVh6u"fNm ¼!g f x%h s o f m f T f f aq k fvn/i m f x%rZgxV¼m f f
#s ÞwT i f<h6g um g¼f 'm s h/q^k T k1s o h/qf q k.¼ m f s Th k gZf T f ¼! f s2k v f fk v"f q^T6vBT'v f h6u!fq
xVh/ f o h/q k T k h/v k ¹ k T s hY| f qt¹:6q^T f Tl"'vUTl f
k v!qKT'vBT6v f h/u"q q^h/ux f |6h6m1T6n fg h f q0
Ý|Y6 k YT k h/v
h6vT7l f Ð Ö ù Á k q5T7l f aÂ Ö ù Áz}h/ Í h6T67r Ï ' k ¼ m fçAk ä f f vBT k 'mè
'v"q^¹Rh6 s2f <0=Á l k q gZf | k x f
iq^T7h60În6qtlBh6T3vm 'v m s 0h/Âcq^Ö T ù T7l Á f qq x%s2'v f o k v"xVxh6k v!o qKm Tf 7z u"f%xV¸ T x f o ¹RT3h/T8l"m YT8TT l f xVh/ h'f T h6f v|6h/h6m1¹L| f ¡6qt ñh6òv¹Ruq7m.l"Fm øw'x ¹*T xVk mv"q^ T f h'g T h'h/¹ v=s 0 hY| k vn k v
k kf Ò ¼f f<g k.s2k fgUs k k f s k
ô h6vBT k vu k vn i8k T7lUTl k q o k v"x k o m f z i3f l!}| fi l!YT k mq Îvh i vU6q @ðñ ;ì )À7å h/ð ¿ ß Û ñ ; z i l k xl k q gZf | k x f
xVh/v"q^T7u"xT fg 2m1h6T m k Î f i h/uv g øwh'T7h/ o h6m.r o l"/q f Ý ô s h6T7h/8h68n f v f YTh6<0LÁ l f 7h6T7h6 k q ¹R f%f T7h+ f |/h6m.| f
Q¹Rum.m=¡6 ñ3ò}z á u"q^T8m k Î f s h'T7h/0 S vAT7l f h'Th6 k q8q k vn/m fi8k v gZk vn+xVh6v"v f xVT fg T7h22q^h/ux f h'¹LÝ ô |6h/m]T'n f z
sT7l"u! xlpø o m kl"Î 6f q T7l àQf z"o6m] Tk1ls h6'un/r lUi8q7rk v v"gxklvnHh/q h'¹j6T7lv Ð Ö h6 ù ÁTl"0 'Á vUl Tf l qKTYT7o h/l" 6i8q k q v gZl!k }v| n/qU' f v u"q7u u"6m1T m1m.r k vTl f ¹Rh6 s h6¹j
ff f i8k s f ff f f¼!ff ¼ k Ï
Synchro (a.k.a "Selsyn")
AC voltage
source
rotor three-phase
winding stator winding
stator rotor
connections connections
modern schematic symbol

Öh6m1T6n f q k v g u!x fgUk vUT7l f q^T'T7h6 i8k v gZk vn/q8¹R7h s T7l
õ<ñò /q k v f 6mT7l" ff ø o l"6q f n f v f YTh6<05Þw¹CTl f h'Th6
f h' Th6 v Ò q Ý n ô fV¸ x k TT7'l T k ùh6vô 'x% uf ; åYv/( Tto l!'6T7ql f ø~q^l T7l"k ¹*6T f<vgÝ ¼ ô r
'v g T7l f q^l"'¹*Tq o uv-x%h6vBT k vuh6u"q7m.r6zTl f vaT7l f |/h6m1T6n f q i3i fh/u8f m g f ¼f f Tk.7í%u ff g2T7i8lk f%f ø o l"6q f 08¶3f uZTTl k q f k qvh6Tlh i
2q^rv"xl"7h k q gf q k n/v fg T7h ¼f h o f YT f<g 0ÂYTl f <zBT7l k q k q8Jà Må Û ¾ ( ¾ å ; ® Û ¿ ; Û ¾ ; gZf | k x fs u"xlm k Î f 'vÂaÖ ù Áz
fV¸ xv f o vTnTl"|6Yh/T m]T'k Tn qjq h/uZT o m1m uZTq ok n/7v"h 'o m h/k^q T h/s v"u"'xm l v s h/' fn6v gTf u ,"v k T Tf h
0 T7Ñ l k T7'`l vn/Tul m.f 6 h'o ThBh6q T f h6v v+f h6n ¹{k.í%T7f<l g¼ h'rTh6Ý <ôz o z=l"T/l q f q^TT'l T7h/
i8ñò
k h6gZJk õIÍñ3òq^l ¹*Tf i8zk m Î ¼!f @ n6um&' k Ð Ö ù k Áïs h6NÂaÖ k ù ÁgZf 0!àyh6uax%f h6um T7l v:Îh6k¹ k TN/q2Tf 6v"q^¹Rh6 f8Tflak h6v f
o k1s 67r i8k v gZk k vnf<g 6v gk fTl f%f f q f xVh6v g 'r i8k v gZk vnBq%z f 6xlq f x%h6v g 6g 7r i8k k v gZk vnQk h/ k.f vBT fg 'T jsuv f k ?Bu i8f k 'vn/m f f 0
ÝqTl h'Th6 qq7m1h m.rUT7uv z /xl v v"n vaTu7v m.mEm v u o xVT7m.r TlaTl h'Th6<z o 7h g u!x k vn
¹Rum.m=|6h/f m]T'n f z i k l k m f iTl f h'Tl f f<g i8k vf gZk vn/i8q k i8kgZm.mk o h k g u"x f q7h i8s2k f Tl k k v"f n+m f q7q3gZTk l"f 'vA¹Rui8m.m5k |6h/m]T'n f f 0
Ü rv"xlh/q' h6¹*T v-u"q v o q%0 Ñ T7lWT7l Nh'Th6qx%h6vv xT v o ''m.m mL6v v n rT7l
q s2f Ý ô |/h6m1T'n f f q7h6u"f x f zBfT7lgfkk q^l"'k ¹*Tq i8k m1km s 'Txf%l k o hBq k T k h6vUTh2f l k fn6gal kgZf n6 f%f h'¹f 6xxVuga6f x%r f Ï k.í%f<ga¼ f
¡ññ çEDòUËNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJJ×²çLIKãyçNMOI%P
Synchro "transmitter" Synchro "receiver"
The receiver rotor will turn to match position with the

transmitter rotor so long as the two rotors remain energized.
Ü u"x~ l ÔYT7'v!q T^T 5ÝY x | Ô o ql"}| v-u"q h6v-q7l o qTh m&}rAu o hBq T h6v=z{h/T7hU m&}r
v"}| k n/YT k h/v"'m!n6rs2h k o hBf q k T k h6f vAfkhY| f f y¹: k k m1r2m.h6vn fgZ¼k q^f%Tf 6v"x f q%f0g Á l f h6v"k m1r gZk ä f f f v"x f¼gf gT i3f f%f vT7kl f k Ô'T7'v"q s2k T7Tf f Ô
'v g T7l f Ô6 f x fk | f Ô k q i l k xl-h/v f n f TqTu7v fg¼ ra6vah6uTq k.gZf ¹Rh6x f 0Á l f Ô' f x fk | f Ô@x%6v á u"q^T
6q f /q k m1r
¼o fh/q u"T q fh/g v=0 /q8T7l f ÔYT6v"q sk T^T f Ô ¼ r¹Rh/x k vn k TqNq7l"Y¹*TT7h+Tu7va6v g m f T7T k vn+T7l f q7rBv!xl7h+h/vT7l f m f ¹*T s YTxl
kk
Þw¹CT7l x | qEh'Th6 qm ¹*Ttuv o h z T m.m{6xT36q o hBq T h6:v ø 7h6 T xT7h/z/n v YT vnQ'v@Ý ô
|6h/m]T'n f f YTf T7l ff k 7f h6T7Ò h/ k ¹T7l kf q7l"f Y¹*T k q6i3vBrBf Tlfgk v"nk h'i8Tl k f T7l!'v~ðñ ò h/kk BÖMñ òf q^l k ¹*T gZff g f ¹Rh s Tl f f f q^l"'¹*k T o h/q k T k h/v
h'¹Tl f T6v"q sk T^T f <0Á l f f x f%k | f h'T7h/ i8k m1mLvh@m.h6v"n f n f v f YT f 'vrUT7h6?Bu f 6v g xVh/v"q f ?Bu f vBT7m.r i8k m.mOv"h
m.h6vn f 8'uZTh s YT k x'm.m1r s 'Txl o hBq k T k h6v i8k T7lUT7l f T7'v"q s2k T7T f Ò q Ï
Synchro "transmitter" Synchro "receiver"
AC voltmeter
AC voltmeter registers a voltage if receiver rotor

position isn’t exactly 90 or 270 degrees shifted from
the position of the transmitter rotor.
Á l qyx%6v Tlh6un/lBTyh'¹='m h/q^T/qy

q7h67TEh6¹ n x xVu TyTl"YT/xl | q 'm&'v!x h6vm.r ¹{T7l x |
q7l"Y¹*T k qk ¼ h6un/¼!l/f T Thh/v f h'¹LT i s h :s 'Txl k vn o h/q ¼ k T k k&h6g v"q f i8k k T7lUkTl f T7'v"q s2k.fk T7T f f ¼ q^l"'¹*T0 f k f f f%k f
S v 'T7l vn v h6u!q+ oo m x%YT h/v_h6¹T7l q^rv"xlh q vHTl xV 'T h6v_h6¹N o l"/q f øwq7l k ¹*T k vn gZf | k x f z
o hY| k.gZf<f g Tl"YTf Tl k f qKf TYk Th6 k q f v f k 7n k1ík fgA¼ r@T7l f f%f ø o l!6q f Ý k ô Ï k f f k
èF"]ÔBòbç_IKJP=EãMOG-âJQ!òLI% JÕEãòJPZ±AMmçEâtãP ¡ñKõ
ï
three-phase AC voltage
source (can be Y or Delta)
Synchro
ö voltage signal
output
full rotation of the rotor

will cause output voltage to
smoothly shift phase from 0
degrees all the way to 360
degrees (back to 0).
ÝqyT7l q^rv"xl"7h!ó qEh'Th6 qTu7v z/T7l 7h6T7h/xVh m m.m o h6n/ q7q | m.r'm n6v T7l 6xl+qKTYTh6x%h m9z/T7l
f q o f xT k | ffs 'n/v f T k xQ, f m g q k ¼f%k vnfõ<g ñò of l"6q f ø~q7l k ¹*k T fi8g k ¹R7h s h6v f f 6k vf h'Tl f <k 0jÞ~v i8¼!k f T itf ff vT7lhBq f o h/k q k T k h/v"fkq%z
T7l f q f o l"/q f øwq7l k ¹*T fg , f m g q i8k m.m s2k]¸ Th o h g u"x f @7h6T7h68|/h6m1T6n f q7h s2f%i l f f
¼f T i3f%f v[ñò'z)õ}ñò<zh6Mæ3ñò
q7l k ¹*T<0jÁ l f o 6xVT k x%'mL f q7um]T k qN gZf | k x f x% o ¼ m f h'¹ o hY| k.gk vnU'v k vZ,!v k T f m.rX|Y' k ¼ m f ø o l"6q f Ý ô |/h6m1T6n f
i8k T7lUT7l f T i8k q^Th'¹L2ôvh ¼W YT7T6xl fg T7h2T7l f 7h6T7h68q7l"Y¹*T0
Ü hj¹:'3T7l T7'v!q u!x q qxVu"qq l!}| 6m1m vAh'¹=Tl v u"xT | |Y6 TKr/0L h | <z T q o h/qq m Th
s 'ô f T7'v!q g fu!x f q i g l k xflAh o gf k YT f h6fvg |Y6 k f ¼ m f ¼x f%of /x k T'v!x ff k /q g i3f m.k m$zf Ý ô ¼k.f f%k vnu"q fitg f ThQf q f k v"q k f Tl f xk.l"¼ 'f vn f
k vx o /x k T6v"x f 'v g n f v f 'T f Q|Y6 k ¼ m f h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f 0
Â ETl"YTTl x% o 6x T'v"x T vQT h
xVh/v u"xVT | qû"^¹:/x qL|Y' q T7lT7l h6L¹:6xVT7h6qõ
T7l f hY| ffs7m&f sjo¼o fk vn
6 f h6f ¹{T7lhBq f k T i hq^ftu"¼^¹:f /x i3f f%qfzYTl fi gZk q^T'v!g x f8¼k f T f i3f%f v2Tl f f%s z'k.v f g i8Tl k fgZk.f m f f%xVf8T7 s k x8x%á h6v"q^T6vBTyh'¹
T7l f
s 'T f k 'm k v ¼!f T itff vAT7l f qû7¹:6x f q0EÞw¹LT i h2h6uZTh6¹OTl f%f h'¹LT7l f q f |Y6 k ¼ m f q8x'v ¼!f , ¸Zfg q^T ¼k m k.í%fg
'v g Tl f T7l k g 'm.m1h i3fg T7hX|Y'r6zCTl f v`6vBr sf 6q7u f%s2f vBT
h'¹8x% o 6x k T'v"x fQ¼f T i3f%f vTl f q7u^¹:/x f q i8k m.m ¼f
q7h6m f m.r k v gZk xYT k | f h6¹Exl!'vn f q k vUTl"YT T7l k g |}6 k ¼ m f 0
x'm= q 6xl qtl!}| m.h6vn u"q h'¹yx o /x T | q v"q vn@T7h T xT o lrZq h/m1h/n x%'m=xl!'vn q v
m k | k vn f<¼ gZh k gZk.f q0yf Ýf q f 'f m.r6yq õIfðñBÖZzZ sË f gZs f 6vAf f q f 6xl f 3k v"k f s2ff g jk 0 ô fs2gZff f o m&6x fg T k i h s2k f T'm o m.'T f f q h/k v
f%'km1T7T l 7f v!
Yq T k&gZm1f r,"h'¹tm.m vn¼f6Yv T k v"n¹Ro TKh6r nAvl n f 6T^q Tm1'¹v h'g-¹ sm.hBf h 6q7u0 Ü fg Tm&l 'f x% o 66q7x uk T 6v"x f vBTxqCl"l!'v}|n f q f q^v u"o m]T k ^v¹Rnh/ ¹R7h s h/T7v
l f lBu l f '67v T
f f k gf%s k k f ¼ g k.sk s2f fs2f f¼f%f f s2fg s
¼f%k 6vv"n/qq i8h'¹tk T7xl o s2/f x TT'6m v"o x m.'T xf l"q 'o v"m.n /x qf<0Qg "h/h6v Tl f h6 xl f o qK Tx6v q gAx%¼ 6o xô{6x zT f | x%h6 gZk v"/nQqû" f q o k 'vBT7Th6qNh'r+¹3'h6v g n/'xv' 6gZxk T /x| 6TKr6xTz k h/v T¼ 'r m
s2o f h qOl"}| kv v"q f 7T v/Tf hh/7nB'v"q s q fo x f'm.m.k rf Tl l 6k ^Tk =fjh/v
s2T7f l T o fqLsh'f ¹"xYTl T LT7u qz'x%k k o 6x s2T'f v"x
¼f f¼!ff k f f<gk Rf f k f f f k f f ¼f k f
¼f%xk vTn YT s2h6f v6q7¹Ru ?BfugA¼!v"f xVT rit'fv f vAqT7l v"fjq sT f | T6m vo h/7uh ¼!n6l2f |/6h6v m1g T'T7n l f
¼ h T g xrTh6h6<¹Oz'Tvl h6f T qû u"¼Zq^TyáKf T7xVl T0yo ö u k T7lXo +vnq7u 6 xVT x h6k.f v vBT7m.uZr@Ttl 6k m.n6q7lXhÝT7l ô
fVÛ%¸åY÷ k o Û k h6¹5Tl f 6xVf T | l 6g ^Tf x'v k k f8 f m.r vBT o f8T gZf 0 f á f s k k ¼ f
; f kf f ¼!f f gZk k f f fg
ø ô v u"xT | T6v"q u"x qzCx% o 6x T | T7'v!q u!x qNx%'v'm&q^h T7h q m1¹ øwx%h6vBT v u"v Tq%z
uvm k ô kf fQT7l k fg gk f xVk T f o lrq k h6m.g h6n k x%f 6m f%¸ s o km f k q fgZf q7x% k.¼!gf<g f ¼ hY| f 0 Ü h sf ¼!Tf26s v"q g gZu"f x f q ¼i f h6ôf ¼ r s 6ô k k vfn2g h/v f k h'¹
T7l f x o /x k T7h6 o m&YT f q s hY|Y ¼ m f z f%k T7l f k vq7u"xlW i }r/qThA|Y67rUT7l f hY| f m. oo k vn' f @h6T7l f2gZk qKT'v"x f
T v@T7l o m.'T q%0 S T7l tT7'v"q u"x q h/7ô r hY| vnj m xT7 x YT 6m v'v h6uZT T v+T h
,¼¸Zf fi3g f%o f m&YT f qf õ f f g f i ¼ s k gk1f f k s f k k g ¼!f itff i
¡ñB çEDòùNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJjú²çLIKãyçNMOI%P
capacitance changes with capacitance changes with

changes in plate overlap changes in distance
capacitance changes with

changes in dielectric
ÁO6v"q g u"x f q i8k T7lAn6 f YT f yq f v"q k T k | k TKr+'v g2k.s2s uv k TKrT7hxl"'v"n f q k v@h6T7l f |Y' k ¼ m f qyx'v ¼f h ¼ T k v f<g
¼ÁOr 6i v"qK}¹Rr+h/ h'¹ gZk Vä 0Lf f v/ T k 66m gZf Qq k n6¹ v=z s u" xlo m k m ô f q Th'l ¹ f x%ä h6v" x f vBo T T 6¼m=f x%l k o v 6g x T7T l | f ø6T7û 'ù v!Á q u!ø x k v f q'õ 8ûy6 k ¼ m füj¾ ë¿ À ¿ ; ( ¾ 'ý
s2f f f f f%ifV¸ s f gZk f f k kkf g f
Differential capacitive transducers
capacitance changes with capacitance changes with

changes in plate overlap changes in distance
capacitance changes with

changes in dielectric
Ýqr/h6u_x'vHq z'm.m3h'¹Tl ä vBT 6m | x qq^l"h v vT7l hY| m1m.u"q^T7YT h6vHl"}| (*)ZÀ
xVh/vv f xT k h6v!q+'T7l ff%2f T7l"6v³T i h!fXõagZh6kv fXf i8f k f k ¹Rh6g f f 6k xflh'¹T7li f-þ'k f v gþ f o m&¼YT f q@f'k v g h6v f k ¹Rh/+T7l ff þ xVh s2¿¿s i8h/k v þf
o m&YT f 0+ÝqTl f x% o 6x k T'v"x fQ¼f T i3f%f vh6v f h'¹tT7l f@þ6f v g"þ o m.'T f q
6v g T7l f@þ xVh s2s h6v þ o m&YT f xl"'vn f qzCT7l f
x% o 6x k T'v"x ft¼f T i3f%f vjTl f h'Tl f þ'f v gþ o m&YT f 6v g Tl f8þ x%h s2s h6v þ o m.'T f k qqû"xlQT7hxl"6vn f3k vQT7l f h oo h/q k T f
gZk f xT k h/v=0Á l k qô k v g h'¹OT7'v"q g u"x f 8m f v g q k Tq f m]¹| f 7r i3f m.m{T7h k.s o m f%s2f vBT'T k h6v k vX ¼ k.g n f x k x%u k Tõ
èF"]ÔBòbç_IKJP=EãMOG-âJQ!òLI% JÕEãòJPZ±AMmçEâtãP ¡ñ/¡
Differential capacitive transducer
bridge measurement circuit
Pictoral diagram
capacitive
sensor
Schematic diagram
Á l fN¼ k.g n f x k xVu k T k q v"h'T3T7l f h6v"m1r i }rT7h f ä f xVT k | f m.r k v/T f o f T3T7l f
gZk ä f f vBT k 'mCx% o 6x k T'v"x f h/uZT o uT
h'¹=q7u"xl@NT7'v!q g u!x f <z ¼ uZT k T k qyh6v f h'¹{T7l f q k.s o m f q^TyT7h k.s o m f%s2f vBTt6v g uv gZf q^T6v g 0Ýq i8k Tl2T7l f ø6û ù Áz
T7l f |6h6m1T6n f h6uZT o uZTh6¹"Tl f¼ k.g n f k q o 7h o h/^T k h/v"'mBT7hTl fgZk q o m./x f%s2f v/Tyh6¹"Tl f T7'v!q g u!x f /xT k h6vQ¹Rh sÿk Tq
x f vBT f o h/q k T k h/v=z''v g T7l f gk f xVT k h6vjh6¹"häCq f T i8k m.m ¼!f k v gZk x%YT fgQ¼ r o l"6q f q7l k ¹*T0Á l k qLô k v g h'¹ ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T
kxVqh/v q k1s2T k m.h66v k'vXm.m¹RT7ul v"xVT T k h6vXTz h@uZT7lT8f 'ô T7k l v g 3u"T7l q fgi8n6k T7 lq^h'T7¹ k vXn/'6m&'uv"n fx q%õ k T o k qq vh'vBT Tqk vBTTl f v gZf<'g n6v T7h Tu ¼!fQk vh'¹O T7l þ'¼ 6?Bm.u"66v"v/x T f<gTKrþ
gZk k f k1s2f ¼ f f
gZf f%f k.sj¼ f f f f fs k gZf f k
¼f%k vn s2f 6q7u fg 0
¡ñæ çEDòùNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJjú²çLIKãyçNMOI%P

Ù!#"%$'&)(
Á l f rq+*}r-,7l.*/,jv f x f qq k ,Kr k q0,l f@s h/,l f1 h6¹ k v| f v2, k h/v43Ý5,jm f */q6, k v7,7l f x8*6q f h'¹5,7l k q ¼ hh6ô{z4,l.*9,'* g *'n f
k q:rB, 1 A u f q633,Ýr q;* *'v h'k ¹Cv g, u"*6q<x, l 1k *'vm nDf 3Um f Xx=, r1 h6q<v ,7k u xq k vEv!,q6q, 1 u"x>,7h 1 zÞ* im.r-*6q¹ ¹Ru"h q<1 , x f*9g , ,7hu"q ,f l7*+,7lq7u ¼@? q<,+*'*'vv r g ,K* r 1og h6, n fV¸ * , o ¼ l hh6x8ô*'m g u 1kh vn q
s'* v h 1 qxVu f 1 o mG'* f v.*/, h6k v"q v!, l q gZhh/f ôz!l.i3*}| f1v"f@n@g q o k vE, 1 u"x1 l!, fgWi8k*9,l"h fAs q6, u"n6n6m vnH,71 hx%h k o f8l1F1 v 1
,7o l fNh g s m ¼ */, fq81 3k 1 '* Ý fm fVi8¸ k , vl n k vI3v"q7ök umJh ,:1 ,q hfk r v f , u k itr f8¼ 17f */,7q5l f,7l s *'k vr k v!xVf h o 1+1f x s x=,C3 *'v"q i3k.s2f1 f q k v,l fs2¼ f *6xô21 h'¹I,7l k fN¼ hh/ôH,7s h2q f1mf f x=f , f<gg
1 ¼ R h6f%svE,S6* x=, v"gnLgZk , l k o u m q7l k o á hY1 | i 7, h fL6* K@v M8NONQP x 1q k f v¹Ru@, m ,Kr23îy| vT,7lh/un6l!,l o * , x%umG* , ,Þ
k f ¼ k f1 1 fg ¼!f fV¸Zf1 k fNk k k f f 1 k 1 fV¸
i 6**6qNqX,7u"l q k vAnl.q<,X* g-,l ¼f%r{f ó v k v | o 1 l k vE,U* '* v 3jgXk v r o h o uu"mV* q61,u",7h q f ¹Rh| 1 * x%,7h6l u o m f *'h'¹[¹3,Nr ¹Rhf * 1 ,7ql zW,7l v f r, x%mV* k1s2, fh/gv-s h6¹\r,7xVl h s o mG* hk h6vEô ,
i 6* q f , 1 7, l f q vEg-, f q6f8, 1 h6v]f 7, 1 l g o * ,1 f8zZY 6* v f Þ q71h6f m.| k1fi 7, h^"A f2v gZ1 6* v-'* m_, 1 v.*/f , | f%¸ , f<gZ,`3 k k f%kVN1 ¼
i s2v f v"i8nLk j* q7gZu k ,+k * f8m 71 f '* m_, v.*/, f%| kV1 6* 1q h g 1 f xVum_,af<, g l.'* vÞl.g * '* n f1v 3ck b f u fV¸zE7, l
, f%hB¸ h/,ôZq kq8k v h gZok 71 k,<vE, ,z ¼ 2*u@k ,)m1hO,7¼ ,l f\fh'¹1 f *'vZf8m.¹Rm.h1 rn/hB*9kh , g
fh6¼ ivhÞth6ôZ¹ s q5m_,q f%1ffs26* gZq fk1g * o ¼h k ,d,S,7'* hvEh,83Cl fb *}h |rgh/k1h'ves ¹f,7, l l ftk s fg *9,q<l', *'v1hf g h/ô,7ql f f1m ffq7i3q fkh6v21uZ,f , k1s2o h'm ¹k&f g vEo *9K, , r2k vEv"h', n ¹ z
¼'* v , lh/s2q k 7, l.f<*/g , q<, m1k m 1 s vn o k v2, f i k.u s , 1 o v!q | s23 f f¼f ¼ itf871 f 1 k
g Þg, /* fqth/u@, h'it¹5¹ f871 u"f q<, k*9, h/¼vhf%k 7, l.*/8, 1 Þk xVh fgAo itm f871 feY k f
å9k f%¸ kTf 3l ký f À À ÷ ¹ h v"h/,F<n qC'* v.oqpVo@n`6* q3Þ#r.*2o
i 1 1 k s k fg-5i ¿>jSj Nj ¾ ¿ ìm ¾ ì ¾ ì ¾ m j 1 s
¼r.6*n%nv.vo qfx>'ss2¹t_tVn x>rQ,F.p vq6, n@u.o@¹us %n 1 vE, rOq%n8z * 1 u@q8
3,\*Xq<r <n x>o /s 1 v.p soZ* * 1 rrnOnOsEsE*/*/t@tdvCv56* /*qdq;,Fs ,+s o '* u@ô2,na,+1 rZn8*2n oZ* sE¼ /s t_/nô'zW6* r.qc1p n2*/rwW?gs Y u.o.*O* t_p_K, tVr!n5/* 1p vq ¹uo s Bs1 s q7qF*/p ,Ft_pVn26s 3cvBx 1p vE|2,Fn s],F,Fr.r.nn
rOn`* 1 q%z"Þ:r.s *Oo!n ¸ o n 1 pVn%v"xn8¼ oT,Fr.n ¼ n%vZnAZ,1 s6¹ 1 n<x>np.|Qp1v"n2¹ 1 s n8n'p.v"q6, 1 u!x=¼ ,FpVs6v *6v.o!n%v!1 x>s6u ¼ 1 *6nOn s nv2,yp.¼v s r o u 11 q7uZp_,
's ¹dt_n`* 1 vZ1p v"nLn8t_<n x=, 1 6s v..p xqy¹ 1 s s s '* vr o ns o t_/n z@1p v!x>.t u.o@.p vnqF%n |2n 1 */tD,Fn`6* xSrZn 1 qa's ¹ s .p vZn01p vTntVn s n v2,S* 1 rh'* v.oqrZ1p n2r
qxSrZsQsOtzL3 ÁCrZn8p 1 q<n8tJ{Dn qqa/* q7qF.p q<,+6* v"x>n o tV}* r2n8oh
* ô2%n r 1 s2t_ny.p v s r^s98v v@q<7, uDo@p_<n q%z o }* |Q.p vne,+rZn;vC}* r¹us 1 * 1 nvC* 1 o@.p vn
v:x* r.1 */n8,:n 1 ,FrZ*'nvDr@on2¹|*/}* q7|2xn;p1vD,+s*9,Fsp.vnHnH3:rZs 3:¼3 ¼ rO3yÞw¹fs6vZt.rÞ x>s/uZtGo]n ¸ ,Fn%vDoq,+rZn
nOp1¹[,;s6¹d,+rZnp 1 rZn8t o ¼ rn2p1|Qp.vn^,Fshs/,+rZn 1 o ns o tVn
bQ!s zÞXo@n xpVo@nò-,+s '* ô2nU,+rZn sQ6s ô¹ nn81t r-}* |9*/pVtV* tVnO
3 -s nU,+r.'* v},Fr.*/, zCÞ;oZn x>pGo@nò-,Fs '* ô2n'p_, s o %n v=z
¹usOtVtVs9v:p1vn,+rZnqF* s nyo@n%s |2ntVs o s n%vE¼ , s s@o@n1 tu!q<nòLp.v^,FrZ¼ n s *6ôEp.v1nes6¹!¹ 1 nn8qFs'¹[,6vC* 1 n :s s/q<,yvZs/,Ss * ¼ t.re,Fr.n8þ |~* 1 pVs6u!þ q
Ê; ÞÕ u@,+p_tVpJ,+p_n` ntVn8*OFn8o r ,+rZ@n nnqbQ6s ¹[,6v5* 2n Z/s uv.oZ*/,FpV6s v=z)'* v.oB,+rZ@n ø4.p vu s2Dn */,F.p vZ-<@<,Fn zdv:rZs2Fn
¹|* s n:pGf 1 s9v:1p v.;1 %n |2%n vH*OE Þ)¼ v 1 p_,F}n =E3 ÁC1 rZn:OsE*/tQvC1 *Od,Fs xsOQ 1 pVOrE,),FrZn5,Fn ¸ ,fUFse*O¸ ),+s 1 1 sO,Fn x>, s '6* u@s ,Fr.s 1 <rZpV
p_¼ .u@p ,Un ¸ 1 's n`¹DFt_Fn8t_2B*/*/tEtVnt_Ds9v> *6vQOs6*Ov..n'>n2,+O3 s ÁCo@rZpV<pGf, 1 v:p ¼ pVt_u@1t ¹u,FZnhtZ*6*/v.DoD
o ~¹us s 10 */s@t o@p1n8¹u O/s ,+ôErZpVnHZy,Fn6s ¸ ¹W,e<,+,F*Os .oZFZ* pJ,eoU,+o@rZpGn<p, 1 p s9v:Z,F%pVsOZ'ntVn`p oZ0p_,+v:*/,FpJ,+pVsOr.*
Q ¼Z1 1+ 1 1 1¼
¡N»
¡N fòùEâã²è`_ò°0^ f;<A°eeC
ZT.oZ*On Z1 W>ns2.Eo@ pVZ1 p_q2rE*H,X.pG0s/,Fv:pG>rZnUp ,FshFpV,+8r.*/*9tVt_,;!n,+wWn n`1+= ,n8sOo !ì ,FåSr. nñ p ý ¿ ä v5m 3+s Ý;ôWE2sO@Z,XnHFn2*On */þ t5>øIsOQpVQntV.Vn ¹[F, n8þ y,F*OrZt n8n8p 1*2o@ q1 n`n *9,+pVp_<2,8n'Wv5>s9s O1 n ô!pVFZp ^ ,F.r.t_ n
A.¼ ZneÁCtVnrZEnq*/tA W<sO,hpVE<,+.CSrpVTø4 pG1 >n`n8*9.,:<nAo@n>Þ',S*/*/pV.t3 Zt_pVn8o,Fs 71v5s ô%1 vC*O¼ ',Fr.n Ë 1 £tø Ë nZn *O3t 1 £\ tVpVU ¸ ø4pG>n8.<n71 6s ¹y,Fr.n
1 nnTbQs'¹[,6vC1 * 1 n@Zs2Z.oZ*/,FpVsO Ë ÊX>3LÁCr.n Ë £ø\I1rZs9v5n2n 1 IpG'pVE,Fn8.o@n8o,Fs}1 sOQQt_n%¹[¼ ,'vas 1 ô@es6¹y>s ZZ,Fn 1
pGF*/:s'.¹[ZD,6vCs/n`,;* * 1*2p_nOZ:Oh>*OtVv:.n8*ohp_,F1 r.*/*Ot_p_,F!CrZp_,+s2,;rZZ>n
OsOrH¹ .tVp_no,+n'\¼ Fp_Es'n,¹[,6¹u1 svCs@1 o@* .,+r.ne>*9,F>s,;s 1 *O'ZtGZ*/ZtV.pVZ8O*9p_.,6,F*OOpVsOO"In:ÞC3 pGS rZö¼ZsE1rZ<s2nen*2-s2o'ZsOn8ne,FZrZs'sOn ¹fZ1 ,F@2r.rHtVn8n +,Fys'F[D,Fs9r.nÒnL>n p_1 AD¡Xvaen8sF>p_1s22ô@E}fQ'stVb@Vn ¹ >¹[,pV,+nn .ø4¸ pG,8>nEn8pJ.ø4,S#FpG>n8v5n8 .s ¼ <1 nn2o@E.pVZ*/s
¡0bZødÞ C1 *25>sO,FQrZQnetVnVs ¹[ ,FpVZpV *Ot,FZrZs/pG1,+#pV,+nn ¹us,81:Þc 2.1 * 1 */s EHá ,Fn8n8>n8,8o^3 ,+r.*9,5ZsUpV.6, D=,Fs v5sO. tVo nXtVp p_,Fnò h*0,Fn ,CpV.< p_n8E,1
¹us 1 ,FrZn8þ p 1 ZnnòZQ*OyÞ)þ rD*Oo ¼ n¸nhv:p_,Frhn 1 1F1 s 1F?g1 pGoZo@n8',+n ¸ , ¼ sQs61 ô@E¹ 1 s 1 * á s 1¼ . ¼ tVpVFrZn 1 8¼ 3OÞó F¸ 1 nC,FrZpG ¼ sQs6ô
pVn>Tw s p_,+y,+;p_Z,Fp_s!,FpG*/FZ{t pJ¹u,0s 1F9 * pVv:*OEp_tV,tZ*/sOD,;o FpV*/.,Fo@pGKpVE¹upGo@n8.O*On t 1 2nsOZ.n2p ¼ n @,;nE*/,SQO
3 s2ZZns r.*O,+rZ5n ,+rZn n8O¹ 1pVZn8n8Zo@pVZs T <,F,FsDo@SnrDE*/,0Z2's nX¹\n8p_,8t_n`Z=tV,n2sOn .1 */pV82p_ ZtV n8*
v:pVZ r.¹us */1 ,02*9sO,F7pVsOI*OL3 aÁC¹ rZ1 n8s 1 4 Q]p ,+¹4rZ2pVsOh¼ sQ.s6*2ô F\4pJn`,Co@sOp_,FHpVZ,+!sL1 pJF,'Y s *2X1 ns22 ZsOnyn8¹utVnFn8nOtcEZOs2n81 hn8v:+Fp_* tVt1 ¼ -n;p1¹a22p_QsOpV7Ze>s ,+rZn nH*OF s1 sEFn>0,+*]rZp_..<1n%¹uZn>t#,<,+Zn pVn8,FnHr.*O1 s' ¹
v:r.*/*/Q1+,;. *OOts2E *OoZ1 n8o@pVZnpVeOn8s o4t3 n8o@Zp_s ,F1 pVZ,Fer.nU,+sep_DO6s2, 1 .>rZ,Fn`s * 1 ,s ó 1 # n8>t_s2n`2=,+, n1 Es2,8Z3EpV8ÁCCrZ ny1 's s2¹uZn8tV+ Fp_s28.¼ *9*/,StzSZ r ¹unn8pV=t #¹ ,F1 rZnpGn0%õ),+ shp1¹4.O<sO nUH,FZrZtGpG*/;^*2y,+s'¼ * o@1 pG%n 6¹u, n1 1p n.@,+nn
Os2 1^ s@o@p_A.nòOn 11 FpVsO6s ¹:,FrZpG^,Fn ¸1 ,`#Os21 D6,hOpVOnT 1 n8o@p_,Lv:þr.n 1 nT 1 þ nò@pJ,HpGôZZn%u,Fs nOc,+rZn!s 1 1 p_2¼ p_.*Ot
,FZ*/rDZn *9,F,arZ,;s v:S1 rDr.4*/sE*O@n8.,+OoBn n 1 *O>OQs9s2O2hsOn .O#n'pVO,+nn:rZtGFpG,+:n^rZnyv:,+r.sQn s2¸ n8F,#n+5,FsLp_ s@pVao@*~p_ADv5s * */ne1 ,Fn:o@pVsOn>s6.,S¹ */e,FpVrZt* 3 n81 nHp 1 >¹ s21 n82n8,So@*/spVZ n8o},+s'p_%Fp O s2pV tV* 1 1 tVO^n 1 FFr.p_s2* 1Dny=4*O*O..oho n8oZ2pJsO,a ,FrZ n;.,F<n ,e¸ ,`n3E.FÁC r.1 nn
¸ Þg, D6, 1 n nE1 ,FpVsO.n8o],F1 r.*/,X*/t_,Fr.sO Z21Ar ÞC6, pVOn0,+s */pV2,S*/pVq,+n8SrZ.pV8*/tI*2> *2>pV-*/tVt4's ¹),FrZpG sQ6s ô{ó
ôQ>s2p_tVEtG0,Fnv:E ,`pJ,+4rZ,FsOr.@n¼,U< ¼s9á 2n8sQ=8, *9 ,+p_s2*/4,<,Fn */1 .pGo% ¼Zo@1n8s2Fn*OoBOn`*/y.o%,+rZr.nh*1 @71 ,¼ s 1 sE 6, */n8QF}Dn`W=,`s/Q3 ,+nÞ0E,F6pG, */t#s2ZoZO*OtVZ!On n1 .81 3@sO î#tV*/n82>,nL1 pVn pJ,6D n p *Onp E¼ ,+e*/,F*OpV.sOo
sOntVn8>,F, rZnXpV'.<* rZ1 s@,a6s ô ¹Z,F1A rZn n2.1 n`n *Oo@Zn tV1s2FpV¼ sO@4,CDsOn>Z,+OtVH3v: y1 pJpV,+Orqr >Wp 1s9>vaZn p_,+a nDtVn8s9=v5, n 1 pG1 Un8op ¼ >hZp_ ,+ X*O<t_r.t 1 sO¼ Z*/tG,<o ,Fn 1 nLpVn8t_\n%¹[v:,yrZ,F1 n sq1 ny,FrZ,+nLrZ¸n 1 * n;1nepGa s'Z¹fs , 1 *OpV7 p_ô^Zn`'s o ¹
1sE's /s ¹uô n`1 FFp_n8s2* .*/*OtG8Q3¢ ÁCt_pGrZ1 * n^p_¡;tVpJ¸,6n` <pVO¹us }bZv:>r.pVn*/.,:pVjn yø4oZpGsO>Zn8n0.? <v:nLp_,F>r!tVn8*1pJ,S1 ytVT>s2<,+E1 */,F,Fnn8Ey,S,F1 3 r.*/,;Zn8pJ,+rZn 1 ÞC¼ Zs 1 */QTsOE, 1 p ¼ 1@,Fs 1 5,+1 s,+rZpV
¼ ¼ 1 ¼ 1
× £¤!( Ù!&d($L¥§¦qL¨ ¨©
F+xXD>ZpVn`nn->.p_AD6s nq ¹;n8,FpVr.oZ..n<,+*/¼ */Dn`,F>pV6sOn8,4]vCf's *~tG¹e* @^,+varZ,FpVs s7Z2ôBtV]n8pV* 'va1 ªs ,Fr.1 ôQrZnqpVs9Z,v«*2,+o@*/rZDpJ,+pVo¬Zp_s22.o@h*/n v5tV1 tVpV%sO1n *2ô2>pGnHn8Z@n,F,Fs1 n`*OotX¹us2O>t_tVs2n8s9Q.v«Z>tVn+.,+rZF¹usp_n-s2.p_D,F+ r.o@¹pV.1's=,6,+ Qp_2Dn ,+nTrZ*/s2s'Z¹yF n tV1 n8sEs * *O¼ SZ<=rn pVZ1 õT9D*9,Ff,+s*Op_s2tJs ,+.¼rZ8FsO¢3 n .1 OOÞr n
pVtVn8=,+ *OnQs ,F*2n <n`, HtVsQ* /s ¼ ô * n8¼ 1 *On oZp_o@1Zn`D< pVO*/.,Fn8rZo n ¼ 1®,Fr.n8*OoZq.,+s*/,F*/s tV1t_s9Hv,+s ,+rZ1 nUn8p_<Z ,F¹u.s o@1 n8En!,: ,F1 shpV.tVn81 p_* ZtVqn8qs2T 1 ,FnrZQn8p_ps2.s9Fv:t_]tV1n8,Fr* 1 .sO.n8oOr!,Fr *'1 ,sO..Ot_r
n ¸ Z ;tVs 1 *~1 *9Q,+pVZs 1 h1 H,S¸*/Z1 ¼s@2r2n8, +3 1 @Fn1t ¹ s21 <,X6s ¹#1 ,FrZn^ntVn8>, sOZpG;,FrD*9, ÞôQZs9ve{ Þ;*/Z 1 n`>pG*9,Fn',FrZ1 nHFn.Fn'6s1 ¹y¹ D6, */1,FpVsO
pV<Z,F.n o@Wn8En.,+ Fp_ 2nO*~@eZr.sO*~,:2nnaOpVn ^2,FsOn8Z*2SnXrZ r.pVZ*O5,+,FrZrZnn Fn8n*OtVO.n`5L s ¹ 1 1 s sO¢ .D¼ s sE/s ,+ô@ZZL3 p_,6Ýyht_,F,FrZshs2FZn>O,:rHZ!ntVn8*L>, tG1 *1 sOZs pG5*9>,+ss HWp_sOTZ,Fn8r.En,+pc* s91 v:n51 q,6QrZZ1 s pV8*/n`tVt_
*'s/¹cDoHn`¸ o@v:.rZ*/nH,FpVsO,+rZp_.¹ 2s #2sU*v1 o@1n`sOo@Z.0=,+,+p_rZ2nn'1 6nWó n cZ< WsUn8s2>Z,FpVn:O/n,+s'õ\1 ,+*On7 tVôtI¹u,+s rZ1 1 n'rZ<n8,Ft_.4o@3cn8¯-E,XsErZ6,\s9v°,Fn ¸ ,Fr., ¼ p_ZsQE6s ¼;ô@a* 1 <n'n8n F Z1 Z,FWs's2*OFn8ZoT 1 ,+1s2s*OSv5rLs ,Fr.ôWny.,F,+rZ*2n8^ ô
*,F/r..n Zt_T<n8,+t_rZ2s2n8F8nU3 ÁC 11 rZp_Dne >p_pVDZo@t_n`.y=,+,+p_sq2nUFD*/n`Z> p_ADsEU*O1 pVS.r4<Q,+*/*ODC>.n8F;Vn ¹u,F.rDtI*9,;*OC,+rZp_,ynLpV<8,FZDpGCo@nr.E* , oq ,F*~sHTA.s .1XoT pVT*~T,F1 rZZnesO, .*O¼ OnLn`*a¼ 6s t_¹fn'* ,FsqsQn ¸6s ô Z1 t_3 s 1 n ¼
ys9v5n2n 1 5,Fn ¸ , ¼ sQ6s ô@To@sO5 ó ,T1 r.*~On-,+s ¼ n},+rZpGqvC*~O3 Þo@pV+>1 s92n 1 n8o,Fr.pVTv:rZn8p Þ6,S* 1 ,Fnòª¼ ,Fst_n`* 1 ¬*
è`Z± Z±òUfe²LU³}´5ât±Qú8âaµaâ\²^¶c ¡NÖ
>n8s 1 */s9taQZpV>o@@p nL,Fn Z*/1 .pJ,S *Oe1 t_s2@,+ Fs n81 *:2 *Os6p_¹#Ò*OôQsOt_tVZt_n8,+s9oq*Ov:Ob n2tVn8£yDo@Þ>2R nh1Fîy1 p_nB3EÞg,:,8n8"t_pVn`C¹ =1 *U,n Y ,Fs2Zn Zn¸ pV.,8$?¼ Of*2 ><n>s n`,So/3NZZ@pVÝyn8,Ft_n ,FnXrZ6ss2F¹dpZOF'sZr ¹[tG,6*9.vC,Fs/pV* ,FsO1 r.7nyp_Zp_pGELq,+*OnpV .o@Y n n`ZohpJ,+>nLn8,+st_tV*2nyE,'Os@sQo@*Os@ntJ,+o t4n *2p .1 *9>¼.,+p_ZpJ2,SpVnOatGo@3*Op_..Þo
1tVn8* 1 ZpVZ1 'r.s9v,Fs^.FnX,+rZpGCDs9v5n 1 ¹uZtD,FsQsOtzZÞ 1 *Oo@ne*ô@ pGFs9On 11 {õ) bZ£Þ R î®sOZtGo ¼ n0¸ .Fn8ov:p_,Fr.p_!1 *U,+n ¸ , ¼ sQs6ô
,FvCs!*~O 1 n8,Fr.Fnn E,Un`>*Op o@1 >n Zp_,U><s2p Z tVoBZtGtV*9n8,+* p_s2B.X,FrZ,Fs-nh*/>tVs2tV.s9v>n8@6,+,+0.o@pV.n82o@,SD=,F,FpVs On8þ t_s ¼ Fn }1 OpVn Eþ ,Fn ,FrZ nhn>.,+rZp_Zn-Zs bZ £nÞ .R *î¹uó sX1 s2,+@rZ,Fn. @,SF0ntV*2O0n88va32n8ÁCt_t#rZ*2pV
o@*/Enò@*/pV.4=2,+,Fp_2rZnn81 tV®< rZ¼ s2B1 ZtGp_oE,Fn 1n0 * 1 n,Ft_n;pVZ1 ,F s^ Z. o@n n ¸ .<,+tV*O*O..oh*9,+rZp_s2s9.vª+>,+3 s'.. FnX1 ,Fp_rZ,5n ,F1F¼ rZ n s 1 nOFnItVp_O1 n`1 FEn npVZs9 QpVo@Zb pV£ZÞ 'R *LîW.n Fn8¹un8o%=,+s9t_2hn +1 Y* */¹un .oBn8s9*/ODn 1
s'¹fn Ýy¸ W.n s/1 ,Fp r. n n82*O,S*9o@,+9p_*/s2E],S¼ */s2Oqn,+¼ ,FrZs%np 1p_.s9v:t_DTo@p_.s 1 % Zs @,+n Z1 @C,+v:n pJ,+*/r-.>*Op t_1 @FZn8pJU,;pVFp * ZtG,F*9n ,+p_s2, .sQC/s 1s'ô¹d,FpVrZ'n8,Fp rZ1 nTs9v:n !Zo@1 p n`<pV8pVO*/4t53 On p_AD*/,FpVsO
p_<,0,+*9*2,+oZn oZ;nE,Fs],SL,F1 rZs2n^>¹|sO*ODpJ,+>r4n\Z,+, D 61,+n8p_ZFnBE,F,Fn`rDo*9,h3 öv:r.p_,F*9 r.,HsOr.@*2,e o@1 n nn8s2.6v , 1 */p_,<,F,FpVn8sO.8pGD^,Fp_rZD¸ n o@¼n1 n`n`*Ooo@*2n 1>pG t_*/%n ,F¹[nO,X3,+sÁC,+r.16* nTôOn' ,FsrZnHt_1 n */@,+rZv:s pJ1 ,+ór
¹|*/p_,FrII 's ¹:>s2 1 <n24pV,+r.*91,Up_,UpGesOZtV}*20OsQs@oB*2¼,FrZn*O@,F1rZs 1 p_,6-pV%v:r.pVSr7p_,UpV01 ZtG*On8o%*/.oB,+1 rZn¼ *O8 > 1 *O
's ¹ap_E,Fn 1 1 n,+*9,+p_s2-,Fr 1 s2ZOrBv:rZpVSrBpJ,epGZ.o@n 1 <,FsQs@o3 ÝyZ,FrZs 1 8t_.p ôOnH*/tVtfrQ */ ¼ npVZE4* 1 nLt_pG* ¼ tVnL,FsTn 1+1
,F*/r.Dn8n oD*O ~Zs <p_.n81 t_^2>n8s 6s yH¹d,F,+ r.rZ*/Zn0,XZ,FpGv:n */r.,y,F*/nTv:,;DpJ,F,+r.sQr!nLs 1 */tVsOOZ.3`,F rZösn1,Fp_n,Fo@rªn n8+o@* 1n p ¼ Zn`s2tVyn8.86pG3 ;, 1 pV*/.,Fo@pVsOn8.n8o!8c, rZ1 s9Zv5n23;n2¡Xn n1 d,+sOrZ.n <, 1 1 n`*9*O,+o@p_s2n .1 y8*O*/tV®Fsqp HFn 1 On8n0o@pG,F*9sT,+n>tVtG* 1 <]p ¹un8]n,F¹ur.s n1
bZ£Þ R î®pG:pV2, 1 s@¸ o@D>n8o]pV],+rZn 1 ¼ sEs/ôq¸ n`* 1 t_hs24.*/DoqrZs2Dn%¹uZtVt_]p_-*Ôn82,+t_n0n8ZsOZ2r!v5*~H,+r.*9,yp_,;o@sQn8F=ó ,
>1s2n8E*/,+,F*/nHpV.>0s2Z*/%¹u.Fs9p_Os2n 4j3 QpVZnvs 1 6s ,+¹CrZs2Zb F£n^Þ Rv:î·pVFrZv:pVZp_,FTr ,FsT*/t_n`Q* 1 n * s 1 ZnOt_nh*TSp r.>*/Z@p_,+,+8n 231 pVÁC}rZ,+n rZnn ÂyVn *~¹u n 1 nDn >nHs Os2n't_ {W *OnTFrEuOs2ut_ */.n rZûpV`
Z>p rZ1 pV>tVZs2p_F,XsOZFp rQ Z6s tV*/¹I,F,FpVr.sO1 pV! 1 sQsO6s ô1 * 2 n CpV-ZpGn>¸n8t_pG26,+3 n. nO ¼ @,¸ bZ£ Þ R îªpV1 ¹ 1 n8nOW*hQp 1 ,F1ZnU s Z¼ tVn nE,+1 p_Z,FrZn'SrD* 1 1 pJ,S* ¼ tVn
¼ 1
+ §Û#¸]¹!$;º¼»>( «X¬L(;½¾(;¹H¿)&
)p <,8' Þ)v:pVFrL,Fs,Fr.*O ô Uv:]p ¹un2Ov:rZsE<nC.*/,FpVn.n:o@ 1 p_Z,+rZs2Fn *OQU*/.o^tVsOZn2nZpVZ2C*/.o^v5n%n ô2n.o.¢À
's ¹)1 ,6QZpVZHr.*O ¼ nn8Tn ¸ , 1 */s 1 o@pV.* 1 O3
o@F's n`¹[*~,6OÞ;vCs *O* 1 tVFnX*/s]tV.tCv:F,Fn8pGr.Foqr}n ,Fs,+ s]s ,+1 6*r.n-ôO*/n*9"w ô-,FsrZ,F1 pGrZoZ sE* <¼ sQn^t_6sn!v:ô */ZrZD*/sEo®.<nHoqZsOtV,Fn8Wr.*2nn < ? n`1 F*<sOW¼ n8t_1 n2>>H3,Fn^pVO<ÁCn0s6rZ¹[ ,6Un v5sO¹u* s21 t_n^tV* s9o@v:np_2.nnBtVsO pG hõ *%n82t_pG,06,hn>w 6s s¹1 9,+*01 rDpVsO*~.OQ n ¹ 1 n*2n!o@n^>s ,F rZpGZ0Zn,Fn 1?
1 ¼ 1 1 1 H 1
ÌEÁc Â-Ã.n Ä s2Ei .¾ "k a÷O,FÅ s xXWnnE1 ,+*9p_s2,FpV4Z3 ]b@Q<,Fn U ø4pVQ. Áds 1 9*/tGoZ{ Â:pGSr.* 1 o bE,S*/tVt */IW*O.o *hrZsE6,'s ¹cs/,+rZn 1 :,+sQs
1
Ì«Æ ¾ é§,Fn ¸ ,yn8o@p_,Fs 1 A ¶ 1 * ¯ sEs2t_n8.*O* 1 */.o]s/,+rZn 1 3
ÌjÇ ì ¾ À ì ÷ ¾ m o 1 '* ¹[,FpVZH 1 s2 1 * ÁCp î\oZv5* 1 oZ83
Ì ð@ÈcÉ/Ê l p 1 >Zp_,y n8E8, ¹us 1+ */,<,+p_ZhF@6,+n qÍ 1 nn'b@'s ¹[,6vC* 1 nÍ.sOZ.o.*9,FpVsOI3
Ì øÏÎ Á î o@s@> nE8, ¹us 1F *9,F,FpVZh<@<,Fn ø4n`<tVp_
n ød* Ds 1 ,y*O.oqsO,FrZn 1 83
ÌÁ ¾ é p *OOn */ZpVZZtG*9,+p_s2] 1 s2 1 * h,FsQs */Qq>s2E, 1 p ¼ Z,Fs 1 5,Fs nE,+p_s243
Ð N2Ñ f òùX¶Eâã²è`Z±_òXÒ0^C¶¶f;<]ÒeeC
Ô kW}Õ'Ýyný ñtV.n8j =¾Gj,1 n`,+s2>*OZpG*9ZpG,+Op_0rEs2,h6,+pV.Co@n */pVn8tG FesUs pV.n1 nT¸ t_,F.*n8oZ.¼ nLo@s2@n`,+oh,HrZn ,FnstVn8Â:=, Ð s 1 ¼pGqn n81 o@,3p p_1 ,Fø\>pVsO.3Z7pJ¶a,S's9s'Q¹ ,+tVr.n8*/<,+Ö*2o*/OQv:7ÕOrZÓs/sE,+åW<rZn;Û'n 21A ÜL1 ¼ 6Õ9,5sEk s/n8ÓOô o@Ý 3p_å,FåIpVêsOx;)],FÞ5rZs'n n¹d1 É .kp * m ÀDo å8sÓ'Ë ÷1 ,Sì>*/ms EåY,LÀ ó ñTe,+n ÊF¸ n8¾ ,+>À ^s2ì ÷.pV¾o m
n8oZpJ,+p_s2Ts61 ¹fÉ k m À7å8Ó'÷ ì>m ¾ å9k m åLl3ý ¿ ì>m À7å/k ¾ ì M8j × É=×Z*/DoTÍ.s 1+1 n`6,:Ì ¯-Ø ¿p ÙG% Ú ó lCkE¾ ß ¾ k ¿¿ ÀZà j Â å m ¿ Ý å<åê 1 3 1 1 ¼
ÁCr.*Oô@#,+sU,Fr.n<,+*/w!s6¹4,Fr.nÞ5ntVtVp_Z2r.* Ý;2,+p ZnÂy*2o@p_s^¯-.Fn @v:rZsLvan nXOn8Zn sO.\nZs2ZOr,Fs^t_n,
n0Þ4,Fn v:1F1pG<s rL1 p ,Fí sen;F,+DrZn`n>p 1p_ADn8<*O,+t_* tV0¼ tV,FpVrDFr */ ôUnEá2,yn>w v:1 p_n8,Fr î# t.ôQqZ8n * 1 */nDY 1 oL*^*O*/t_.tE,Fo]r.{Ds2F*2n5<rT*/L, Zà#Zp_s ,81 3 ôE,+s9v:'âypVO1 rhb@SrZsQsO1 Bt ¹us L1 ¼ npVZ0v:pVt_tVp_.
,Fp_,+sHNrZ¹ussE6, *O .oB¼ sQs6sOôE,F*2n8CE,8.32* 1 ÁC,Cr.s'*/¹I ,+ô@rZenp *O1 tVFxXsqW,+ns-]¡XÞ5*~sQQs6pGôo%ã bQ1 v5s ná n8n>,,8[@ä@*/åQ.å2oqæC,FçFs èQè/ éE*'éQô2éCn;ê<ëO,+ì@rZí@n0ë~A îW1 ïE6ï2,Cð@n>ë\w ês ï21 ñQ,:òQp_!5*O>.s2oB2, Þ51 p ¼n8 @,+Rp_.'s9v ,+s
nv:tVtapGo@un ä@1+åE *OåE.æCo@çFpVèQnè9.éQéQn0éC÷usêFóZô~,FòEr.ä@neåZsOë/Zì@tVí9p_.îDnë2åQ2å@n õO<ñapVsOêSö9]ï~s/î ÷)d,F÷urZs 1pG: øW1 sQs9s6Eô pGo@3 pVZhnD>sO 1 *OOn n82,`.>s2.<, 1 .=,+p_2nU 1 pJ,+pVpV D*/D1 o-* ?
C
ù 1 r.*O ô@;,+s ¯-pGS1 r.*/n8t\bE,F@, í ÷us 1 1 o 1 *9÷[,+p_.Tr.pVU¡Xn8FpVOb@>pVn.+n ø4pG>nD<n2d*/Do ,+as Â:pVSrD* 1 oBbE,S*/tVt */%÷us 1
ZpVsOZøIn8*2n 61 ,Cp_.øZL@,+,rZ>nen >,+s2*O.p_.>n8t_h@,yZs/sO÷f,y>t_n`sO*OQ<Q,8tV n>÷[,83 */Qh,+r.*/"ôQ5,+s .* n8E,+:*/Do,+rZs2Fn,Fn8*2SrZn 5s/÷ pVZnev:rZsh+*~vpV
pV2,+nLntV*t_nòZ=n8,+.Fp */1 tIne*2,Fo@sqO1 t_n8nÈ* ,F1 1 nO*/L3 øWÞasO@r.,;sOZn8t_s n`1 =, 21 sOpG>Tp_,6øQOq */rZ.n8o t_ZpVv:ZrZH@s s/ôQ,+rZp_Dn o@1 :t_n`*Oo!C1 ,F2rDsO*9T,yr.{D*~* O nn'rZpVn82t_,+Wsqn8o *h .*2nOF3 F1 pVsO!÷u s 1 o@pGFs9On 1 q*O.o
ùdsOQË0ZZr.*OtVo@,8.á2ZtV]ú N2NZM

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O.pVo@n8t_pVZn`:*O5÷us 1 *OQs/,+rZn 1 sOQ 1 pVOrE,Fnòv5s 1 3fâ;n 1 n0pV:*H+* ZtVn0÷ 1 s ,FrZnU¡Xn8FpVO-b@>pVn.n4pG>n8.<n
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Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - Ac

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ÄÃ´··F´µH¤= } F | } |·Úr§|Ã | Ú¬¥| ¬¥r­«|«´­¬¥0â ày|éD  àã Ü ¦ Ç ÞL[¬¥| } |

À  | } ­¬® /F|·s¤! /¹F§ } FF /¬¥|F } |° ¹µ 9F/ | r¥¤! 

(DC) Generator operation

¡FµC ¸¼Û²  ¥|!  ¥|%²C% } E¤ } F ¡§ |¡ ´­¬¥.¹VéDné¢)¤âäã(­éCnâæ­ã´¬¥ ´

 ¤¯¡´F |§|¢³ }  }  ¤;£FF¤¯F¡²||F°||·# # 0¹F§ Ú¥­¬¥0¤¯ ¡  

Speed multiplication geartrain

high torque + low torque

¼p¤; V¬¥||§0F |s|«F¹F Ã sF­« ²F|¡#  } |!«F°F r°F_  } F } |g

Speed reduction geartrain

low torque + high torque

}   F´¡#k©rÙ|´  FF Ü Þ#FF§º Ù |¡#F ¬¥||§ ¤£+ µr·¤¯ ¡s  }  ­F

mKn Ê t ËPq,Ì0z|Í$ÎK{~ÏÐu

»XÃ   ¥  }  ¸ Ç ¹F§3F/¹¢µ§/ ¬¥|¢ } °r |·s­¹ |¡«3H#|Ã

Graph of AC voltage over time

V  Ã¬¥3Ã }  F¡ } | } ¢FF­FH F |Æn¬k¹ ¸ Ç | V v V33 | } «¤

one wave cycle

Note Musical designation Frequency (in hertz)

¤¡||/¡V | } =¡¡| } Ü 37ÆpFk´Æp¡²7Æn¤ÆÛ ÆpÆgFÆp3kÞ Ú? sF¡   |¡²¡µ|»º

one wave cycle one wave cycle

²¬9k¹7¤¯ ¡#H ²3Ã0¡²«FÃ3|¤E¬k¹¤¯F¡«|_7¶|·F } ² "¡  |¡

3¨ ¤H¬9K3­¬ËF­ ¸ Ç ¹F§K¢FF­F°|F|¢·Úr ¸ Ç } F ´«   °|_|  }  |H» 

10 V more heat energy

(same load resistance)

10 V less heat energy

¸ 3H¤¡||¬¥|¢Fv¡ v¬3¬9F´|§Vç´|¡´¥´­¬°E¬¥°£Fk¬ v«Ý·|§´ k¬  

(analogous to DC) (analogous to AC)

²F¡ü¤E F´|§v 0 } F|V  } §|§ç´F|¢F| ¤ ¸ Ç ¹F§K } F  | v |§

Ê | } FFÝ·|§Fk¬ùFk¬ |7Æp3´Æp |=ç´|¬¥| P|´ | }  Ü  ¡² 3F | } C

RMS = 0.707 (Peak)

RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

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Waveforms Phase relations Vector representations

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