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A contemporary review of tourism degrees in

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A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

University of Plymouth , United Kingdom

Published online: 20 Dec 2006.

To cite this article: Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel (2001) A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the United
Kingdom, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 53:4, 501-522, DOI: 10.1080/13636820100200174
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Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 53, Number 4, 2001

A Contemporary Review of Tourism

Degrees in the United Kingdom

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GRAHAM BUSBY & DANIELA FIEDEL

University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT This study examines the provision of United Kingdom

undergraduate degree courses in tourism. A review of the literature
revealed a number of issues impacting upon the content and structure of
undergraduate degree courses. In order to investigate the vocational focus
of such courses, content analysis of the undergraduate prospectuses of the
degree courses with tourism in their title was undertaken in order to reveal
the subject orientation and to identify the validity of Silver and Brennans
typology of courseemployment relationships. The findings show that there
are many issues of concern with regard to the content and delivery of
programmes, as well as the development of tourism as an area of study.
Moreover, the content analysis results reveal that, indeed, the vast majority
of courses have a pronounced vocational focus.

Introduction
In the United Kingdom, tourism undergraduate provision has been
developing against a background of steady growth in the service sector, a
significant increase in the recognition and importance of tourism, and an
appreciation that a vocationally trained workforce is a key element in
maintaining competitive advantage. Higher education institutions (HEIs)
have been keen to offer such courses because they attract significant
numbers of applicants and are relatively cheap to resource (Busby, 2001);
the first degrees were launched in 1986, increased by more than tenfold
between then and 1991 (Cooper et al, 1994) and, according to the
Universities and Colleges Admissions Services web-site, there are 80
institutions offering degrees with tourism in their title for entry in 2001.
Interestingly, whilst four old (pre-1992) universities offered tourism
degrees for entry in 1999 (Busby, 2001), this has risen to eight for 2001
entry. This article reviews the literature and issues pertaining to tourism

501

Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

degrees and then sets this in the context of a content analysis of

institutional prospectuses.
In 1995, the National Liaison Group for Higher Education in Tourism
(NLG) initiated a survey after having undertaken an earlier survey, Profile
of Tourism Studies degree Courses in the United Kingdom: 1993 (Middleton
& Ladkin, 1996). The 1993 study was, itself, a logical successor of the first
study of its kind undertaken in 1991/92 in connection with the former
Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) Review of Tourism Studies
Degrees (CNAA, 1993). The issue of academic rigour is one of the
concerns which has been raised and, according to Airey (1997), there is
some suspicion that the rapid growth in courses has been in the form of
popular programmes that may not only lack rigour, but are often
considered superficial and unchallenging. Consequently, the effective
design of teaching and learning is important in ensuring rigour and, not
surprisingly, HM Inspectorate (1992) has commented on well-designed
programmes, which are vocationally relevant, provide a good balance of
theory and practice and offer the students adequate academic challenge
(Airey, 1999).

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Course Content
The content of tourism courses is a constant subject for debate.
Middleton & Ladkin (1996) have commented that a key issue for tourism
studies over the next few years is likely to focus on how far the subject
cannot only retain but also develop its coherence against powerful
pressures for diversification and fragmentation. One particular pressure
stems from the recent growth in interest in the subject by academics
from a range of disciplines and backgrounds. In a new area of study, in
which the boundaries and content have not had sufficient time to become
established, there has been a tendency for academics to come forward
with their own definitions, concepts and approaches (Airey, 1997).
Cooper et al (1992) and Wells (1996), for instance, state that a tourism
programme usually takes the character of the particular expertise of its
faculty, whilst Koh (1994) comments that many tourism curricula were, in
fact, designed by educators with little or no representation from the
industry.
This may create considerable difficulties if, as the CNAA (1993) puts
it, tourism is simply allowed to mean what academics want it to mean.
The absence of a clear common agreement about the meaning of tourism
may lead to confusion on the part of applicants for courses, students and
potential employers (Cook & Yale, 1992) and it is within this context that
Koh (1994) insists if tourism hopes to gain professional recognition,
curriculum diversity cannot be allowed to continue as professionalism
demands standardisation. More importantly, without an agreed common
core or body of knowledge, opportunities for tourism to continue its
502

A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

development as a robust and coherent area of study would be limited

(Airey, 1997).

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The Development of a Core Curriculum

In recognition of these difficulties, an important development in tourism
education in the 1990s has been the attention given to establishing a
common core. Initially, in the United Kingdom, the content of the first
tourism courses was strongly influenced by the contents of an early and
influential book by Burkart & Medlik (1974; Airey & Johnson, 1999). Since
then, there have been two distinct developments in the movement
towards a core curriculum for tourism. First, there has been an attempt at
the codification of the content. In 1981, the United Kingdom Tourism
Society set out its own body of knowledge. These headings were further
developed by Middleton in a report prepared for the CNAA (1993), and
refined and published in a discussion document by the NLG (Holloway,
1995). As Airey & Johnson (1999) have very comprehensively detailed the
suggested core curriculum, emanating from three separate initiatives, this
will not be discussed here; however, it is salient to note that the NLG core
body of knowledge was neither meant to be prescriptive in that all
courses have to include these headings nor restrictive in that courses
cannot contain other topics.
Many tourism educators deny the practicality or desirability of a
core curriculum (Swarbrooke, 1995; Cooper et al, 1996). Whilst some
argue that diversity is the key to the future, others believe a core
curriculum allows comparison, and could provide a means of recognition
and reference to academics from other disciplines, employers and
prospective students about what the subject comprises. Baum (1997), for
instance, criticises a common core on the grounds that it would not only
weaken the development of tourism as an area of study by reducing
variety, hindering flexibility and stifling innovation, but also infringe upon
a courses ability to meet the employment requirements of a diverse
industry.
Moreover, Tribes (1999) view, shared by Gunn (1998), that tourism
cannot be regarded as a discipline, led him to comment that the NLG core
articulates key aspects of a vocational tourism curriculum yet omits the
ethical elements of tourism and disciplinary, non-business approaches,
thereby neglecting a significant area of the possible curriculum for
tourism. Tribe (1997) suggests that the study of tourism comprises two
distinct fields. Whilst one part seems to be crystallising around the
interdisciplinary business approach, providing coherence and structure,
the other, non-business field, including areas such as social and
environmental impacts, does not have a unifying framework other than
being linked with tourism.

503

Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

On the other hand, Jaspers (1987), as well as Middleton & Airey

(1997), argue that it is the diversity of tourism that makes it important to
define a common ground, and context if the subject is to develop
coherently and gain academic credibility. They make the case that a
common core implies agreement on the subjects foundations, capable of
development and refinement as new knowledge emerges. Wells (1996)
comments that a minimum core curriculum is the key to legitimacy and
integrity with regard to the tourism curriculum.

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The Quality Assurance Agencys Benchmarks

Recent developments have shed a new light on the debate about the core
curriculum. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA),
an independent body providing a unified quality assurance service to
higher education institutions, has been given a major role in future
quality assurance arrangements by the recommendations of the National
Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (NCIHE; Dearing Report, 1997;
QAA, 1999). The QAA has drawn up Unit 25 benchmark statements for
degree programmes in Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism (Hayes,
1999; QAA, 2000a); a draft benchmark statement for those subject areas
was published, in January 2000, as a result of five subject associations
working together. These are the British Association of Sport and Exercise
Sciences, the Council for Hospitality Management Education, the Leisure
Studies Association, the National Liaison Group for Higher Education in
Tourism and the United Kingdom Standing Conference for Leisure,
Recreation and Sport.
The aim, according to Clare (1998), is to alleviate recent concerns
about variations in academic standards by enabling institutions to
compare their standards in a more systematic way. Moreover, the
development of subject-based benchmarked academic standards
endeavours to inform the public at large about the nature of higher
education awards, and to guide intending students, employers and others
about the range of provision and the standards that might be expected of
graduates in subject/discipline areas (QAA, 1998, 2000b; Hayes, 1999,
personal communication). In addition, benchmarked standards provide
institutions with a framework for developing and specifying the intended
learning outcomes of programmes, and assist QAA reviewers with a point
of reference for judging the appropriateness of standards.
The benchmarking has developed a set of generic statements that
can be applied to all graduates from programmes of study relevant to
Unit 25. Moreover, in recognition of the distinctive nature of each of the
subject areas within the Unit, sets of subject-specific guidelines have
been developed to maintain discrete features (QAA, 2000a). However,
Harris (2000) in the foreword to the draft document emphasises that the
benchmark group has taken care to avoid prescribing a national
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A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

curriculum. Rather, it has developed a series of statements which

provides a set of guidelines to support course teams in curriculum
development, inform students about the nature of programmes and guide
subject reviewers in their work. The benchmark strives to provide
sufficient flexibility in order to facilitate the design and provision of
programmes of study and to avoid stifling curricular diversity (Clare,
1998; QAA, 2000a).
The QAAs learning outcomes for tourism concentrate on the
following four key areas:
the concepts and characteristics of tourism;
the products, structure of and interactions in the industry;
the role of tourism in the communities and environments that it
affects;
the nature and characteristics of tourists.

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The strength of this approach being, according to Tribe (1999), that these
outcomes would constitute a more balanced curriculum avoiding the
narrow confines of vocationalism by giving due weight to disciplinary
knowledge, communities and environments.
The Non-tourism Specific Skills and Knowledge of a Graduate
While there is concern for employment directly into tourism as well as
the annual output of graduates exceeding the number of employment
opportunities available (Airey, 1999; Middleton, 1997), tourism courses
appear to be successful in preparing students more generally for
employment. The idea of transferable skills has been developed as a
response to both the danger of oversupply of graduates and the desire of
some graduates to seek employment in other industries. Transferable
skills, as their name suggests, are concerned with the development of
those abilities that can be applied in other industries. Although the
purpose of tourism education is not to provide precise skills and
knowledge, often better provided on the job, it should assist in
developing the ability to think and to learn and, as part of this,
transferable knowledge and skills appropriate for a range of employment
opportunities are highly important (Airey, 1999).
In fact, many tourism employers stress that key criteria for selecting
graduates are general intellect and personality rather than degree subject
(Watson, 1992; Busby et al, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997). Swarbrooke
(1995) emphasises the importance of including modules or parts of
modules that assist students in developing their personal skills such as
communication, social and information technology skills.
It is within the context of the new benchmarks that the QAA (2000a)
points out that, although each institution will remain free to decide on the
content, nature and organisation of its degree programmes, and its
505

Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

constituent models, curriculum designers are expected to ensure that a

certain generic knowledge base, as well as intellectual skills such as
critical assessment, evaluation of evidence and the description and
analysis of information underpin all programmes. Furthermore, the
development of key skills is to include, amongst others, problem-solving,
interactive and group skills.

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The Impact of Changes in the Tourism Industry

While tourism programmes have grown in size and number over the past
three decades, the tourism industry has expanded rapidly and changed
substantially over the same period of time. This has resulted in a strong
argument for incorporating recent changes and developments
experienced by the tourism industry in the study of tourism. Buhalis
(1998), for instance, argues that the issues of sustainability, global
concentration especially in the light of such developments as Airtours
acquisition of TSI, the worlds largest cruise distributor which also owns
several online travel brands (Page et al, 2001) and information
technology, as well as trends in demand should be addressed in all
modules taught in order to prepare graduates for the major trends
emerging in the market place. Increasingly, traditional economics,
marketing and management modules provide insufficient skills for
tourism graduates; emphasising the importance of resource management,
as well as the significance of industry trends will assist future
professionals in developing their skills thereby achieving competitive
advantage (Buhalis, 1998; Gamble, 1992).
Within this context, Yale & Cook (1995) state that, given a changing
world and an evolving industry, tourism educators must step back and
evaluate the existing curriculum in relation to the future needs of their
customers students and their likely employers in the industry. Also,
Brunt (1999, personal communication) emphasises that in order to foster
students awareness of the industry, courses and staff need to continually
update and be sensitive to new issues and legislation, while Swarbrooke
(1994) stresses that changes in the tourism market, particularly the
development of new tourism products, require reassessment of the future
role of tourism education.
Similarly, given the fact that tourism programmes typically feature
curricula focused on those skills perceived to be indispensable for
professional success, the skills necessary for any profession will alter
with changing conditions in specific industries and need to be revised
accordingly (Yale & Cook, 1995).

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A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

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Higher Education and Tourism Industry Links

A major theme in education in the United Kingdom over the past decade
has been calls for a closer partnership between education and industry.
Educational institutions have been encouraged to work more closely with
industry in a variety of ways, for instance by having industry
representatives on course planning groups, as external examiners, in the
management of work placements and using live projects from industry
as student projects or case studies (Airey, 1995; Swarbrooke, 1995).
However, despite a move to work more closely together to represent a
collective interest and to exchange ideas and information, it might be
argued that the emphasis in many such partnerships has been more on
the industrys influence on education than vice-versa.
Moreover, Botterill (1996) points out that relationships between any
sector of industry and higher education institutions seeking to educate
students for and about the industry, are bound to generate a tension of
interests. Haywood & Maki (1992), as well as Young (1990), for instance,
recognise gaps in communication due to poor levels of collaboration, lack
of involvement of educators in the industry and the industrys role in
education being poorly defined. Young (1990) even goes on to say that
industry apathy may be recognised as a major obstacle to closer links
between industry and academics. These underlying conflicts and issues
cloud the view of industry needs for education in tourism and its benefits
(Swarbrooke, 1994; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997).
Nevertheless, according to Cooper (1997), there is a vast range of
possible teaching-learning methods available and tourism is particularly
well suited to these techniques that expose the student to the complexity
and inter-relationships of the sector. Case studies, visits, guest speakers
and practical, in-company training are examples of these approaches and
it is within this context, that Laws (1997) describes frequent contact with
management in the industry as essential to ensure that the approach
taken to tourism teaching remains up-to-date. Other possible areas of cooperation include staff exchange and collaboration, industry advisory
panels, graduate recruitment, research and consultancy, as well as
student projects (Botterill, 1996).
Most importantly, with the strongest support coming from
universities and colleges that emphasise vocational higher education, the
study of tourism often requires periods of work placements. These are
widely recognised as playing a valuable role in tourism courses
promoting good relations between universities and employers and
assisting in securing future employment (Busby et al, 1997; Cave, 1997;
Cooper, 1997; Middleton & Ladkin, 1996). Moreover, Cross (1998), citing
Laws (1998) emphasises placements as a method of learning through
experience. In addition, research by Busby (2002), over the last 5 years,

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

shows that students gain in self-confidence and acquire more enthusiasm

for their subjects during the placement.
Generally, Cooper et al (1994) believe that what is needed is vision,
commitment and mutual respect on both the part of industry and
education. If education is to underpin a profitable tourism industry,
where the key position of human resource development is recognised,
then stronger partnerships, better communication and a joint drive for
quality tourism education, training and products is required. Some of the
potential advantages for academia and the industry from closer links are
given in Table I.
Education

Industry

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to improve tourism educations

credibility in the eyes of the
tourism industry
to meet industry needs
to improve employment
opportunities for graduates
to gain industry input into course
development
to develop a teaching resource
base
to enable academics to keep upto-date with industry
developments

to exercise some supervision over

the industry relevance of courses
as a means of continuing industry
development and change
for recruitment purposes
to sustain the success of the
industry
access to academic research

Table I. The potential advantages for education and the industry resulting from
close links. Adapted from Young (1991).

Methodology
The Undergraduate Prospectus Content Analysis
This entailed a content analysis of the prospectus entries for all the
known United Kingdom undergraduate degree courses that include
tourism in their title in order to assess the extent to which they might be
considered vocational and to assess the validity of Silver & Brennans
(1988) typology of course-employment relationships. Before proceeding
to document the approach taken to the analysis, it is essential to provide
an outline of this typology; it is based on the view that vocationalism in
higher education varies considerably in terms of directness and
specificity. In this context, the authors identify the uses of degree
qualifications to regulate employment, reflecting declining determinacy in
the employment outcomes of a course. Table II illustrates the uses of
degree qualifications according to Silver & Brennan (1988).
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A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

(i) A specified degree as

sole regulator

(a) Output matches employer demand: entry to

specific field of employment regulated by
specified degree qualification; numbers in
training controlled effectively; specified
degree necessary/sufficient to gain entry
(b) Imbalance between output and demand: entry
requires specific degree qualification;
numbers in training not controlled effectively
hence shortage or oversupply possible;
possession of degree necessary but may not
be sufficient to gain entry

(ii) A specified degree as

partial regulator

(a) Output matches employer demand: entry can

be achieved by various routes, some of which
require specified degree qualification;
numbers in training controlled effectively;
though not necessary, specified degree is
sufficient
(b) Imbalance between output and demand: if
numbers in training not controlled effectively,
possession of degree neither necessary nor
sufficient to gain entry

(iii) An unspecified
degree

(a) In graduate labour market: unspecified degree

is requirement for entry; as numbers cannot
be controlled, possession of degree
necessary but not sufficient to gain entry
(b) In non-graduate labour market: degree
qualification not required; it might be of
considerable market value in securing
employment but market is not fixed in
favour of graduates

Table II. Uses of degree qualifications to regulate employment. Adapted from

Silver & Brennan (1988).

Therefore, although vocational objectives are typified in all categories,

courses in (i) and (ii) seek to prepare students for specific employment,
while courses in (iii) are concerned with more general and transferable
knowledge and skills. In addition, higher educations contribution to
training for employment will vary in scope and significance and in the
employer recognition attached to it. Silver & Brennan (1988) distinguish
between:
Complete: initial occupational preparation completed. The graduate is
fully qualified to practise.

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

Part complete: initial occupational preparation partly completed. Further

training is required, but graduate may be exempt from full training
programme.
Necessary base: a necessary educational base for training. Subsequent
training assumes the base of a specified degree.
Optional base: an optional educational base for training. Employment
relevance is claimed, but subsequent training does not presuppose it.
Non-relevant: No explicit employment relevance is claimed.

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Moreover, underlying the regulation of entry and occupational training is

a consideration of the employment outcomes from a course. A courses
relationship to employment may be specific or diffuse and will vary in the
nature and degree of selection and training undertaken. Table III provides
a brief description of the resulting degree types.
Type
A

Graduates have no difficulties in securing jobs for which they

have been prepared in higher education, they present the only
source of manpower to the employer
Employers may be highly involved in course design and
operation
Many courses of this type contain substantial periods of work
experience
Academic staff teaching on such courses have substantial
professional experience
The students occupational choice has taken place before entry
to higher education; there is a high level of commitment to the
vocational objectives of the course
Example: medicine, pharmacy

Type
B

These courses share the initial occupational preparation of

graduates either with postgraduate education or in-company
training schemes
The degree is not a licence to practise
Not all of the teaching staff are professionally qualified
There may be less emphasis on work experience
Employers are less involved and prescriptive about the content
of courses
Example: engineering

510

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A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

Type
C

Many teachers are not professionally qualified/experienced and

relate primarily to academic research rather than professional
work culture
Students motivations vary and students are likely to develop in
different directions
Often, graduates are retained in higher education, taking
research degrees
Employer interest in and professional regulation of the
curriculum is minimal as higher education primarily performs a
selection rather than training function
Example: psychology

Type
D

These courses share most characteristics of those in type A,

however, selection and training are shared with other entry
routes (e.g. non-graduate entry, professional training) and some
of these may be associated with and/or monopolised by leading
employers
As courses have no monopoly over selection, employers
may be less interested and involved in course design
Example: education, physiotherapy

Type
E

Courses of this type represent decreasing value to students

They provide a route to a specific job but training is not
complete and there are other, possibly more desirable, routes to
the same occupation
Employer involvement in and professional control over course
design are variable
Example: accountancy, law

Type
F

These courses are likely to be associated with expanding

occupations undergoing rapid professionalisation
There may be no professionally qualified teachers and
professional considerations are not significant in the design and
delivery of the course
The professional field and academic area share a common
subject matter yet perspectives are likely to differ
Courses are attractive to students with weak vocational interests
as they commit them to little but provide useful information on
which to base subsequent career decisions
Example: social science

511

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

Type
G

Curricula are devised in relation to perceived employment needs

Although graduates enter an open employment market, such
courses aim to equip the student to compete in that market,
transmitting knowledge and developing skills that are
transferable
Students often select these courses out of general, ill-defined
vocational concerns
It has been suggested that where employers are able to recruit in
an open market, they are more interested in individual attributes
than type of course
Graduates are not tied to market demand in a specific field but
are equipped, in terms of knowledge, skills and disposition, to be
mobile in various employment contexts
Example: business studies, computing, public administration

Type
H

Graduates from these courses may possess many characteristics

which are of value to employers yet curricula are not designed
primarily in relation to employment needs
Students are not attracted to this type of course from vocational
motivations
Expansion of higher education has outpaced growth in this
market and an unknown number of graduates compete for jobs in
an open (non-graduate) labour market
Transition from higher education to employment may be difficult
Example: humanities, pure science

Table III. Silver & Brennan (1988) degree types. Adapted from Silver & Brennan
(1988).

Content Analysis
Despite Bergs (1998) reasoning that content analysis may be used
effectively in qualitative analysis with counts of textual elements merely
providing a means for identifying, organising, indexing and retrieving
data, many researchers consider it an essentially quantitative process
(Abercrombie et al, 1988, cited in Bell, 1993; Berelson, 1952, cited in Berg,
1998; Silverman, 1997). Broadly defined, content analysis describes any
technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively
identifying specified characteristics in a given set of communications
through the classification and evaluation of selected words, themes,
concepts or icons (Carney, 1972; Krippendorff, 1980; Wheeler, 1989).
Content analysis, which has been applied successfully in hospitality
research (Manickas & Shea, 1997; Bowen & Sparks, 1998), was also the
method chosen by Airey & Johnson (1999) for their study of the content
of tourism degree courses in 1997 and due acknowledgement is made to
the latter research.

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A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

Having decided on an approach using Silver & Brennans typology,

this pointed to a somewhat modified process of analysis, since not only
would the analysis yield counts of textual elements, but it would also
assign each entry to one of the Silver & Brennan types AH. A search of
all undergraduate tourism degree courses in the United Kingdom was
performed by means of the UCAS Undergraduate Course Search (using the
version updated on 30 March 2000), available on the Internet. The search
yielded an initial 578 listed courses offered by 73 institutions across the
United Kingdom. Each of these institutions was contacted and an
undergraduate prospectus requested. On closer examination of all 73
prospectuses it became clear, however, that only a certain number of
descriptive course entries would lend themselves to full investigation;
112 entries provided by 66 institutions remained.

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Classification of Content
Abercrombie et al (1988) cited in Bell (1993), as well as Moser & Kalton
(1971), ascertain that content analysis involves the classification of
contents in such a way as to bring out their basic structure. The objective
analysis of messages conveyed in a given set of data is accomplished by
means of explicit rules or criteria of selection, which must be established
before the analytical process (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996).
These should reflect all relevant aspects of the messages, be sufficiently
exhaustive to account for each variation of message content, and must be
rigidly and consistently applied so that other researchers or readers,
looking at the same messages, would obtain the same or comparable
results (Krippendorff, 1980; Berg, 1998).
Since the objective was to examine the extent to which the tourism
courses offered by institutions of higher education might conform to
Silver & Brennans (1988) course types, the researchers sought to identify
references to elements within the text that would allow inferences to be
made about the type of course-employment relationships provided.
Several types of units were utilised; Berg (1998) identifies seven elements
in written messages that can be counted: words or terms, themes,
characters, paragraphs, items, concepts and semantics pointing out that
in many instances, research requires the use of a combination of several
content analytic elements. Care was taken to count each occurrence only
once, the first time it appeared in the text. Moreover, a reference to a
specific course module was only recorded if it appeared in the main
descriptive text (i.e. not listed in an overview of modules).
Words were the smallest element used in the analysis and use of
simple word counts was made on a number of occasions. Moreover,
themes, in their simplest form a simple sentence or string of words with
subject and predicate, as well as concepts (words grouped together into
conceptual clusters or ideas) allowed for a more sophisticated count.
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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

Analysis of the Data

All 112 descriptive entries were subject to a content analysis based upon
the terms and analytical framework described above. Here, a certain
degree of interpretation was necessary as university prospectuses are to
some extent publicity material, the style of each varies and in some cases
the information is written in imprecise terms. Moreover, course
descriptions are composed by a variety of different people such as
marketing departments, programme leaders and others. However,
notwithstanding these difficulties, the material they contained was
regarded as sufficient to provide an overall flavour of the work that a
given institution carries out. Frequencies of mentions were recorded, as
well as percentages calculated and Silver & Brennan types assigned in the
process. The frequency results are presented in Table IV.

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Reference to

Percentage %
(n=112)

Frequency

10

11

23

26

20

22

10

Vocational Issues
Vocational orientation/vocationally oriented
Vocational
Vocational skills/knowledge
Vocational elements/aspects
Vocational degree
Vocational qualifications

6
4
3
3
2
1

7
5
4
3
2
1

Professionalism
Professionalism/professional/profession

12

13

Employer/Industry Needs
Industry/employers require well-qualified
personnel
Lack of suitably qualified candidates/skills
shortage
Demand for multi-skilled professionals
Course Preparation for Career/Employment
Aims/is designed to prepare/equip for career in
the industry
Designed to provide the knowledge and skills
necessary to secure employment
Allows the student to focus on/specialise in
themes relevant to career intentions/aspirations
Aims to meet the needs of the industry

Employment on Graduation
High proportion of students secures employment
on graduation/good employment rate
Gives named examples of past students/
employment

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A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

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Career/Job Prospects
Lists range of opportunities available
Career/Job/Employment opportunities/prospects
Opportunities in other sectors/industries
(e.g. service, management)
Overseas opportunities/opportunities abroad
Private/public sector employment
European opportunities
A variety of jobs/roles/careers
A range of/variety of organisations

39
34
22

44
38
25

21
21
10
6
4

24
23
11
7
5

Employment/Industry Links
Links with the industry
Employer links

12
3

13
3

The Tourism Industry/Sector

Rapidly growing/expanding/growth industry
Large/largest in the world
(Economically) important/significant
Global/world-wide/international
Dynamic
Diverse/multi-faceted

32
16
12
11
7
3

36
18
13
12
8
4

General Course Focus

Broad foundation/approach/wide range of topics
International/global perspective/context/focus
Basic/sound understanding of the industry
Specialist areas/scope for specialisation
Awareness of current issues/current concern
European context

26
15
15
13
7
3

29
17
17
15
8
3

Business Issues
Business
Business areas/subjects
Business practices/principles/techniques
Business education/studies/knowledge
Business perspective/approach/context

24
6
5
5
2

21
7
6
6
2

Management Issues
Management/manage
Managerial practice/perspective/responsibility
Managerial position/job

38
4
3

42
5
3

14

16

14

16

12
3

13
3

Practical Focus
Integration of theory with practice/theory to
practice
Practical emphasis/experience/knowledge/
background
Application/applied/apply
Real life/real world business problems/solutions

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

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Work Placement/Experience
12 months
From 1-7 months
Work/industrial placement/experience/sandwich
programme
Placement abroad is compulsory
Placement taken during vacation
Multiple placements
Placement may lead to job offer/ students return
Placement helps identify students chosen career
Knowledge and Skills
Foreign language skills
Marketing
Finance/financial management/accounting
Critical analysis/analytical skills
Human resource management/managing people
Transferable skills
Management/managerial skills
IT skills
Planning
Business skills
Communication
Economics
Independent thinking/working/independence in
learning
Problem-solving
Teamworking
Critical evaluation/evaluation skills
Personal skills
Decision-making/judgement
Interpersonal skills
Language to enhance students career prospects
Practical skills
Technical skills
Intellectual skills
Presentation skills
Research
Information/data collection/processing
Market place skills
Time management
Academic Staff Qualification
Staff with relevant/commercial experience
Table IV. Content analysis results.

516

23
9
9

26
10
10

5
4
3
2
1

6
5
3
2
1

40
20
18
15
14
13
13
12
12
11
11
10
7

45
22
20
17
16
15
15
13
13
12
12
11
8

6
6
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
1
1

7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
1
1

A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

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Discussion of Findings
Findings from the content analysis clearly show the extent to which
vocational, career and industry issues stand out as key elements stressed
in the material given to prospective students. In fact, dominated by
vocational concerns, the results presented reinforce the findings of Airey
& Johnsons (1999) study, which also demonstrates the predominance of
vocationalism in degrees.
With reference to employer or industry needs, several prospectus
entries pointed out the industrys need for well-qualified staff and it is
within this context that 23% of entries expressed the courses aim in
preparing students for employment in the industry, while 20% claimed
that the course provided the knowledge and skills needed for future
employment. Some universities specifically mentioned that there was
scope for specialism in view of the students career choice.
Specific reference to vocational issues occurred on some occasions,
with vocational orientation being most frequently cited, however,
reference to the idea of professionalism was made in 12% of cases.
While some universities stressed the good or very good employment
rates of their graduates, others gave specific examples of past students
employment and 39% listed the general range of opportunities available.
A significant 34% referred to career or employment prospects, and
frequent mention was made of overseas and European opportunities, as
well as opportunities in the private and public sector. An institutions
links with the industry were frequently mentioned and, generally, the fact
that tourism is a large, rapidly expanding and economically significant
industry received a lot of attention, particularly in view of the
opportunities available.
With regard to a courses focus, a broad foundation was the main
aim yet an international focus on a par with a sound understanding of the
industry was also mentioned; also scope for specialisation was provided
in certain modules and there was an aim to create awareness of current
issues. Generally, business and management issues were to the fore
and the integration of theory with practice, pointed out as a key driver for
vocational programmes by the QAA (2000a), was frequently mentioned.
Work placements in the industry appeared to be integral to courses
in a majority of institutions. The sandwich element assumes considerable
importance with 23% per cent providing 1-year placements, while others
provide placements ranging from 1 to 7 months. In some institutions
placements abroad are compulsory. These are usually those courses that
have a particularly international focus and/or require the student to
apply a language. The development of various transferable skills, ranging
from presentation to teamwork and IT skills, received wide attention. The
idea to include transferable skills in the curriculum so that students are
prepared for other careers if they choose not or are unable to enter

517

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

the tourism industry is important. A university can improve the

graduates chance of finding and succeeding in employment when it
offers more than the development of disciplinary knowledge i.e. learner
autonomy, skills and knowledge (Walker, 1994). One particularly
noticeable trend in tourism degree courses is the inclusion of foreign
languages as compulsory or optional units. Other business/management
issues frequently mentioned were those of marketing and finance. Some
also pointed out relevant qualifications and experience of teaching staff.
Overall, the vast majority of the prospectuses examined expressed a
considerable concern for vocationalism, reflected in the fact that, in the
second part of the study, 105 of Silver & Brennans type Gs were
assigned. Moreover, with regard to the second part of the content
analysis, many undergraduate degree tourism courses seem to occupy
the position of an open market and employment relevant base, while
operating at the diffuse end of educationalemployment relationships.
Their awards are not used systematically by employers to regulate
recruitment and, although employment relevance is claimed for the
curriculum, subsequent professional training does not presuppose it.
However, a minority of courses examined in this study did not seem to
have this vocational focus, reflected in the fact that five type Hs and two
type Fs were assigned.
To conclude, it appeared that whatever the curriculum balance, the
overall aim, whether or not the vocabulary of vocationalism was used,
was invariably in tune with statements that the course was designed to
provide an education in a vocational context, enabling graduates to
succeed in a dynamic business environment.
Conclusions
Given the rapid expansion of tourism degrees at undergraduate level, the
aim of this study was to examine the different aspects of current
provision; it has become clear that tourism educators and the industry
are concerned about meeting the various challenges of the future.
Provision of undergraduate tourism education can be regarded as
extensive in the United Kingdom; however, given the rapidly changing
nature of tourism, generally, universities face a number of challenges with
regard to the content, structure and delivery of tourism programmes. The
debate concerning a core curriculum has been active for a number of
years now and, to some extent, is addressed by the QAAs benchmark
statements; the tourism-specific learning outcomes satisfy many aspects
of the proposed core curricula.
Finally, the study further sought to identify the extent to which the
Silver & Brennan typology of courseemployment relationships was valid.
It was found that the majority of courses offered are highly vocational in
focus and that, in addition, tourism graduates should be well equipped
518

A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

with a range of transferable skills to succeed in other industries. The

range of links with industry is possibly wider than anticipated, from guest
speakers to year-long sandwich placements; the latter certainly provide
organisations with the opportunity to review potential employees postgraduation and bring them into contact with new ideas and, even,
solutions to problems (Busby et al, 1997). Some institutions participate in
the scheme run by Travel and Tourism Intelligence (formerly part of the
Economist Intelligence Unit), whereby the best research dissertation from
each university goes forward for consideration in the well-funded national
prize and publication in a journal (Travel and Tourism Analyst) read by
practitioners. It is not surprising, therefore, that such a high proportion
of tourism degrees conform to Silver & Brennans type G category.
Correspondence
Graham Busby, Department of Land Use and Rural Management,
University of Plymouth, Newton Abbot TQ12 6NQ, United Kingdom
(gbusby@plymouth.ac.uk).

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